BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 37
 A matter exists in either the solid state or the fluid state.
 The fluid state is further divided into
 Liquid state
 Gaseous state
 In fact the same matter may exist in any one of the three
states i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous.
 For example water occurs in a liquid state, may also
occur in solid state as ice and in a gaseous state as
vapour.
 In solids the molecules are very closely spaced.
 In liquids the spacing between the molecules is
relatively large.
 In gases the space between the molecules is still larger.
 Fluid

 Fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of

flowing. It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the
shape of the containing vessel.
OR
 “A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the
action of tangential or shear force.”
 A liquid is a fluid, which possesses a definite volume, which
may vary slightly with temperature and pressure.
 A gas is a fluid, which is compressible and possesses no
definite volume but it always expands until its volume is
equal to that of the container.
 Examples of fluids are : Water, Milk, Kerosene, Petrol, Gases etc
 Fluid Mechanics

 “Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals

with the behavior of the fluids at rest as well as in
motion.”

 In general the scope of fluid mechanics is very wide

which includes the study of all liquids and gases.

 It has applications in mechanical, civil, chemical and

biomedical engineering etc.
 Basic Properties of Fluid

1. Pressure
 “It is defined as normal force per unit area.”

𝐹
P=
𝐴
 It is a scalar quantity.

 Units of Pressure :
 N/m2
 Pascal (Pa) (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
 atm (1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa)
 Bar (1 bar =105 Pa = 105 N/m2
 2. Density(𝝆) or Mass Density

 “It is defined as mass per unit volume of the

substance.”
𝑚
ρ=
𝑉
 Units of density
 Kg/m3
 g/cm3 or g/cc(1 g/cc = 103 kg/m3)

 For example
 ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
 ρair= 1.2 kg/m3
 ρsteel = 7850 kg/m3
 [Link] Weight (ω)

 Specific weight is also known as weight density.

 “It is defined as weight per unit volume of substance.”

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑚
ω= = 𝝆g [ρ = ]
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽 𝑉

 Unit of specific weight is N/m3

 4. Specific Gravity(s)

 “ It is defined as the density of the fluid w.r.t. the

density of standard fluid.”

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
 Specific Gravity(s) =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

 For liquid, standard fluid is water at 4°C(39.2°F),

1 atm, 1000 kg/m3).

 For gases, standard fluid is Air.

 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 38
 Dynamic Viscosity
 “Two adjacent layers of the fluid resist the motion of each other
such a fundamental property of the fluid is known as viscosity
or dynamic viscosity.”

 Therefore the frictional force between the adjacent layers is

known as viscous shear force.
𝑑𝑢. 𝑑𝑡
tan dθ =
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢. 𝑑𝑡
if dθis very small, dθ=
𝑑𝑦
𝑑θ 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝒅θ
Where = Rate of angular(shear) deformation and
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒖
= Velocity gradient.
𝒅𝒚
 Cause of Viscosity

 Basic cause of viscosity is cohesive forces

between the molecules.

 Because in case of liquid cohesive force is high

and in case of gases cohesive force is very less.

 Therefore viscosity of liquid is very high as

compared to viscosity of gases.
 Dependency of Viscosity on Temperature

 Viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in

temperature.[if T↑ then cohesion ↓]

 Viscosity of gases increaseswith increase in

temperature.[if T↑ then randomness↑]
 Kinematic Viscosity(ν)

 “Ratio of dynamic Viscosity and density is called

Kinematic Viscosity.
ν=μ
𝞀

 Unit of Kinematic Viscosity

 MKS : m2/s
 CGS : cm2/s
𝑐𝑚 2 2
1 = 10−4 𝑚 = 1 stoke
𝑠 𝑠
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 39
 Newton’s law of Viscosity
 According to Newton’s law of viscosity “Shear stress
between the layers of fluid is directly proportional to rate of
shear deformation.”
Ʈ α 𝑑θ
𝑑𝑡
𝑑θ 𝑑𝑢
or, Ʈ α 𝑑𝑢 [Because = ]
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
Ʈ=μ
𝑑𝑦

 Where μ is proportionality constant(property of fluid) which

is known as viscosity or dynamic viscosity.
 Types of Fluid
The fluid may be classified into the following five
types:

1. Ideal fluid

2. Real fluid

[Link] fluid

4. Non-Newtonian fluid

5. Ideal plastic fluid

1. REAL FLUID: A fluid, which possess viscosity is known as
real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice are real fluids.

 Example : Air, water, kerosene, petrol etc.

2. IDEAL FLUID:- Incompressible fluid having zero viscosity is

called ideal fluid(Ʈ = 0).

3. NEWTONIAN FLUID:
 All the fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity are known
as Newtonian fluids.

 Example : Air, water, kerosene, petrol etc.

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝚹
 Ʈ=μ Or Ʈ = μ
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID:-

 The fluids which do not follow Newton’s law viscosity are

known as Non-Newtonian Fluid.
 Example : Blood, paint mud etc.

 There is a non-linear relation between magnitude of Ʈ and

𝑑𝚹
.
𝑑𝑡

 ELASTIC SOLID:- may be represented by vertical line.

 Pascal’s Law
 In a fluid at rest the intensity of pressure is same
in all directions.
 In other words, when a certain pressure is applied in a
fluid at rest, the pressure is equally transmitted
in all the directions.
𝐹1
P= = 𝐹2
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐹2 𝐴2
=
𝐹1 𝐴1
 Applications of Pascal’s law

 Applications of Pascal’s law are-

 Hydraulic lift

 Hydraulic Jacks

 Hydraulic brakes

 Hydraulic pumps
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 40
Q. Car’s weight = 16,000 N. What is the external input force F ?

A1 = 50 cm2
A2 = 4000 cm2
F2 = 16,000 N
F1 = ?

𝐹2 𝐴2
=
𝐹1 𝐴1
𝐴1 50 𝑐𝑚 2
F1=𝐹2 𝐴 = 16000 𝑁 𝑋 4000 𝑐𝑚 2
2

F1 = 200 N Answer
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
 This equation is based on the principle of conservation of
mass.

 The quantity of fluid per second is constant at all the cross

sections through the pipe.

𝑚3 𝐴𝐿
 Flow Rate → Volume flow rate ( )= = A V [V = velocity]
𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝜌𝐴𝐿
 Flow Rate → mass flow rate ( ) = = ρA V
𝑠 𝑠

 This Continuity Equation is applicable for the

compressible as well as In- compressible fluids .
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
Consider two cross sections as shown in figure:
Let v1 = Average velocity at cross-section 1-1
ρ1 = density at section 1-1
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1-1

and v2,ρ2, A2 are corresponding values at section 2-2.

Rate of flow at section at 1-1 = ρ1 A1 V1

Rate of flow at section at 2-2 = ρ2 A2 V2

Direction of flow
 CONTINUITY EQUATION
 According to law of conservation of mass:
Rate of flow at section at 1-1 = Rate of flow at section at 2-2
Q = ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2V2 = Constant

 If the fluid is In-compressible, i.e. water then ρ1 = ρ2 and

continuity equation becomes

Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2 = Constant
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 41
Q. Car’s weight = 16,000 N. What is the external input force F ?

A1 = 50 cm2
A2 = 4000 cm2
F2 = 16,000 N
F1 = ?

𝐹2 𝐴2
=
𝐹1 𝐴1
𝐴1 50 𝑐𝑚 2
F1=𝐹2 𝐴 = 16000 𝑁 𝑋 4000 𝑐𝑚 2
2

F1 = 200 N Answer
Numerical
Numerical

Q = ? and V2 = ?
 Numerical

Using continuity equation for In-compressible fluid ,

we have
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 42
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 43
VENTURIMETER
ORIFICE METER
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 44
 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULIC MACHINES

▪ These are the machines in which force is transmitted by means

of motion of fluid under pressure.
▪ These can convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy or
mechanical energy to hydraulic energy.
▪ The hydraulic system works on the principle of Pascal's law.
This law states that, the pressure in an enclosed fluid is uniform
in all the directions.
▪ Examples: Hydraulic turbines, Pumps, cranes
 HYDRAULIC TURBINE
▪ It is a hydraulic machine.
▪ It uses energy of flowing water (hydraulic energy) and converts it
into mechanical energy (in the form of rotation of runner)
▪ Shaft power available at the shaft of the Turbine is utilized to run
Generator to produce electricity.

PUMP
It is a hydraulic machine in which force is transmitted by means of
motion of fluid under pressure.
▪ In this machine, mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic
energy in the form of pressure energy by the action of centrifugal force
on the fluid.
▪ Its main purpose is to transfer fluids through an increase in pressure.
▪ It is used in the field of agriculture, municipality, industries, power
plants, petrochemicals, mining etc.
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 45
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINE
1. According to the type of energy at inlet
• Impulse turbine ➢ An impulse turbine is a turbine in which the water entering the
runner possesses kinetic energy only. In this, the rotation of the runner occurs due to
the impulse action of water. (Pelton Turbine)
• Reaction turbine ➢ A reaction turbine is a turbine in which the water entering the
runner possesses pressure as well as kinetic energy. In this, the rotation of runner
occurs due to the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the runner.
(Francis and Kaplan Turbine)

2. According to the direction of flow through runner

• Tangential flow turbine ➢ When the flow of water is tangential to the wheel
circle, the turbine is called tangential flow turbine. (Pelton Turbine)
• Radial flow turbine ➢ When the water moves along the vanes towards the axis of
rotation of the runner or away from it, the turbine is called radial flow turbine.
(Francis Turbine)
• Axial flow turbine ➢ When the water flows parallel to the axis of rotation, the
turbine is called an axial or parallel flow turbine. (Kaplan Turbine/Propeller Turbine)
3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine

• High head turbine ➢ When a turbine works under a head of more than 250 m.
(Pelton Turbine)

• Medium head turbine ➢ When a turbine works under a head of 45 m – 250 m.

(Francis Turbine)

• Low head turbine ➢ When a turbine works under a head of less than 45 m.
(Kaplan Turbine)

4. According to the specific speed of the turbin

• Low specific speed turbine ➢ The specific speed up to 30 (Pelton Turbine)

• Medium specific speed turbine ➢ The specific speed varies from 50 to 250
(Francis Turbine)

• High specific head turbine ➢ specific speed is more than 250 (Kaplan Turbine)
Impulse Turbine – Pelton Wheel:
▪ Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine.
▪ It works at high head and requires low flow of water.
▪ It converts pressure energy into kinetic energy in in one or
more nozzles.
▪ It is driven by high velocity jets of water coming out from a
nozzle directed on to vanes or buckets attached to a wheel.
▪ The impulse provided by the jets is used to spins the turbine
wheel and removes kinetic energy from the fluid flow.
▪ Pressure of water remains atmospheric inside the turbine.
Construction of Pelton Wheel:
Major Components component of Pelton wheel are described below.
▪ Casing:
➢ Casing prevents the splashing of water and helps in discharge of
water from the nozzle to the tailrace. It protects the turbine from dust
and dirt.
▪ Nozzle and Spear Mechanism:
➢ Nozzle produces high velocity jets of water and converts pressure
energy into kinetic energy.
➢ The spear mechanism controls the water flow into the turbine and
control the turbine speed according to load. It minimizes energy loss at
inlet and provides smooth flow.
▪ Break Nozzle:
➢ It is used to produce and supply breaking jet of water. It directs the
water on the bucket to stop the runner to rest in a short time
▪ Runner/Rotor:
➢ It is a circular disc mounted by a number of equally spaced
buckets which are fixed on its periphery. Each bucket consists of
two symmetrical halves having shape of semi-ellipsoidal cup.
➢ It provides rotational energy when jet of water having kinetic
energy strike the buckets.
▪ Penstock:
➢ It is the channel or pipeline that connect the high head source
water to the power station
▪ Governing Mechanism:
➢ It controls the speed and power output of the turbine by
controlling the flow of water
Working Principle:
▪ Water is coming from the storage reservoir through a
penstock to the inlet of the nozzle.
▪ Nozzle converts the hydraulic energy of the water into
kinetic energy and produces high velocity of jet.
▪ The jet of water released from the nozzle strikes on the
buckets mounted on the runner.
▪ Water jet strikes over the runner bucket and imparts a very
high impulsive force on the buckets for a small amount of
time to rotate the runner and so mechanical energy develops.
▪ Pressure of water remains atmospheric inside the turbine.
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 46
 REACTION TURBINE – FRANCIS TURBINE:
▪ Francis turbine is a medium head inward radial flow reaction
turbine.
▪ Modern Francis turbine is an inward mixed flow reaction
turbine. In this turbine, the water under pressure enters
radially to the impeller blades while exits axially.
▪ When water flows radially from outward to inward, the
turbine is called inward radial flow turbine
▪ When water flows radially from inward to outward, the
turbine is called Outward radial flow turbine.
▪ An inward mixed flow reaction turbine, is a combination of
impulse and reaction turbine where blades rotate using both
reaction and impulse force of water flowing through them
 CONSTRUCTION OF FRANCIS TURBINE:
Major Components component of Francis turbine are described below.
▪ Spiral/Scroll Casing:
➢ Its cross-sectional area is maximum at inlet and minimum at exit. ➢ It
encloses the turbine runner completely and prevents the splashing of water.
➢ It maintains constant velocity throughout the circumference.
▪ Runner with fixed blades:
➢ It is a circular wheel with a series of radially curved vanes which are
fixed on its periphery.
➢ It provides rotational energy due to impulse and reaction effects on
runner.
▪ Penstock:
➢ It is the channels or pipelines which conveys water from source to the
power station
▪ Governing Mechanism:
➢ It controls the speed and power output of the turbine by changing the
position of guide blades to vary the water flow rate at variation of loads.
Working Principle:
▪ In modern Francis turbine; water enters into the turbine with
both pressure and kinetic energy.
▪ When water flows through the stationary parts, a part of its
pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy. When water
flows over the moving parts, there is change in pressure, absolute
velocity and direction.
▪ The pressure difference between the blade and runner is known
as the reaction pressure. This pressure results the motion of the
runner.
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 47
Axial flow reaction Turbine:
▪ In an axial flow reaction turbine water flows parallel to the
axis of rotation of the shaft of the turbine.
▪ It has a vertical shaft with larger lower end known as
hub/boss.
▪ Vanes are fixed on the hub and so the hub works like a runner.
▪ It requires large quantity of water at low head
Kaplan Turbine:
▪ It is an axial flow reaction turbine in which water flows parallel
to the axis of rotation of the shaft of the turbine. The water enters
the runner of turbine in an axial direction and leaves the runner
axially.
▪ It has a vertical shaft with larger lower end known as hub/boss.
▪ Vanes are fixed on the hub and so the hub works like a runner.
▪ It requires large quantity of water at low head
Construction of Kaplan Turbine:
It consists of the following major parts.
▪ Scroll Casing:
➢ It encloses the turbine runner completely and prevents the splashing of water.
➢ Cross-section of scroll casing decreases uniformly to maintain the pressure of
water such that the flow pressure is not lost.
➢ From the scroll casing the guide vanes direct the water to the runner.
▪ Guide vanes mechanism:
➢ The guide vanes are adjustable and can be adjusted to meet the required flow rate.
➢ Guide vanes also control the swirl of the water flow.
▪ Hub with vanes:
➢ The vanes are fixed on the hub and hence hub acts as a runner for the axial flow
reaction turbine.
▪ Draft tube:
➢ The draft tube is a connecting pipe whose inlet is fitted at the outlet of the
turbine.
➢ The diameter of the draft tube is small near its inlet and large near its outlet. The
outlet of the draft tube is always submerged in water.
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 48
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Introduction:
▪ It is a hydraulic machine in which force is transmitted by
means of motion of fluid under pressure.
▪ In this machine, mechanical energy is converted into
hydraulic energy in the form of pressure energy by the action
of centrifugal force on the fluid.
▪ Its main purpose is to transfer fluids through an increase in
pressure.
▪ It acts as a reverse of an inward flow reaction turbine.
▪ It is used in the field of agriculture, municipality, industries,
power plants, petrochemicals, mining etc.
Construction:
Major components of Centrifugal pump are:
▪ Casing:
It is an air tight passage which surrounds the impeller. It converts kinetic energy
of water into pressure energy with its special design. It is classified as:

• Volute casing ➢ Volute casing is the spiral casing in which the area of
flow increases from inlet to outlet. This gradual increase in area helps to
reduce the velocity of flow and increase the pressure at outlet. Due to
formation of eddies, there is a limitation of energy loss.

• Vortex casing ➢ In Vortex casing a circular chamber is provided in

between the impeller and casing. This decreases the energy loss formation
of eddies. It helps to increase the efficiency of the pump.

• Casing with guide blades ➢ In Casing with guide blades a series of

guide blades mounted on a ring surrounds the impeller. This helps to
control the velocity and pressure of water by adjusting the guide blades.
▪ Impeller:
It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curved blades or
vanes. It is mounted on the shaft powered by motor.
▪ Suction pipe with foot valve and strainer:
It’s one end connects the inlet of the impeller and the other end is dipped into the
sump of water. The foot valve fitted to the bottom of suction pipe is a one way
valve that opens in the upward direction. The strainer fitted to the bottom of
suction pipe is used to filter the unwanted particle present in the water to prevent
the centrifugal pump from blockage.
▪ Delivery pipe and delivery valve:
It’s one end connects the outlet of the pump and other end connects the point
where water is delivered. A delivery valve is fitted with the outlet controls the
flow from the pump into delivery pipe.
 WORKING OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:
▪ When the electric motor starts, the shaft of the pump coupled
with the motor shaft rotates. It gives rotational motion to the
impeller mounted on the shaft.
▪ The rotating impeller drives the water inside it and produce
centrifugal force. This creates velocity difference between the inlet
and outlet.
▪ It causes the rising of water from sump through suction pipe to
eye of the impeller.
▪ When water gets pressurized, the delivery valve opens to
discharge water to desired height.
▪ Priming is the operation in which water is feed into the casing
and suction pipeline keeping the delivery valve closed, so that all
the air from the pump is driven out and no air is left.
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 49
 Reciprocating pump - Introduction:
▪ It is a hydraulic machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy (pressure energy).
▪ It is a type of positive displacement pump.
▪ It is suitable where small amount of water is to be delivered at higher pressure.
▪ While working, it sucks water at low pressure into a cylinder containing a
reciprocating piston. The piston exerts a thrust force on the water and increases
its pressure.

Classification of Reciprocating pump:

▪ According to sides in contact with water: • Single acting reciprocating pump ➢
In single acting reciprocating pump water comes in contact of only one side of the
piston. Suction and delivery of water occurs at one side.

• Double acting reciprocating pump ➢ In double acting reciprocating pump water

comes in contact of both sides of the piston. Suction and delivery of water occurs
at both sides.
Construction of
Reciprocating pump:
Major components of
Reciprocating pump
are:
▪ A cylinder with piston,
piston rod, connecting
rod, crank and crank
shaft
▪ Suction pipe
▪ Suction valve
▪ Delivery pipe
▪ Delivery valve
Working of Single acting reciprocating pump:
▪ The figure shows the single acting reciprocating pump.
▪ It works in two strokes such as suction and delivery strokes.
▪ During suction stroke, the piston moves backward and suction
valve opens. So, water enter into the cylinder. During suction
the delivery valve remains closed.
▪ During delivery stroke, the piston moves forward and delivery
valve opens. Suction valve remains closed. Piston exerts thrust
on the water and increases water pressure.
▪ Water with pressure energy escapes out of the cylinder
through delivery pipe to the delivery point.
 BME101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -4: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

and applications

Lecture - 49