Accuracy and precision:

Accuracy is the measure of degree to which a measurement is close to the original value. Precision is the part
of the accuracy within the control of the doer.

Uncertainty:

Uncertainty is the interval within which a particular value is expected to lie.

Systematic Error:

A systematic error will yield all the values which are displaced from the accepted value by a constant factor.

Zero error:

It is most common error in the scientific instruments. You can remove this error either by adjusting the
instrument with control knob or in calculations.

Wrongly calibrated scale:

It is sometimes possible that a particular instrument is wrongly calibrated due to any reason.

Reaction time:

This is especially concerned when taking time measurements. There is always some delay from observing the
event and pressing the start button of the stopwatch.

Random Error:

This type of error may arise due to humanitarian judgement errors or environmental maladies. The effect of
such errors can be minimized by averaging and plotting a graph and drawing the best fit line.

Combining uncertainties:

i) Uncertainties are added when quantities are added or subtracted.

ii) If quantities are multiplied or divided then fractional uncertainties are added.

4. Dynamics:

Forces:

A force is an agent which tends to change the state of an object on which it is applied.

Newton’s 1st Law:

Every body persists its state unless perturbed by external agent.

Newton’s 2nd Law:

When a force acts on a body, body accelerates in the direction of force.

F = mass * acceleration

F= m*a

Newton’s 3rd Law:

For every action, there is a reaction, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Weight:

Weight is the force with which earth is pulling the objects towards its centre.

W= m * g

Where
g = 9.8 m/s2 on earth.

Unit of weight in SI is kg.m/s2 which is Newton.

Momentum:

Momentum = Mass of the body * velocity of the body

p=m*v

The SI unit for momentum is kg m/s. It is also written as Ns.

From the definition of second law,

F= ma = m(∆v/∆t)= ∆(m*v)/∆t = ∆p/∆t

Conservation of Momentum:

Momentum is always conserved in collision of bodies. Momentum before the collision is equal to the
momentum after the collision provided no external agent is acting on the system.

Collision:

Momentum of both the objects before collision is

m1u1 - m2u2

And momentum of the system after collision is

-m1v1+ m2v2

According to the law of conservation of momentum,

Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision

m1u1 - m2u2 = -m1v1+ m2v2

Elastic collision:

In elastic collision, momentum as well as kinetic energy is conserved.

Inelastic Collision:

In inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved.

Impulse:

Impulse = force × time

Impulse = F × ∆t

From newton’s second law we know that

F= ∆p/∆t

It can be written as

F∆t = ∆p

5. Work, energy, power

Energy:

The ability to do work can be named as energy.

Kinetic Energy:

Energy of a body due its motion is called kinetic energy.

Kinetic Energy = ½ m (v)2

Potential Energy:

Energy of the body due its position is called potential energy.

Potential energy = m * g * h

Elastic Potential energy:

When you compress a spring or extend it by pulling both of its ends outward, you have to do work on it. That
work is stored in the spring in the form of potential energy.
Conservation of energy:

Energy can never be created nor destroyed but it can be converted from one to other type.

Total energy of the body = K.E + P.E = [½ m (v)2 ]+ [m * g * h] = Constant

Work:

Work = Force * Distance

Work = Fcos(θ) * Distance

W = Fcos(θ) * d

Where θ is the angle between force and distance. Unit of work is joule.

Work done by an expanding gas:

Suppose gas is confined in a cylinder fitted with frictionless piston. When gas expands it exerts a pressure on
the piston pushing it outward. Work done by the gas is

Work done = pressure × change in volume

W= p∆v

Note: pressure must be in pascal and change in volume in m3.

Efficiency:

Energy is lost when energy is converted from one to other form. Efficiency is the measure of the utilization of
total energy.

Efficiency = work done/total input energy

% Efficiency = work done/total input energy × 100

Power:

Work done in per unit time is called Power.

Power = Work/time
P=W/t
As
Work = Force * Distance
W=F*d
Dividing both sides by time ‘t’ then
W/t = F * d/t
But
W/t= P (Power)
And
d/t = v (speed)
So
P=F * v

Power = force * speed

In S I, the unit of power is watt (W).

6. Forces

Moment of a force:

Force produces turning effect to the door while opening or closing. Outer edge of the door is sweeping a curve
or part of a circle whose centre would be the hinge of the door.
More force is needed near the hinge to open or close the door or less force is needed away from the hinge.

Torque:

Turning effect produced by a force on an object is called torque.

It is defined as
Torque = Force * Perpendicular distance from the point of rotation to point of application of force on the object)
Torque = F r
It is vector quantity and measured in Newton-meter.

Equilibrium:

When a body undergoes neither linear acceleration nor angular acceleration then it is called in state of
equilibrium.

Static Equilibrium:

If a body is in equilibrium and at rest then it is in state of static equilibrium.

Dynamic Equilibrium:

If a body is in equilibrium but moving with uniform velocity then it is called in dynamic equilibrium.

Conditions of Equilibrium:

Resultant of all the forces acting on the body is zero. This is first condition of equilibrium.

Resultant of all the torques must also be zero.

Centre of mass:

Centre of mass of a body is the point where whole weight of the body acts.
 7. Motion in a circle

Centripetal acceleration

Objects travelling with constant speed in a circle have acceleration because of its continual change in direction.
This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration which is given by,

a = v2/r

Centripetal Force:

Centre seeking force when a body moves around a circle is called centripetal force.

F=mv2/r

Radians and degrees:

θ= length of arc/radius of circle

in case of a complete circle,

θ= circumference of the circle/radius = 2πr/r = 2π rad = 360o

Angular Velocity:

Angular velocity = radius of the circle * angular speed of the body

V= rω

Centripetal acceleration (in angular notion)

Centripetal acceleration = v2/r = rω2

Centripetal force (in angular notion)

Centripetal force = mv2/r = mrω2

8. Gravitational field

Force between masses:

F= G m1m2/r2

Where G is gravitational constant whose value is 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2kg-2.

r= distance between the centers of the masses m1 and m2.

Gravitational field:

Volume around the earth in which the gravitational pull of the earth can be experienced by a body is called
gravitational field of the earth.

Gravitational field strength:

Gravitational field strength at a point is the force acting on a small unit mass at that point.
g= (GMm/r2)/ m
g= GM/r2

Gravitational potential energy:

Φ= - GM/r

Its unit is the joule per kilogram (Jkg-1)

Circular Orbits:

Almost all the planets in our solar system have circular orbits.

T2/r3 = 4π2/GM

This is Kepler’s third law of planetary motion.

Geostationary orbit:

Communication satellites are put in geostationary orbit. It means that their period of rotation and direction is
same as that of earth. So they appear always above the same point and one feels as if they are stationary (only
with respect to earth).

9. Phases of matter

Density:

Mass per unit volume of a material is referred as density of that material.

Density = Mass/Volume

States of matter

Solids:

In solids, atoms are arranged with proper pattern and packed closely. They are bound with each other by strong
force that is why they cannot move freely inside solid but vibrate. Solids are strong and preserve their shape.
They cannot be compressed. Solids transform into liquids on significant heating.

Liquid:

In liquids force of attraction is weaker than solids. Particles can move past each other but not freely. Liquids
adopt the shape of the container they are in. Liquids transform into gases on significant heating.

Gases:

Atoms in gases are almost free. They move randomly every where. They are not arranged in definite pattern.
They keep on changing their places all the time. Gases exert pressure on the wall of the container. Gases expand
on heating. Gases can be compressed.

Kinetic molecular theory:

  Gas is composed of tiny particles which are constantly in random motion
 Average kinetic energy of a gas depends upon temperature. Higher the temperature higher the energy
and faster the particles are moving.
 Size of the particles is negligible.
 Particles are neither attracted to one another nor do they repel one another.
 Particles strike with each other and with the walls of the container. Collision is elastic.

Boyle’s Law:

Pressure * Volume = constant. (Temperature is constant)

Charle’s Law:

Volume/Temperature = constant (Pressure is constant)

Evaporation:

The process of escaping the molecules of a liquid from its surface is called evaporation.

Melting:

Melting is the process during which a solid changes its phase into liquid state.

Boiling:

Boiling is the process during which a liquid changes its phase into gaseous state.

Archimedes Principle:

When a body is immersed in a liquid, its apparent weight changes.

Apparent weight in liquid = weight – weight of displaced liquid by the body

Pressure inside liquids:

Pressure inside liquid is dependent upon density of liquid and depth.

Pressure = hρg

h= depth inside liquid

g= gravitational acceleration
ρ= density of the liquid

Crystalline solids:

Solids, in which atoms or molecules are arranged in periodic arrays, are called crystalline solids.

Non-crystalline solids (amorphous solids):

Solids, in which the periodicity of the atoms or molecules in arrays is not ordered over a significant range.

Brownian motion:

Molecules of a liquid are in constant random motion. It is also applicable to gases.

10. Deformation of solids

Pressure:

Pressure = Force/Area

Pressure = F/A

Unit of pressure as coming out of the above equation is N/m2 which is known as pascal (Pa).

Pressure on solids:

From the definition of pressure, it is clear that you can change the pressure either by changing the force or area.
However, by increasing the force you would increase pressure and by increasing the area you would actually
decrease the pressure.

Hooke’s Law:

F = - kx

Where
x= displacement of the spring’s end from equilibrium as a result of applied force in meters.
F= restoring force at the end of the spring in newtons
k= spring constant. Its unit is newton/m

Stress:

Stress = F/A

Strain:

A stress can change shape, length or volume of the body over which it is acted upon.

Tensile Strain = Change in length/ Original Length

And
Strain energy W = ½ kx2

Young’s Modulus:

Y = Stress/Strain

It is measured in Nm-2

11. Ideal gases

Boyle’s Law:

Pressure * Volume = constant. (Temperature is constant)

p*V=constant

Charle’s Law:

Volume/Temperature = constant (Pressure is constant)

V/T=constant

Gay-Lussac’s Law:

p1/T1=p2/T2
p1=initial value of pressure
p2= final value of pressure
T1=initial value of temperature
T2= final value of temperature

Equation of state (Ideal gases):

pV=nRT

where

p= pressure of the ideal gas

V= volume of the ideal gas
T= temperature of the ideal gas
R= universal gas constant. (Its value is 8.3 JK-1mol-1)
n= quantity of gas in moles

Kinetic molecular theory:

 Gas is composed of tiny particles which are constantly in random motion

 Average kinetic energy of a gas depends upon temperature. Higher the temperature higher the energy
and faster the particles are moving.
 Size of the particles is negligible.
 Particles are neither attracted to one another nor do they repel one another.
 Particles strike with each other and with the walls of the container. Collision is elastic.

Average kinetic energy of molecule:

Case-I (average kinetic energy versus average velocity of molecule)

<Ek> = 1/2 m <c2>

where
<Ek> = average kinetic energy of molecule.

<c2> = average of squared velocity of molecule.

m= mass of the molecule.

Case-II (average kinetic energy of molecule in gas versus temperature of the gas)

<Ek> = 3/2 kT

where

<Ek> = average kinetic energy of molecule in gas.

k= Boltzmann constant. It has value 1.38 × 10-23JK-1.
T = temperature of the gas.

Root-mean-square speed of molecules:

12. Temperature

Thermal equilibrium

It is a natural tendency of heat that it flows from a region of higher temperature to lower temperature. In doing
this it minimizes the difference in temperature between two regions until it becomes zero. This state is called
thermal equilibrium.

Temperature Scales:

We know that substances change their states at fixed temperatures. We can use this property to measure the
temperature. We can devise an empirical scale by dividing the range of values (thermal property at two fixed
points) into number of equal steps.

Thermometers:

Thermometers are the devices to measure temperatures. It is found that thermometers based on gases are
relatively accurate and precise. Liquid in glass thermometers are very common. Thermistors are devices whose
resistance decreases with increasing temperature. Thermoelectric effect can employed to devise electrical
thermometers. Junctions formed by two different conductors are at different temperatures, an e.m.f is produced.
Such a device is known as thermocouple. Thermocouples cover a wide range of temperature and can be used to
measure rapidly varying temperatures.

Conversion between temperature scales:

Fahrenheit to Celsius:

C = (F -32)5/9

Celsius to Fahrenheit:
 F = C.5/9 + 32

Celsius to Kelvin:

K = C + 273

Fahrenheit to Kelvin:

K = 5/9 (F-32) + 273

Kelvin to Fahrenheit:

F = 9/5(K-273) + 32

13. Thermal properties of materials

Heat Capacity:

It is energy required to raise the temperature of a body by a given amount.

Where
m= mass of body
∆Q= Heat absorbed or released by the body
∆T= Change in temperature of body
c= specific heat of the body

Latent heat of fusion:

Amount of heat required to convert a solid into liquid state without changing its temperature.

Latent heat of vaporization:

Amount of heat required to convert a liquid into gaseous state at its boiling point.

Internal Energy:

Sum of kinetic energies of all the molecules is referred as internal energy of an ideal gas. In real gases,
molecules exert forces on each other and thus possess potential energies too. However, total potential energy is
constant for a given temperature. Thus in the case of real gases, internal energy is the sum of random
distribution of kinetic and potential energies.

First law of thermodynamics:

∆U = Q +W

Where
∆U = increase in internal energy. A positive value means there is increase in internal energy and if it is negative
then it means there is decrease in internal energy.
Q = heat added to the system. A positive value of Q means that heat is being added to the system for negative,
heat is being extracted from the system.
W= work done. If it is positive then work is done on the system and for negative, it means work is being done
by the system.

14. Oscillations:

Amplitude:

Maximum displacement of the particle from its mean position is called amplitude of the wave

Wavelength:

Distance of two neighbouring points having same phase on the wave is called wavelength. It is denoted by .

Time Period:

Time taken by a wave to pass a point in one second is called time period of that wave. It is measured in seconds.

Frequency:

Frequency = 1/ time period

f= 1/T

Angular frequency:

ω = 2πf

Simple harmonic motion:

Repetitive motion of a body about a fixed point is called simple harmonic motion.

a= -ω2x

Solution of equation for simple harmonic motion:

Solution of

a= -ω2x

is

x = xo sinωt

or

x = xo cos ωt

where
xo is the amplitude of the oscillation.

Velocity v of the particle:

v= xoωcosωt when x=xosin ωt

and

v= -xoωsinωt when x=xocosωt

and

Acceleration a of the particle:

a= -xoω2sinωt when x=xosin ωt

and

a=-xoω2cosωt when x=xocosωt

Mass on a helical spring:

The simple pendulum:

Kinetic Energy in simple harmonic motion:

Ek = 1/2mω2(x02-x2)

Potential energy in simple harmonic motion:

Ep = ½ mω2x2

Total energy in simple harmonic motion:

Etot = Ek + Ep

Etot = ½ mω2xo2

Damped oscillations:
In real situation, oscillations are constrained by resistance. For example, if bob of the pendulum is pulled aside
then it won’t oscillate for infinite time but it will slowly decrease its amplitude.

Forced oscillations and resonance:

If a periodic force is acted upon freely vibrating bodies then body begins to vibrate at the frequency of the
applied force. This phenomenon is said as forced vibrations. If frequency of the applied force is equal to the
natural frequency of the body then body oscillates with maximum amplitude and this frequency is called
resonant frequency and resonance occurs.

15. Waves

General Waves Properties:

Disturbance in a medium is called waves. Waves carry energy from one place to other.

Transverse Waves:

Particles of the medium vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of flow of energy.

Longitudinal waves:

Particles of the medium vibrate in the same direction as of the direction of propagation of the wave.

Graphical representation of waves:

A wave is represented on a graph by putting displacement of the particles along the vertical axis and
propagation of wave along the horizontal axis.

However, it is sometimes convenient to draw the displacement of the particles along y axis and time along x
axis. This type of graph shows the evolution of wave over a time domain.

Amplitude:

Maximum displacement of the particle from its mean position is called amplitude of the wave

Wavelength:

Distance of two neighbouring points having same phase on the wave is called wavelength. It is denoted by .

Time Period:

Time taken by a wave to pass a point in one second is called time period of that wave. It is measured in seconds.

Frequency:

Frequency = 1/ time period

f= 1/T

Speed:
Speed = frequency * wavelength

v=fλ

Phase:

Phase refers to a particular point in the cycle of a waveform expressed as an angle in degrees or radians When
crests and troughs of a wave fall exactly on crests and troughs of other wave then these waves are said to be in
phase and phase angle is 0 degrees. If crest of one wave is aligned with trough of the other wave then they are
called out of phase. Phase angle in this case is 180 degrees or π radians.

Intensity:

Amount of energy passing through a unit area held perpendicular to the propagation of wave per unit time is
called intensity of the wave.

Intensity  (amplitude)2

Intensity  (frequency)2

Polarization:

Orientation of the oscillation in a transverse wave is called polarization of that transverse wave.

16. Superposition:

Stationary Waves:

fn= cn/2L n=1,2,3,…………..

f1= fundamental frequency

n= a number representing the harmonic. ( e.g n=3 means 3rd harmonic)
L= length of the rope or medium.
c=speed of the wave

Reflection:

When a wave strikes a surface, some of its part is reflected back to the first medium and angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection.

Refractive Index:

Light slows down when enters from vacuum to any other media.

Refractive index = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in that medium

Refraction:

As a wave strikes a surface, some of its part is reflected back to the first medium and the other is transmitted to
the second medium. As a wave enters from one medium to other medium, it is bent depending upon the
refractive indices of both media. This effect is called refraction.
Diffraction:

Diffraction is a phenomenon which occurs when a wave faces an obstacle.

Interference:

Addition of two or more waves is called interference.

Young’s double slit experiment:

λ= ax/D

where

D is the distance from slits to the screen.

x is the distance between successive bright fringes.

The Diffraction Grating:

A diffraction grating is a plate on which there are many parallel slits which are very closely spaced.

dsinθ=nλ

Where

d= slit spacing on the diffraction grating.

θ= angle of diffraction of light to normal
λ= wavelength of the monochromatic light
n= a whole number

17. Electric Fields

Coulomb’s Law:

F= k q1q2/r2

Where,

k= 1/4πεo = constant whose value depends upon the medium between two charges q1 and q2 and system of
units.
If the medium between the two charges is air or space then its value is
q1= charge one
q2= charge two
r= distance between q1 and q2
εo = the permittivity of free space.

Electric Field:

Volume around a charge in which another charge experiences force due to that charge is called electric field.
Electric field intensity:

E= F/q

Where E= Electric Field

F= Force experienced by the small charge which comes inside the electric field
q= small charge

A uniform electric field:

E= V/d

Where
E = electric field between two charged parallel plates.
V= potential difference between two charged parallel plates.
d= separation between two charged parallel plates.

Field strength due to an isolated point charge:

E = kQ/r2

Electric potential:

V= kQ/r

18. Capacitance

Capacitance:

A device which can store charge is called capacitor.

Q = CV

Where

Q= amount of charge on the capacitor’s parallel plates.

V= potential difference across the capacitor’s parallel plates
C= capacitance. Its unit is farad.

Energy stored in a capacitor:

Ep= ½ QV

Ep= 1/2CV2 = Q2/2C

Factors affecting capacitance:

C= εo A/d

C = εo εrA/d
Parallel Combination of capacitors:

Ctotal= C1 + C2 + C3 ……………

Series Combination of capacitors:

1/Ctotal= 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 ………….

Charging and discharging of a capacitor:

Q=Qoe-t/CR

t= time elapsed
Qo= charge on the capacitor at t=o
Q= charge on the capacitor at t.

Above equation can be written as,

I=Ioe-t/CR

t= time elapsed
Io= current flowing through the capacitor at t=o
I= current flowing through the capacitor at t.

V=Voe-t/CR

t= time elapsed
Vo= voltage across the capacitor at t=o
V= voltage across the capacitor at t.

Time Constant:

CR is called time constant of the capacitor-resistor circuit. It has the units of time which is second.

19. Current of electricity:

Current:

Current = Charge/time

I = Q/t

Unit of current is Coulomb/ sec which is known as ampere.

Potential difference and emf:

e.m.f = (energy converted from other forms to electrical)/charge

and

p.d = (energy converted from electrical to other forms)/charge

Potential difference:

Potential difference = work done/charge

V=W/Q

Electrical Power:

V=P/I

Power is measured in watts (W)

Ohm’s Law:

V=IR

V= Voltage across the conductor

I= current flowing through the conductor
R= Resistance of the conductor

Resistance:

Resistance of the medium through which charge is transported is called resistance of that medium.

Series Combination of Resistances:

Rtotal= R1 + R2 + R3 ……………

Parallel Combination of Resistances:

1/Rtotal= 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ………….

Dependence of resistance upon temperature, length and area of the conductor:

R=ρl/A

ρ is a constant for a particular material and at a fixed temperature. It is called resistivity of the material.

20. D.C Circuits:

Kirchhoff’s first law:

I = I1 + I2 + I3

Kirchhoff’s second law:

E1-E2 = V1+V2 = IR1+IR2

Potentiometers:
A variable resistor or rheostat can be used to provide a continuously variable voltage. Potentiometer can be used
as potential difference comparator. We can use some other components as a variable resistors like Thermistors
or light dependent resistor.

21. Magnetic Fields:

Simple Phenomena of Magnetism:

A magnet is a piece of material that has the property to attract or repel special materials like iron. Magnetism
may be present in a material naturally or produced in a material artificially.

Permanent Magnet:

A magnet that retains its magnetic properties infinitely is called permanent magnet.

Temporary Magnet:

A temporary magnet is made of soft iron. It is easy to magnetize it however; temporary magnet loses its
magnetism when the magnetizing cause is removed.

A magnetic has a South and North Pole. Like poles repel and opposite poles attract each other. A common bar
magnet is shown in the picture below.

Materials which can be magnetized are called ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic Field:

Space around a magnet within which effect of magnetism due to that magnet can be felt by another object
susceptible to magnetism then that space is called magnetic field.

Magnetic field produced by current carrying conductor:

When a current passes through a conductor, magnetic field is produced around it.

22. Electromagnetism:

Force on a current carrying conductor:

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field at right angles to it, it experiences a force.

F = BIlsinθ
Where
B is constant which depends on the strength of the magnet.
I = current flowing inside the conductor
l= length of the conductor
θ= angle of the current carrying conductor to the uniform magnetic field.

Above equation can be written as,

F/l = BI sinθ
Suppose current I = 1 and θ = 90 degrees then

B = F/l

Which is Magnetic field strength.

Force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field:

F=Bnqvsinθ

For one particle having speed v and angle θ with uniform magnetic field of flux density B we have,

F=Bqvsinθ

Direction of force can found by Fleming’s left hand rule.

Centripetal force = mv2/r = Bqv (suppose sinθ = 1)

We can find

Radius of the circular path = r = mv/Bq

By using this equation we can find ratio of charge to mass.

23. Electromagnetic Induction:

Magnetic flux:

Φ=BAsinθ

Electromagnetic induction:

An e.m.f is produced by magnetic field. This is called electromagnetic induction.

Magnetic flux linkage:

Induced e.m.f is dependent upon the rate at which magnetic flux lines are cut. This rate can be changed by

1) Changing the rate at which flux line are cut by wire

2) Changing the rate at which flux lines are cut by turns of the wire.

Faraday’s Law:

The induced e.m.f ‘E’ is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage.

E = d/dt (NΦ)

Whre

Φ = magnetic flux
N= number of turn in the conductor
Lenz’s Law:

Direction of induced e.m.f is such that it always opposes the change which produces it.

e.m.f induced by two neighbouring coils:

If two coils are placed near to each other. One is connected with a battery and other is simply connected with a
sensitive ammeter. Now if we continuously switch on and off the battery of the coil then an e.m.f is produced
in the neighbouring coil which is confirmed by the deflection of the ammeter.

24. Alternating Currents:

Alternating current (a.c) is one which changes its direction periodically.

I = Io sin ωt
V = Vo sin ωt

Time period:

Time taken by the alternating current to complete one cycle is called time period. It is denoted by t.

Frequency:

f=1/t

Angular frequency:

ω=2πf

Peak value of current:

It is represented by Io or Vo and it is the point of maximum displacement from the mean position on the wave.

Average value of alternating current:

As usually alternating current is a sinusoidal wave and it has equally positive and negative values. So its
average value is zero. But it does not mean that it does not do work.

Average power:

<P> = ½ Io2R = ½ Vo2/R

r.m.s value of of current and voltage:

Transformer:

It’s an electrical device which is used to increase or decrease the value of an alternating voltage.
 Vs/Vp=Ns/Np=Ip/Is

Where
Vp= voltage applied to the primary which is to be changed
Vs= voltage generated across the secondary
Ns= number of turns in the primary coil
Np= number of turns in the secondary coil
Ip = current in primary coil
Is= current in secondary coil

Rectifiers:

Rectifiers converts alternating current into direct current.

Half wave rectifier:

A single diode is connected with a resistor. Voltage is measured across the resistor. Only positive half cycles (or
only negative half cycles) are achieved.

Full wave rectification:

In full wave rectification, negative half cycle is also utilized. Full wave rectifier can be devised by
constructing four diodes bridge circuit.

25. Charged Particles:

The electron Charge:

Electron charge can be found by Millikan’s experiment.

mg = qV/d

by knowing the values of potential differences ‘V’, mass ‘m’ of the oil drop and distance ‘d’ between the plates
we can find the charge of electron which is ‘q=e ‘in this case.

Quantisation of charge:

Charge is always found in integral multiples of charge of electron.

The electron mass:

It is not possible to measure the mass of electron directly. However, ratio of charge of electron to mass of
electron can be found.
e/m = v/Br
So if we know the velocity of the particle, radius of the circular path and magnetic flux density, we can find the
e/m ratio of electron. Later on we can find the mass of the electron.

Velocity selection of charged particles:

v= E/B
Hence electric and magnetic fields can be used to select velocity.
 26. Quantum Physics:

Photoelectric effect:

i) When light is fallen on a metal surface, electrons are found to be ejected from the metal surface.

Einstein’s theory of photoelectric emission:

hf= hfo + ½ mevmax2

Wave-Particle duality:

waves behave like particles and particles behave like waves.

De broglie said that momentum ‘p’ of the particle is associated with a wavelength ‘λ’ so

λ = h/p

h is planck constant. This is de broglie wavelength.

Emission Spectra:

When energy is supplied to the electron it jumps to higher level depends upon the amount of energy and nature
of material. Energy absorbed by the electron is exactly equal to the difference of energies between those two
energy levels.

hf = E2 – E1

Where E2 is the energy of the higher energy level and E1 is of lower energy level.
When electron returns back to previous energy level it emits that energy.

Spectroscopy:

We know that light of particular frequency is emitted when electron goes back to it ground state. Frequency of
this light depends upon the energy levels between which electron transits. Elements have different energy levels
and so if they are excited then a light of particular frequency would be emitted and it is a good fingerprint of
that element. We can explore other properties of the materials. The study of spectra is called Spectroscopy.

Absorption Spectra:

When white light is passed through low pressure gas and then if spectrum is analysed, it is observed that light of
certain wavelengths is absent and there are dark lines instead. This type of spectra is called absorption spectra.

The electromagnetic spectrum:

Electromagnetic spectrum is a collection of all electromagnetic radiations listed from lowest to highest
frequencies.
27. Nuclear Physics:

Radioactivity:

A process in which elements decay naturally is called radioactivity.

Different types of radiations are emitted during radioactivity.

Alpha rays:

i) Alpha rays ionize the gas through which they pass.

ii) The atomic and magnetic fields affect the alpha rays that mean they are charged particles.
iii) Alpha particles are positively charged particles. They are helium nuclei.

Beta Rays:

i) They ionize the air. Their energy is less than alpha particles.
ii) They can pass through a thick layer of matter.
iii) Beta rays are affected by electric and magnetic fields.
iv) Beta rays carry negative charge.

Gamma Rays:

i) They travel with speed of light.

ii) Their ionization power is less than alpha and beta particles.
iii) Penetration power of gamma rays is higher than both alpha and beta particles.
iv) Electric and magnetic field has no affect on them

Atomic Structure:

Atom is the basic building block of any element. Mainly atom consists of two parts. Its central part is nucleus.
Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.

Atomic Mass Number:

Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called atomic mass number and is denoted by Z.

Atomic Number:

Total number of protons in the nucleus is called atomic number usually denoted by A. Similarly number of
neutrons in a nucleus is denoted by N.

Isotopes:

Elements which have same atomic numbers but different mass numbers are called isotopes.

Radio Isotope:

A radiating isotope is called radio isotope.

Activity and decay constant:

dN/dt = -λN
‘N’ is the number of undecayed atoms. Here ( – dN/dt) is called activity of the source and measured in
becquerels.

λ is constant of proportionality and is called decay constant. It has units of s-1.

Half Life:

Time during which half of the atoms of an element decay is called half life of that element.

t1/2 = 0.693/λ

t1/2 is the half life of the nuclei.

Mass defect:

Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. So total mass of the nucleus must the sum of masses of protons and
neutrons present in that nucleus. But experimentally it is found that it is not so. Actual mass is less than the sum
of masses of protons and neutrons present in that nucleus. Such difference in actual and observed mass of
nucleus is called mass defect.

Binding Energy:

energy is used to bind the protons and neutrons inside the nucleus. This is called binding energy.

Stability of nucleus:

A nucleus is stable if there is very low probability of its decay. Binding energy per nucleon is a measure of the
stability of the nucleus.

Einstein’s Mass Energy Equation:

E= mc2

Fusion Reaction:

A process in which lighter nuclei diffuse to form a single heavier nucleus is called fusion reaction.

Fission Reaction:

Breakage of a heavy nucleus into two nearly equal parts is known as fission reaction.

28. Direct Sensing:

Sensing devices:

Sensing devices are used to monitor or to detect something. A physical property of the sensing devices changes
with a change in what is being monitored or detected.

Light dependent resistor (LDR):

Two metal grids are interconnected by a semiconductor in between. When light is fallen upon the
semiconductor materials in between the metal grids then number of free electrons increases and resistance of the
LDR decreases.

Thermistors:

Resistance of a material increases with increase in temperature. There are however, some materials whose
resistance decreases with increase in temperature. That is why they are called Thermistors.

The piezo-electric transducer:

A transducer converts energy from one to other form. Piezo-electric crystal have complex ionic structure. In
normal state, centre of positive charge ions accumulation and centre of negative charge ions accumulation are
same. However, when pressure is applied on the crystal both of these centres are displaced and an electric field
is produced within the crystal. This is called piezo-electric effect.

The metal wire strain gauge:

Metal wire strain gauge is used to the strains at different parts of the system. A metal wire is embedded into a
small rectangle of plastic. When plastic is stretched, wire is also stretched and causing strain in the wire. Length
is increased and cross sectional area is decreased and both result in increase in the electrical resistance of the
wire.

Operational amplifiers (op-amp)

Operational amplifier can be used to amplify the weak signal. Op-amp is an integrated circuit. Symbol for op-
amp is shown below:
Operational amplifier can used as a conditional switch, to amplify direct as well as alternating voltages and as a
comparator of two voltages.

Operational amplifier as a comparator:

Operational amplifier is used as comparator.

Operational amplifiers and feedback:

Feedback is a technique in which a part of the output is given back to its input terminals. Negative feedback is
very useful in operational amplifier.
Few advantages of negative feedback are increased bandwidth, high stability and less distortion.

Inverting amplifier:

In this configuration, output is the inverse of the input.

Non-inverting amplifier:

Output is identical in phase with the input.

The relay:

They are special switches to allow or disallow heavy currents.

The light-emitting diode (LED):

It is a semiconductor device which emits light when a current passes through it.

29. Remote Sensing:

X-rays:

High speed electrons are impinged over metal surface to produce X-rays. X-rays are used for imaging.

Attenuation of X-rays:

I=Io e-μx

Where μ is a constant that depends on the properties of the medium and energy of X-ray photons.

Computed tomography (CT scanning)

Images produced by X-rays are simply shadows with black and white spots. There is no information of depth.
Computed tomography is a technique by which a three dimensional image is produced by using X-rays.

Ultrasound:

Ultrasound waves are produced by using piezo-electric transducer. Ultrasounds are sent towards the object and
reflected waves are detected. They are processed.

Suppose that a wave with intensity I is incident at the boundary of two media. A part of it is reflected with
intensity IR and other is transmitted inside the material with intensity IT.
then

I=IR+IT

Sum of reflected and transmitted intensities is constant. Their magnitudes depend on the angle of incidence of
the incoming beam and properties of the medium. Specific acoustic impedance Z of both media is defined as the
product of density ρ of the medium and speed c of the wave in the medium.

Z= ρc

If Z1 is the acoustic impedance of medium 1 and Z2 is for medium 2 then for a wave incident normally on a
boundary between two media,

IR/I = (Z2-Z1)2/(Z2+Z1)2

The ratio IR/I is called intensity reflection coefficient.

Nuclear magnetic resonance:

Spin is the intrinsic property of many nuclei. They tend to align up along the external magnetic field. However,
nuclei rotate about the direction of the external magnetic field due to their spin. This rotation is named as
precession. The frequency with which these nuclei spin is larmor frequency. If electromagnetic radiation
having the larmor frequency fell upon a precessing nucleus, it starts resonating by absorbing energy. It releases
energy when going back to equilibrium state. This energy which is in the form of radiation is detected and
analysed. This process is used in Magnetic resonance imaging.

Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI)

We have hydrogen nuclei in our bodies. External magnetic field causes all of these hydrogen nuclei to precess
with larmor frequency. A non-uniform magnetic field is also applied. Atoms in different parts of the body are
detected and displayed. This data is used to produce an image.

30. Communicating Information:

Modulation:

A process in which a low frequency signal is transmitted by a high frequency carrier signal with either a
varying amplitude or frequency with respect to displacement of the information signal.

Amplitude Modulation:

Amplitude of the carrier wave is varied synchronously with the displacement of the information signal.

Frequency Modulation:

Frequency of the carrier wave is varied synchronously with the displacement of the information signal.

Sideband:

An amplitude modulated signal is composed of fC, (fC+fS) and (fC-fS) where fC and fS are Carrier and Source
frequencies respectively.

Point to ponder is that maximum amplitude is at the carrier frequency fC. Two frequencies at the right and
left of fC are called sidebands.

Advantages of AM and FM

Characteristic AM FM
Quality Low High
Bandwidth Low High
Susceptible to Noise Yes No
Circuitry required Simple and Cheap Complex and Expensive
Coverage Large Small

Analogue signals:

A signal which is varying with time is called analogue signals.

Digital signals:
A signal which has only two states usually highs and lows and no values in between these two states is called
digital signal. A digital signal is represented by ‘1’ as high and ‘0’ as low.

Binary numbers:

A number system whose base is 2 is called binary number system. It is used while dealing digital signals. It has
only two digits ‘0’ and ‘1’.

Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC):

ADC converts an analogue signal into a digital signal.

Digital-to-analogue converter (DAC):

DAC converts a digital signal into an analogue signal.

Channels of communication:

Wire-pairs, coaxial cables, radio waves, microwaves, optic fibres are few means of communication.

Signal Attenuation:

In a transmission line, attenuation depends on the length of the line. It is measured by attenuation per unit
length which is given below,

Attenuation per unit length = (1/L) 10 lg (P2/P1)

Where ‘L’ is the length of the transmission line and P2 and P1 are two powers being compared.

Communication satellites:

Communication satellites are put in geostationary orbit. It means that their period of rotation and direction is
same as that of earth. So they appear always above the same point and one feels as if they are stationary (only
with respect to earth). Polar satellites have low orbits and usually pass over the poles.

Mobile phone network:

Area to be covered is divided into cells. Each cell accompanies its own base station usually located in the centre
of the cell. Band of carrier wave frequency is different for two neighbouring cells in order to avoid possible
interference. A mobile phone sends a short signal periodically for its identification. This signal is detected by
neighbouring base stations. Base station sends this information to the cellular exchange where a computer
selects the nearest base station to the mobile and carrier frequency.