INTRODUCTION TO
Framing
Concept:
• Framing is the process of packaging data into
manageable units called frames for
transmission over a network. It involves
adding header and trailer information to the
data payload, ensuring that the receiver can
correctly interpret and process the data.
Types of Framing:
1. Character Count Framing:
o Each frame begins with a count of the
number of characters in the frame. It’s
simple but can have issues with frame
boundaries if the count is incorrect.
2. Delimiter-Based Framing:
o Uses special delimiter characters (like SOH
and ETX) to mark the start and end of a
frame. This is common in protocols like
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control).
3. Flag-Based Framing:
o Frames start and end with a unique flag
sequence (e.g., 01111110 in HDLC). Data
within the frame can be bit-stuffed to
prevent the flag sequence from appearing
in the data.
4. Byte Stuffing/Bit Stuffing:
o Byte Stuffing: Inserts special escape
characters to avoid confusion with
delimiter characters in the data.
o Bit Stuffing: Inserts extra bits into the
data stream to ensure that the flag
sequences do not occur within the data.
2. Error Detection and Correction
Parity Bits:
• Concept: Parity bits are used to detect errors
by adding an extra bit to the data.
• Types:
o Even Parity: Ensures the total number of
1s is even.
o Odd Parity: Ensures the total number of
1s is odd.
• Limitation: Can only detect single-bit errors
and cannot correct them.
Checksums:
• Concept: A checksum is a value derived from
the data using an algorithm and is included
with the data. The receiver calculates a new
checksum from the received data and
compares it with the received checksum.
• Usage: Used to detect errors in data
transmission but cannot correct them.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
• Concept: CRC is a polynomial-based error-
detection technique that generates a short,
fixed-size checksum from a larger data set. It
provides stronger error detection compared
to parity and checksums.
• Process: The data is divided by a
predetermined polynomial and the remainder
is the CRC value. The receiver performs the
same calculation and checks if the remainder
matches the transmitted CRC.
Hamming Code:
• Concept: Hamming code is an error-detection
and error-correction code that can correct
single-bit errors and detect two-bit errors.
• Mechanism: It uses redundant bits (parity
bits) at specific positions in the data to form a
code word. The positions of the parity bits
allow for the detection and correction of
errors based on the pattern of errors.
3. Flow Control
Stop-and-Wait:
• Concept: The sender transmits a frame and
waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) before
sending the next frame. This ensures that the
receiver can handle frames one at a time.
• Pros: Simple and easy to implement.
• Cons: Can be inefficient in high-bandwidth,
high-latency networks due to idle time while
waiting for an ACK.
Sliding Window:
• Concept: Allows multiple frames to be sent
before needing an acknowledgment. The
sender and receiver use window sizes to
manage the flow of frames and
acknowledgments.
• Pros: More efficient than stop-and-wait as it
keeps the network more fully utilized.
• Cons: More complex to implement due to the
need for managing window sizes and potential
for out-of-order frames.
4. MAC (Media Access Control)
MAC Addresses:
• Concept: MAC addresses are unique hardware
addresses assigned to network interfaces.
They are used to identify devices on a local
network.
• Format: Typically 48 bits (6 bytes) in length,
represented as 12 hexadecimal digits (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
• Concept: ARP is used to map an IP address to
a MAC address. It operates within a local
network to resolve addresses so that packets
can be sent to the correct hardware address.
• Process: The sender broadcasts an ARP
request to all devices on the network, and the
device with the matching IP address responds
with its MAC address.
RARP (Reverse ARP):
• Concept: RARP is used to determine an IP
address from a known MAC address. It was
historically used in environments where
devices didn’t have static IP addresses but
relied on a server to provide them.
• Limitations: RARP has largely been replaced
by more modern protocols like DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
5. Ethernet
Standards:
• Ethernet Standards: Include various versions
such as 10BASE-T (10 Mbps), 100BASE-TX (100
Mbps), 1000BASE-T (1 Gbps), and 10GBASE-T
(10 Gbps), among others. Each standard
defines the maximum speed and the type of
cabling used.
Frame Structure:
• Preamble: 7 bytes of alternating 1s and 0s
used for synchronization.
• Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): 1 byte indicating
the start of the frame.
• Destination MAC Address: 6 bytes.
• Source MAC Address: 6 bytes.
• Type/Length Field: 2 bytes; indicates the type
of payload or the length of the payload.
• Payload/Data: Variable length, containing the
actual data being transmitted.
• Frame Check Sequence (FCS): 4 bytes used for
error checking using CRC.
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection):
• Concept: CSMA/CD is a network protocol used
to manage access to the shared Ethernet
medium. It ensures that only one device
transmits at a time and handles collisions.
• Mechanism:
o Carrier Sense: Devices listen to the
network to check if it is free before
transmitting.
o Collision Detection: If two devices
transmit simultaneously, a collision
occurs. Devices detect this and stop
transmitting.
o Collision Handling: After a collision,
devices wait for a random period before
attempting to retransmit, minimizing the
chance of repeated collisions.