PAMBAYANG DALUBHASAAN NG MARILAO

GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT

LEARNING MODULES IN GE-ETH (ETHICS)

2nd Semester, Academic Year 2023-2024

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Week 1 Orientation and Introduction to Key Concepts
Ethical Paths and Moral Standards
Week 2 Moral Dilemma

Week 3 Existentialism and Freedom

Week 4 Cultural Relativism

Week 5 Universal Values and Filipino Traits

Week 6 Moral Development

Weeks 7-8 Human Acts, Reason, and Impartiality

Week 9 MIDTERM EXAMINATION

Weeks 10-11 Virtue Ethics and Virtue and Virtue and Happiness

Week 12 Rights, Categorical Imperatives, Family Obligations, and Ethics of Care

Week 13 Hobbes, Locke, Nozick, and Rawls

Week 14 Egoism, Altruism, and Utilitarianism

Week 15 Racism, Sexism, and Speciesism

Week 16 Egalitarianism, Socialism, Capitalism

Week 17 Pluralism, Fundamentalism, and Challenges to the Filinnials

Week 18 FINAL EXAMINATION

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I. COURSE DESCRIPTION
Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the
person, society and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources
(CMO 20, s.2013)
GENERAL EDUCATION
Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally
LEARNING MODULES IN ETHICS picks up from the community. The course discusses the content and principles of
ethical behavior in modern society at the level of individual, society, and in
interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course also
teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and
by applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and solve more
dilemmas.

The course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of moral
experience: (a) agent, including context – cultural, communal, and environmental;
(b) the act, and (c) reason and framework for such action. This course also includes
the mandatory topic on taxation.

[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
1. Differentiate between moral and non-moral problems
2. Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of
human existence
3. Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way students look at moral
experiences and solve moral dilemmas
4. Describe the moral development and moral experience
5. Use ethical frameworks or principles to analyze moral experiences
6. Make sound ethical judgment-based principles, facts, and the stakeholders
affected
7. Develop sensitivity to common good
8. Understand and internalize the principles of ethical behavior in modern
society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources.

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
I. ORIENTATION AND INTRODUCTION

The module provides an orientation to the vision and mission of the school,
school policies, course outline, and grading system. In the latter part of the
Module 1 module, discussions on ethics as a branch of philosophy, areas and ethical
INTRODUCTION TO KEY CONCEPTS paths in the study of ethics, ethics in relation to morality and law, and the
difference between moral and non-moral standards are also provided.
Module 1: Week 1:
Ethical Paths and Moral Standards
[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 discuss the vision, mission, and policies of the school,
 understand the course and its requirements and grading system,
 discuss ethics as a branch of philosophy,
 examine the areas of ethical study,
 examine the various ethical paths in the study of ethics,
 differentiate ethics from morality and law, and
 differentiate moral from non-moral standards.

PRE-LEARNING ACTIVITY: MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE QUIZ

For the purpose of profiling and aligning classroom instruction and strategies, instruct the
students to answer the multiple intelligence quiz provided in the link,
[Link]

Philosophy and Its Branches

Definitions of Philosophy
 Philosophy is derived from the Greek words philos, which means "love," and sophia, which means "wisdom." Thus,
philosophy means "love of wisdom."
 Philosophy is a living desire to understand the world that surrounds us and the world that is within us.
 Philosophy would also mean the love of exercising one’s curiosity.

Branches of Philosophy
 Logic  Social/political philosophy
 Cosmology  Metaphysics
 Theodicy  Rational/philosophical psychology
 Aesthetics  Ethics
 Epistemology

Logic
 logos=to measure, to reason
 a tool for philosophy
 the philosophical study of systematic thinking and argumentation
 the study of human reasoning or thinking
 example of a categorical syllogism: All men are mortal. But, Kiero is a man. Therefore, Kiero is mortal.
 example of a conditional syllogism: If he is a Buddhist, then he believes in Buddha. But, he is a Buddhist. So, he
believes in Buddha.

Cosmology

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 the study of the universe
 Some philosophers claimed that the universe is made up primordial substances.
 Thales=water
 Heraclitus=fire
 Democritus=atoms
 Anaximenes=air
 Pythagoras=numbers

Theodicy
 philosophical study of God
 Aquinas’ Five Ways to Prove God’s Existence: argument from motion, argument from efficient causes, argument
from possibility and necessity, argument from gradation of being, and argument from design
 Friedrich Nietzsche: The ideal superior man of the future could rise above conventional Christian morality to create
and impose his own values.

Aesthetics
 principles of beauty and artistic taste
 It considers what happens in our minds when we engage with aesthetic objects.
 the philosophy of art studies how artists imagine, create, and performs works of art, as well how people use, enjoy,
and criticize their art

Epistemology
 sources of knowledge
 Rationalism (i.e. Descartes)
 Empiricism (i.e. Locke on tabula rasa)

Social/Political Philosophy
 man and his place in the society
 examinations of all aspects of social life, from the family, to the nation-state, to international relations
 Platos’ Republic
 Varna System: social stratification
 Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan
 Machiavelli: The Prince

Metaphysics
 It deals with the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationships between mind and matter, substance and
attribute, and potentiality and actuality.
 study of being as being
 Aristotle: Substance=fusion of matter and form
 (substance (column), basic rock (matter), and form (architect’s drawing)
 Plato: The eidos or the world of ideas

Rational/ Philosophical Psychology

 investigations based on reason alone, rather than on experiment, engineering, or computation

Ethics
 morality of human acts
 elements of a human act (Knowledge, Freedom, and Voluntariness)
 Plato: Individual soul is divided into three.
 Aristotle: Golden Mean

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Areas of Ethical Study

Metaethics
 It is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the status, foundations, and scope of moral values, properties,
and words.
 It is concerned with the nature rather than the content of ethical theories and moral judgments.
 Whereas the fields of applied ethics and normative theory focus on what is moral, metaethics focuses on what
morality itself is.
 Metaethics is interested in explaining why some moral claims are true and others are false.
 Metaethical Views: Moral Realism and Moral Anti-Realism
 Moral realism adheres to the belief that there are moral facts in the same way that there are scientific facts. In
this view, any moral proposition can only be true or false.
 Moral anti-realism adheres to the belief that there are no moral facts.

Normative Ethics
 Normative ethics is concerned with criteria for what is morally right and wrong. It includes the formulation of moral
rules that have direct implications for what human actions, institutions, and ways of life should be like.
 The central question of normative ethics is determining how basic moral standards are arrived at and justified. The
answers to this question fall into two broad categories: deontological and teleological, or consequentialist. The
principal difference between them is that deontological theories do not appeal to value considerations in
establishing ethical standards, while teleological theories do.

Applied Ethics
 Applied ethics is the application of normative ethics to practical problems
 Applied ethics, also called practical ethics, is the application of ethics to real-world problems. Practical ethics
attempts to answer the question of how people should act in specific situations. For example, is it ethical for a
business owner to bluff during negotiations with another company? Or, is it morally permissible for a doctor to
engage in mercy killing when a terminal cancer patient begs to be put out of her misery?
 Areas such as bioethics, engineering ethics, environmental ethics, development ethics, and business/corporate
ethics may be regarded as areas of applied ethics.
 Examples: Meralco’s Code of Business Conduct and Ethics [Link]
governance/code-of-business-conduct-and-ethics; Procter and Gambles’ Values and Code of Conduct
[Link]
values_and_code_of_conduct.pdf; National Society of Professional Engineers Code of Ethics
[Link] and Code of Ethics of the Philippine Medical Association
[Link]

Ethical Paths

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Deontological Ethics
 All deontological ethics theories are non-consequentialist.
 They place the emphasis on the decision or action itself—on the motivations, principles, or ideals underlying the
decision or action—rather than being concerned with the outcomes or consequences of that decision or action.
 The two main non-consequentialist theories are ethics of duties and ethics of rights and justice. Both of these are
rooted in assumptions about universal rights, wrongs, and responsibilities.
 This means that people who promote these types of ethical principles usually believe that they should be applied to
everyone, everywhere in the world.
 If a child in one country has a right to an education, then this means that all children, everywhere in the world,
should have a right to an education.

Teleological Ethics
 Consequentialist ethics come from the teleological branch of ethical theory.
 Teleological theories focus on the goal of an ethical action.
 Consequentialist theories are those that base moral judgments on the outcomes of a decision or an action.
 If the outcomes of an action are considered to be positive or to give rise to benefits, then that action is held to be
morally right.
 For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. However, if telling a lie saves someone's life,
consequentialism says it's the right thing to do.

Ethics, Morality, and Law

 Ethics is the set of moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conduct of an activity. Morals are
concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior and the goodness or badness of human character. Law is
a set of rules that a country or community recognizes as governing the actions of its citizens and can enforce
through the imposition of penalties.
 Ethics and morals relate to "right" and "wrong" conduct. While they are sometimes used interchangeably, they are
different. Ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in
religions. Morals refer to an individual's own principles regarding right and wrong.
 The difference between morals and law is that the law requires complete obedience to its rules and commands. The
law has enforcing authority derived from the state. It is heteronymous (imposed upon men on their outer lives). The
law regulates men’s relations with others and with society.

Moral and Non-moral Standards

Moral Standards
 Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and
wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good and bad. Some
ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and moral principles.
 Characteristics of Moral Standards
 Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits. Moral standards deal with issues that have the
potential to seriously harm or benefit [Link] is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance,
following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games, but it does not necessarily affect
one’s life or well-being.
 Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values. Moral standards have a dominant personality or
hegemonic [Link] a moral standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he
or she is supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards and even with self-interest.
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take precedence over other
considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and even legal ones.

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
 Moral standards are not merely established by authority figures. Moral standards are not the mere invention of
authoritative bodies or persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Rather, moral standards or values ought to be
considered in the making of laws. Hence, in principle, moral standards cannot be changed or nullified by the
decisions of a particular authoritative body. One thing about these standards, nonetheless, is that their validity
depends on the soundness or adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support and justify them.
 Moral standards have the trait of universalizability. It means that everyone should live up to moral standards. It
entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in a relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A is
morally right for a certain person P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P. This characteristic
is exemplified in the Golden Rule, "Do unto others what you would have them do unto you (if you were in their
shoes)"; and in the formal Principle of Justice, which states that "it cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in
which it would be wrong for B to treat A, merely on the ground that they are two different individuals, and
without there being any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two, which can be stated as a
reasonable ground for difference in treatment." Universalizability is an extension of the principle of consistency,
i.e., one ought to be consistent about one’s value judgments.
 Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. A moral standard does not evaluate standard

Non-moral Standards
 Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various
house rules.
 Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e., laws and ordinances) are non-moral principles,
though they can be ethically relevant depending on some factors and contexts.

PERFORMANCE TASK
The grouping is based on the multiple intelligences of the students. The groups will create school policies, company
policies,ordinances, or laws that they think would establish order in the community. The concepts will be presented
either through a song, dance, video presentation, skit, collage, or others.
Rubric
Criteria Ratings Points

Content and Organization of ideas 10 Points 0 Points 10

The concept is highly feasible and logical. Full Marks No Marks Points
Presentation of Ideas 10 Points 0 Points 10
The final output showed great imagination, insight, and style. Full Marks No Marks Points
TOTAL 20
Points

SUGGESTED VIDEO CLIP/DOCUMENTARY

Bullheadent. (2008, April 19). The cave: an adaptation of Plato's allegory in clay [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Crash Course. (2016, October 26). Metaethics: crash course philosophy #32 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]

References
Britannica. (n.d.). Normative ethics. [Link]
Crash Course. (2016, October 26). Metaethics: crash course philosophy #32 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Ethics Unwrapped. (n.d.). Applied ethics. [Link]
Hubbard, R. (2017, March 10). Ethics 101 introducing metaethics [Video]. YouTube. [Link]
v=o9kilttoaRY

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (n.d.) Metaethics. [Link]
%20branch%20of,on%20what%20morality%20itself%20is
Mañebog, j. (2018). Moral standards vs non-moral standards. [Link]
Perez, A. (2017, August 4). Ethics vs morals vs law. [Link]
perez#:~:text=Ethics%20and%20Law%20%2D%20Ethics%20are,by%20governments%20to%20their%20people.

POST-LEARNING MODULE ACTIVITY :

LEARNERS’ E-PORTFOLIO IN ETHICS
(For submission after all the modules have been discussed.)

1st PAGE 5th PAGE

LEARNERS’ E-PORTFOLIO IN ETHICS Which activity elicited creativity?
_________SEMESTER 20__-20__
PHOTO 6th PAGE
LAST NAME, FIRST NAME, MI Which activity elicited critical thinking?
YEAR
7th PAGE
2nd PAGE Which activity elicited cooperation?
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE QUIZ
([Link] 8th PAGE
d/Learning%20Style/MI_quiz.pdf) Which activity provided you with the opportunity to
communicate or articulate your thoughts?
3RD PAGE
Which activity did you like best? 9th PAGE
Which concept was tackled in the course that provided
4th PAGE you with so much learning? What realizations did you have
Which activity did you like least about the concept?

*Provide a background on the activity and state your

reasons for choosing it.
Include photos of the activity or documents.

I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides a discussion on the various levels of moral dilemma. It

also invites learners to reflect on real-life situations involving dilemmas and
Module 1: Week 2: Moral Dilemma later decide on how to deal with them based on different ethical
approaches.

[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:

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 identify the three levels of moral dilemma, and
 apply ethical approaches in dealing with moral dilemmas.

Moral or Ethical Dilemma

Dilemma
 Dilemma is a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between two or more options, especially more or
less equally undesirable ones

Moral Dilemma
 A moral dilemma is a situation where:
 You are presented with two or more actions, all of which you have the ability to perform.
 There are moral reasons for you to choose each of these actions.
 You cannot perform all of the actions and have to choose which action or actions, when there are three or more
choices, to perform.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

 Personal Dilemma. Personal dilemmas are those experienced and resolved on a personal level. Since many ethical
decisions are personally made, many, if not most, moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down to, this level.
 Organizational Dilemma. Ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations are organizational moral
dilemmas. This category includes moral dilemmas in business, the medical field, and the public sector. A hospital
that believes that human life should not be deliberately shortened and that unpreventable pain should not be
tolerated encounters a conflict when deciding whether to withdraw life support from a dying patient. These ethical
quandaries in business concern corporate practices, policies, business behaviors, and the conduct and relationships
of individuals within [Link] business-related dilemmas pertain to the social responsibility of
businesses, employee rights, harassment, labor unions, misleading advertising, job discrimination, and whistle-
blowing. Government leaders and employees have a moral duty to act in a manner that is fair and unbiased. They
should be loyal to the public and ought to put public interest before personal gain and fulfill duties of competency,
integrity, accountability, and transparency.
 Structural or systemic dilemma. These structural moral dilemmas pertain to cases involving network of institutions
and operative theoretical paradigms. Government leaders and employees have a moral duty to act in a manner that
is fair and unbiased. They should be loyal to the public and ought to put public interest before personal gain and
fulfill duties of competency, integrity, accountability, and transparency. An example is the price of medicine in the
Philippines, which is higher compared to other countries in Asia and countries of similar economic status. Factors
affecting medicine prices include the cost of research, the presence of competition in the market, government
regulations, and patent protection. The institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby
benefiting the Filipino public, but such a move may ruin the interests or legal rights of the involved researchers,
inventors, or discoverers, as well as the pharmaceutical companies that own the patents on the medicines or health
care technologies.

Approaches Ethical Dilemmas

 The Utilitarian Approach: For the Greatest Good. Managers often take the utilitarian approach, using financial
performance—such as efficiency and profit—as the best definition of what constitutes "the greatest good for the
greatest number." Thus, a utilitarian "cost-benefit" analysis might show that in the short run, firing thousands of
employees may improve a company's bottom line and provide immediate benefits for the shareholders. The
drawback of this approach, however, is that it may result in damage to workforce morale and the loss of employees
with experience and skills that are not readily measurable in dollars.

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
 The individual approach: for your greatest long-term self-interest, which will help others. Ethical behavior in the
individual approach is guided by what will result in the individual's best long-term interests, which ultimately are in
everyone's self-interest. The assumption here is that you will act ethically in the short run to avoid others harming
you in the long run. The flaw here, however, is that one person's short-term self-gain may not, in fact, be good for
everyone in the long term. The manager of an agribusiness that puts chemical fertilizers on the crops every year will
always benefit, but the fishing industries downstream could ultimately suffer if chemical runoff reduces water
quality.
 The moral-rights approach: respecting fundamental human rights. Guided by respect for the fundamental rights of
human beings. In the US and the Philippines, a Bill of Rights forms part of the constitution.
 The justice approach entails adhering to impartial standards of fairness. Guided by respect for impartial standards
of fairness and equity. One consideration here is whether an organization's policies—such as those governing
promotions or sexual harassment cases—are administered impartially and fairly regardless of gender, age, sexual
orientation, and the like.

ASSESSMENT TASK
Moral Dilemma
Form five groups. Each group shall prepare a skit about the situation presented below. Before the class, the leader will
discuss possible actions and the corresponding justifications that the members of the group will take.
Situation No. 1: Honesty [Link]
Situation No. 2: Forgiveness [Link]
Situation No. 3: Cliques and Bullying [Link]
Situation No. 4:Fairness [Link]
Situation No. 5: Plagiarism [Link]
Rubric
Criteria Ratings Points
Clarity of Presentation 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
The situation is clearly presented. Full Marks No Marks
Analysis of the Situation 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
Possible responses to the situation are explained and justified. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

References
Crash Course. (n.d.). Moral dilemma: definition & examples. [Link]
[Link]
Livewire Media. (n.d.) Ethical & moral dilemmas for classroom discussion: the daily dilemma archive.
[Link]
Mañebog, J., & Eugenio, M. (2021). What is moral dilemma (and the three levels of moral dilemmas).
[Link]
Official Gazette. The constitution of the republic of the Philippines.
[Link]
Riazifar, A. (2015). Four approaches to deciding ethical dilemmas. [Link]
deciding-ethical-dilemmas-arash-riazifar
I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on existentialism, freedom, determinism,

and indeterminism. The module also emphasizes freedom as an element
Module 1: Week 3: of human action.
Existentialism and Freedom
[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
 explain Sartre’s concept of freedom in the context of existentialism,
 understand the role of human freedom in humanity, and
 differentiate determinism from indeterminism.

Existentialism and Freedom

Existentialism
 Sartre: "Existence Precedes Essence."
 Our birth happens first, and then it’s up to each of us to determine who we are.
 We must write our own essence through the way we live.
 We have no actual predetermined purpose, and there’s no set path that we’re supposed to follow.

Freedom
 "Man is condemned to be free."
 Man is an unconstrained free moral agent in the sense that he always has a choice in every aspect of his life.
 Man is nothing more than what he creates for himself.
 Man is never compelled or determined; he is totally free and therefore totally responsible for all the things that he
does.
 Freedom is not absolute.
 You cannot do anything that you please without taking the norms of society into consideration.
 More are there to serve as a form of social control to limit, govern, or regulate your behavior in order to maintain
your society.
 Man as a moral agent has the freedom to make one’s choice in accordance with one’s own moral discernment of
what is good and bad, taking full responsibility for one’s own action and using rational and emphatic capacities as a
moral being.

Determinism and Indeterminism

Determinism
 Determinism asserts that there is only one possible course of events in the world.
 Everything has already been determined based on events that have come before.
 Nothing is left up to free will.
 Nothing will happen that has not been predetermined to happen.
 All of nature is just a puppet in the grand scheme of predestined existence.
 External determinism. External (environmental) determinism sees the cause of behavior as being outside the
individual, such as parental influence, the media, or school. Approaches that adopt this position include
behaviorism and social learning theory. For example, Bandura (1961) showed that children become aggressive
through observation and imitation of their violent parents.
 Internal determinism. The other main supporters of determinism are those who adopt a biological perspective.
According to socio-biology, evolution governs the behavior of a species and the genetic inheritance of each
individual within it. For example, Bowlby (1969) states a child has an innate (i.e., inborn) need to attach to one main
attachment figure (i.e., monotropy).
 Levels of determinism
 Hard determinism. Hard determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a
cause. Behaviorists are strong believers in hard determinism. Their most forthright and articulate spokesman has
been B. F. Skinner. Concepts like "free will" and "motivation" are dismissed as illusions that disguise the real
causes of human behavior.
 Soft determinism. Soft determinism represents a middle ground: people do have a choice, but that choice is
constrained by external or internal factors. For example, being poor doesn’t make you steal, but it may make you

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more likely to take that route out of desperation. Soft determinism suggests that some behaviors are more
constrained than others and that there is an element of free will in all behaviors.

Indeterminism
 Indeterminism holds that not all events are predetermined.
 Human life is rife with choice and possibility.
 William James espoused that the will to choose is still alive and kicking.
 Things are not preset and mechanical. We get to choose!
 Free will is the idea that we are able to have some choice in how we act and assumes that we are free to choose our
behavior; in other words, we are self-determined.
 People can make a free choice as to whether to commit a crime or not (unless they are a child or they are insane).
 This does not mean that behavior is random, but we are free from the causal influences of past events.
 According to free will, a person is responsible for their own actions.

REFLECTION ACTIVITY
 Construct a reflection paper based on the video: Fenema, E. (2016, June 22). Too much freedom will kill us [Video].
YouTube. [Link]
 Be guided by the following questions: What are the consequences of unlimited freedom for society? Are laws, rules,
policies, and boundaries compatible with freedom? Provide examples and justifications to your answers.
Rubric
Criteria Ratings Points
Clarity of Presentation 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
The situation is clearly presented. Full Marks No Marks
Insights 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
Insights drawn are strongly supported by premises. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

SUGGESTED FILM
Ever since his birth, Truman Burbank, the well-mannered but unremarkable insurance salesman and eager
explorer, has lived a huge fat lie. Over the course of nearly three decades, Truman's entire existence has
revolved around the will and wild imagination of Christof, the merciless manipulator and TV god of The
Truman Show, an extreme 24/7 reality show. Christof is completely unaware of the thousands of deviously
hidden cameras watching his every move. Consequently, Truman's idyllic neighborhood with its well-kept
lawns and strangely flawless inhabitants is nothing more than an ornate, cutting-edge set, and the only
reality he is aware of is that which the global television network and its powerful financial interests
[Link]. (2008, April 19). The cave: an adaptation of Plato's allegory in clay [Video]. YouTube.

References
Crash Course. (2016, June 7). Existentialism: crash course philosophy #16 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
McLeod, S. (2019).Freewill vs determinism. [Link]
%20determinism%20sees%20free%20will,Skinner.
Whittmore, J. (n.d.) William James and determinism. [Link]
[Link]

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I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on cultural relativism, ethical relativism,

ethnocentrism, and xenocentrism. Towards the end of the module,
Module 2 learners are provided a chance to reflect and draw insights from real-life
THE MORAL AGENT situations about the value of life and respect for humanity.

Module 2: Week 4: [Link] OUTCOMES

Cultural Relativism At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 explain how culture shapes human behavior and community practices,
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 explain cultural relativism in relation to morality, and
 Differentiate ethnocentrism from xenocentrism

Culture

 Latin: "cultura," stemming from "colere," "to cultivate."

 Tylor, Anthropologist:
 Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, law, art, morals, customs, and other capabilities
and habits acquired as members of society.
 Culture refers to all aspects of human activity, from the fine arts to popular entertainment, from everyday
behavior to sophisticated technology.
 Culture Sociologist:
 Culture refers to the entire way of life followed by people and everything learned and shared by people in a
society—a complex set of learned and shared beliefs, customs, skills, habits, traditions, and knowledge common
to members of that society.

Culture Relativism

 Cultural relativism refers to the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and consequently not make
judgments based on the standards of one's own culture.
 It states that there are no universal beliefs and that each culture must be understood in its own terms because
cultures cannot be translated into universal terms.
 Assumptions:
 Different societies have different moral codes.
 There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code as better than another.
 The moral code of one's own society has no special status but is merely one among many.
 There is no "universal truth" in ethics, meaning that there are no moral truths that hold for all people at all
times.
 The moral code of a society determines what is right and wrong within that society; that is, if the moral code of a
society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society.
 It is arrogant for people to attempt to judge the conduct of other people. Instead, researchers should adopt an
attitude of tolerance toward the practices of other cultures.
 Types of Cultural Relativism
 Absolute cultural relativism. Absolute cultural relativists believe that everything that happens within a culture
must and should not be questioned by outsiders.
 Critical cultural relativism. Critical cultural relativism questions cultural practices in terms of who is accepting
them and why, as well as recognizing power relationships.
 Illustrations on Cultural Relativism
 Food Choices. Certain cultures eat different foods at different meals.
 Hygienic Rituals. Ritualized ablution, or washing, also differs across cultures. Catholics may dip their fingers into
blessed water and anoint themselves at church, and Jewish people may pour water over their hands in a specific
way during Sabbath.

Ethical Relativism

 It refers to the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture and that whether an action is
right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. If ethical relativism is correct,
there can be no common framework for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters
among members of different societies.

Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism

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Ethnocentrism

 Ethnocentrism is using one’s own culture as the benchmark to judge other cultures, so creating bias occurs when
one has the belief that their own cultural group is superior to others.
 Examples:
 Judging other cultures' food and speciality dishes
 Judging people’s cultural outfits Expecting others to speak your language and criticizing them if they can’t
 Historical colonialism
 Judging someone who chooses to live on their own when it is traditional to always live with family in your
culture
 Ethnocentrism in Rwanda
 Rwanda is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa. It all began in late March 1994 when
Hutu Power leaders came up with the idea to slaughter massive numbers of Tutsi and Hutus who opposed Pres.
Habyarimana. Hutu soldiers and police officers encouraged Hutu civilians to attack the Tutsis, and some were
forced to attack their neighbors. Participants were often given incentives, such as money or food, and some were
even told they could appropriate the land of the Tutsis they killed. In the end, 800,000 Rwandan civilians, mostly
Tutsis, were murdered.
 Ethnocentrism in Germany
 Adolf Hitler decided he hated Jewish people, as well as other groups of people, and had many innocent people
slaughtered in concentration camps. The Nazis murdered nearly six million European Jews. The genocide is called
the Holocaust.
 Ethnocentrism in Germany
 Pol Pot was a political leader whose communist Khmer Rouge government led Cambodia from 1975 to 1979.
During that time, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians died of starvation, execution, disease, or overwork.

Xenocentrism

 Xenocentrism is the belief that other cultures are better than one’s own. is considered deviant behavior as it goes
against the norms of what someone is expected to appreciate.
 Examples
 The belief that vehicles manufactured in other countries are better than ones made in your own country
 European Renaissance artists desiring to emulate ancient Greek artwork
 The belief that cheeses and wines from other countries are superior to the produce from your own country
 The belief that the style of clothing in another culture is superior to those within your own culture
 The idea that quality products cannot be purchased in one’s own country

SUGGESTED FILM TRAILERS

Hotel Rwanda [Link]
Killing Fields [Link]
Schindler’s List [Link]
Life is Beautiful [Link]

References
Leaño, R., & Gubia-on, A. (2018). Ethics for collegestudents. Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Nickerson, C. (2022). Cultural Relativism. Simply Psychology [Link]
Velasquez, M., Andre, C., Shanks, T., & Meyer, M. (n.d.). Cultural Relativism. Markula Center for Applied Ethics.
[Link]
%20relativism%20is%20the%20theory,be%20morally%20wrong%20in%20another.

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I. INTRODUCTION

Module 2: Week 5: The module provides a discussion on the universal values stipulated in the
Universal Values and Filipino Traits United Nations charter and how they influence moral behavior. The
strengths and weaknesses of Filipino traits are also examined in this
module.

[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
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 identify different universal values stipulated in the United Nations
charter,
 examine Scwhartz’s concept of values,
 differentiate values as things from values as behaviors, and
 examine the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino traits.

Preliminary Activity
Valuing
 Students will have an inventory of the contents of their wallets or bags.
 The contents of the wallets or bags will be labeled as past, present, or future.
 A group discussion will be held after the contents have been labeled.
 Insights will be drawn from the activity.

Universal Values
 Valuing things is based on human needs. Valuing behaviors arises from things we value But more than one
behaviour can attain an end I value peace as a state of being.
 Behavior 1: I will not harm others.
 Behavior 2: I will build up my defenses so as not to be harmed.

Universal
 Universal = all human beings
 Universal = all cultures
 Universal = all religions
 Universal = all legal and political systems

Universal Values as Things

 United Nations
 Peace
 Freedom
 Social Progress
 Equal Rights
 Human Dignity
 Other Universal Values
 Justice
 Beauty
 Joy

Universal Values as Behaviors

 Do not harm others
 Do not cheat others
 Do not lie to others
 Do not enslave others

Schwartz Concept of Universal Values

 Six Main Features of Values
1. Values are beliefs linked inextricably to affect. When values are activated, they become infused with feeling.
2. Values refer to desirable goals that motivate action.
3. Values transcend specific actions and situations. This distinguishes values from norms and attitudes that usually
refer to specific actions, objects, or situations.

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4. Values serve as standards or criteria. Values guide the selection or evaluation of actions, policies, people, and
events. People decide what is good or bad, justified or illegitimate, worth doing or avoiding, based on possible
consequences for their cherished values. But the impact of values in everyday decisions is rarely conscious.
Values enter awareness when the actions or judgments one is considering have conflicting implications for
different values one cherishes.
5. Values are ordered by importance relative to one another. People’s values form an ordered system of priorities
that characterize them as individuals.
6. The relative importance of multiple values guides action. Any attitude or behaviour typically has implications for
more than one value. The trade-off among relevant, competing values guides attitudes and behaviors. Values
influence action when they are relevant in the context (hence likely to be activated) and important to the actor.
 Ten Basic Values. The Schwartz theory of basic values identifies ten broad personal values, which are differentiated
by their underlying goal or motivation. These values are likely to be universal because they help humans cope with
one or more of the following three universal requirements of existence:
 needs of individuals as biological organisms
 requisites of coordinated social interaction
 survival and welfare needs of groups.
 The following table describes the ten broad personal values and their defining goals.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Filipino People

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REFLECTION ACTIVITY 1
Based on the video clip presented by Net25, which of the following Filipino values is evident in you and your family?
Provide specific examples where the said values are manifested.
Net25. (2022, November 25). Filipino values awareness month [Video]. YouTube. [Link]
v=4dd8rX5Dy_Q

Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Manifestations of Filipino Values 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points

Examples provided strongly describe the values identified. Full Marks No Marks
Insights 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
Insights drawn are strongly supported by premises. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

REFLECTION ACTIVITY 2
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Make an inventory of the contents of your wallet or bag. Label the items as past, present, or future. Share with the class
the items and the reasons for the labels that you have attached to them. What insights were drawn from the activity?
Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Valuing 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points

The items are properly labeled in terms of their value to the person. Full Marks No Marks
Insights 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
Insights drawn are strongly supported by premises. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

References
Leaño, R., & Gubia-on, A. (2018). Ethics for collegestudents. Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Philippinescomph. (n.d.). Strength and Weaknesses of Filipino people.
Scwhartz, S. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic [Link]
values. [Link]
Scwhartz, S. (2022, May 10).Understanding values: Schwartz theory of basic values.
[Link]
United Nations. United Nations Charter. [Link]
UNODC. (n.d.). Module 2: ethics and universal values
[Link]
%20Values%[Link]

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I. INTRODUCTION

Module 2: Week 6: The module provides a discussion on Kohlberg's stages of moral

Moral Development development that focus on how children develop morality and moral
reasoning. In the latter part of the module, ethical issues presented in the
Heinz dilemma are examined.

[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 identify Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
 understand how children develop morality and moral reasoning, and
 examine ethical issues presented in Heinz dilemma

Stages of Moral Development

 Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality. Pre-conventional morality is the first level of moral development and lasts until
approximately age 9. At the pre-conventional level, children don’t have a personal code of morality; instead, moral
decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. For
example, if an action leads to punishment, it must be bad, and if it leads to a reward, it must be good. Authority is
outside the individual, and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of their
actions.
 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The individual acts from a belief that if they do something
wrong they will be punished, so that the best reason for avoiding doing wrong is to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2. Self-Interest Orientation. The individual will act from a belief that it may be okay to do something
"wrong" if there is "something in it for me."Level 2 - Conventional morality
 Level 2: Conventional morality. Conventional morality is the second level of moral development and is characterized
by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most adolescents and
adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not
questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. A social system that
stresses the responsibilities of relationships as well as social order is seen as desirable and must, therefore,
influence our view of what is right and wrong.
 Stage 3. Interpersonal Accord and Conformity. The individual acts in order to fulfill pre-specified social roles,
such as the desire to be a “good girl” or “good boy.”
 Stage 4. Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation. The individual acts in order to maintain the social
order. “We have laws for a reason,” goes this orientation, “to keep order.”
 Level 3: Post-conventional Morality. Post-conventional morality is the third level of moral development and is
characterized by an individual's understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but
might include the preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity. Individual judgment is based
on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg, this
level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking
necessary for stages 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). Most people get their moral views from those around
them, and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.
 Stage 5. Social Contract Orientation. The individual acts with an understanding that laws are created by people
coming together for the common good and that these same people can change these laws if new demands or
conditions arise. Thus, laws are not fixed in concrete but need to be flexible to accommodate new circumstances.
 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles. The individual acts with the understanding that there are "higher laws" that
go beyond conventional socially imposed laws and that these higher laws encompass abstract philosophical
ethical principles (e.g., Kant’s categorical imperative). This is the stage of a Martin Luther King or a Mahatma
Gandhi.

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Heinz Dilemmas
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in
Europe.
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been
discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the
money it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that
his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband
was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.

REFLECTION ACTIVITY
Answer the following questions:
Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
What if the person dying was a stranger? Would it make any difference?
Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Insights 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
Insights drawn are strongly supported by premises. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 10 Points

References
Armstrong, T. (2012, August 8). The stages of life according to Lawrence Kohlberg.
[Link]
#:~:text=2.,something%20in%20it%20for%20me.%E2%80%9D&text=3.
Mcleod, S. (2013). Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. [Link]
Sprouts. (2019, November 29). Kohlberg’s 6 stages of moral development [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]

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I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on the differences between human acts

and acts of man, as well as the elements and impediments to human acts.
Module 3 Towards the latter part of the module, reason, impartiality, and the 7-step
THE ACT moral reasoning model are also tackled.

Module 3: Weeks 7-8: [Link] OUTCOMES

Human Acts, Reason, and Impartiality At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 differentiate human acts from acts of man,
 identify the elements of human acts,
 understand how the impediments to human acts either aggravate or
mitigate liability,
 explain why reason and impartiality are the minimum requirements
for morality, and
 explain the 7-step moral reasoning model.

Human Acts

 Human acts are those actions that man performs knowingly, freely, and voluntarily (elements of human acts). A
person assumes full responsibility and accountability for his actions.
 Examples of human acts are studying, working, and eating healthy foods.

Acts of Man

 Acts of man are those involuntary actions an instinctive and are not within the control of the will. Such actions are
the biological and physiological movements of man.
 Examples of acts of man are breathing, digestion, circulation of air in the body, and beating of the heart.

Impediments to Human Acts

 Ignorance. It is the absence of knowledge in a subject capable of having knowledge or lack of knowledge in a
subject who should have knowledge. An animal cannot be called ignorant because of its inability to have human
knowledge, but a civil servant can be ignorant if he lacks knowledge of the code of conduct for the civil service.
 Passion. Passions are powerful emotions springing from a pretence of something perceived as good or evil. If the
passions that precede an action are not deliberately aroused, they increase the will to act while simultaneously
diminishing free will. The action is still a human action to the extent that free will can be measured.
 When an actor deliberately arouses passion before acting, it is obvious that the voluntary nature of the action
also increases. For instance, a person deliberately causing herself to become enraged to kill another person.
Herein, killing is voluntary in cause, and the actor is guilty of homicide to the extent that he foresaw the killing.
 Fear. It is an emotional reaction arising from an impending danger. It can be inflicted justly or unjustly—justly when
inflicted by a person with the right to inflict it, such as when a judge acts, or unjustly when inflicted by a person
without authority. If fear is strong enough to destroy a person’s freedom of choice, then it destroys the
voluntariness of an action.

Reason
 Reason and experience are required for determining the likely effects of a given motive or character trait, so reason
does play an important role in moral judgment.

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Impartiality
 In political theory, impartiality is frequently connected with justice and a commitment to equality. In the personal
realm, impartiality directs an agent not to act selfishly or unfairly toward others. In the political realm, impartiality
requires that the structure of society and its institutions should not be rigged, for morally irrelevant reasons, to
favor some groups over others by giving them benefits and opportunities that are not open to all.

Scott Rae’s Model for Moral Reasoning

1. Gather the facts. Frequently, ethical dilemmas can be resolved simply by clarifying the facts of the case in question.
In those cases that prove to be more difficult, gathering the facts is the essential first step prior to any ethical
analysis and reflection on the case. In analyzing a case, we want to know the available facts at hand as well as any
facts that are currently unknown but that need to be ascertained. Thus, one is asking not only "what do we know?"
but also "what do we need to know?" in order to make an intelligent ethical decision.
2. Determine the ethical issues. The ethical issue(s) are stated in terms of competing interests. It's these conflicting
interests that actually make for an ethical dilemma. The issues should be presented in an "us vs. them" format in
order to reflect the interests that are colliding in a particular ethical dilemma. For example, many ethical decisions,
especially at the end of a patient's life, can be stated in terms of patient autonomy (or the right of the individual to
make his or her own decisions about medical care) vs. the sanctity of life (or the duty to preserve life). In Case #1
above, the interests of the patient in having the physician keep confidentiality conflict with the interests of his sister
in being protected from the risk of contracting the HIV virus.
3. Identify the principles that have a bearing on the case. What principles have a bearing on the case? In any ethical
dilemma, there are certain moral values or principles that are central to the competing positions being taken. It is
critical to identify these principles and, in some cases, to determine whether some principles are to be weighted
more heavily than others. Clearly, biblical principles will be weighted the most heavily. There may be other
principles that speak to the case that may come from other sources. There may be constitutional principles or
principles drawn from natural law that supplement the biblical principles that come into play here.
4. List the alternatives. Part of the creative thinking involved in resolving an ethical dilemma involves coming up with
various alternative courses of action. Though there will be some alternatives that you will rule out without much
thought, in general, the more alternatives that are listed, the better the chance that your list will include some high-
quality ones. In addition, you may come up with some very creative alternatives that you had not considered
before.
5. Compare the alternatives with the principles. At this point, the task is one of eliminating alternatives according to
the moral principles that have a bearing on the case. In many instances, the case will be resolved at this point since
the principles will eliminate all alternatives except one. In fact, the purpose of this comparison is to see if there is a
clear decision that can be made without further deliberation. If a clear decision is not forthcoming, then the next
part of the model must be considered. At the very least, some of the alternatives may be eliminated by this step of
comparison.
6. Weigh the consequences. If the principles do not yield a clear decision, then a consideration of the consequences of
the remaining available alternatives is in order. Both positive and negative consequences are to be considered. They
should be informally weighted since some positive consequences are more beneficial than others and some
negative consequences are more detrimental than others.
7. Make a decision. Deliberation cannot go on forever. At some point, a decision must be made. Realize that one
common element to ethical dilemmas is that there are no easy and painless solutions to them. Frequently, the
decision that is made is one that involves the least number of problems or negative consequences, not one that is
devoid of them.

CASE STUDY on Rae’s 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model: "Please don't tell!"
A twenty-year-old Hispanic male was brought to a hospital emergency room, having suffered abdominal injuries due to
gunshot wounds obtained in gang violence. He had no medical insurance, and his stay in the hospital was somewhat
shorter than expected due to his good recovery. Physicians attending to him felt that he could complete his recovery at

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home just as easily as in the hospital, and he was released after only a few days in the hospital.

During his stay in the hospital, the patient admitted to his primary physician that he was HIV positive, having contracted
the virus that causes AIDS. This was confirmed by a blood test administered while he was hospitalized.

When he was discharged from the hospital, the physician recommended that a professional nurse visit him regularly at
home in order to change the bandages on his still substantial wounds and to insure that an infection did not develop.
Since he had no health insurance, he was dependent on Medicaid, a government program that pays for necessary
medical care for those who cannot afford it. However, Medicaid refused to pay for home nursing care since there was
someone already in the home who was capable of providing the necessary care. That person was the patient's 22-year-
old sister, who was willing to take care of her brother until he was fully recovered. Their mother had died years ago, and
the sister was used to providing care for her younger siblings.

The patient had no objection to his sister providing this care, but he insisted that she not be told that he had tested HIV
positive. Though he had always had a good relationship with his sister, she did not know that he was an active
homosexual. His even greater fear was that his father would hear of his homosexual orientation and lifestyle.
Homosexuality is generally looked upon with extreme disfavor among Hispanics.

The patient's physician is bound by his code of ethics, which places a very high priority on maintaining confidentiality.
That is, information about someone's medical condition that he or she does not want known cannot be divulged by the
physician. Some would argue that the responsibility of confidentiality is even greater with HIV/AIDS since disclosure of
someone's homosexuality normally carries devastating personal consequences for the individual who is forced "out of
the closet."

On the other hand, the patient's sister is putting herself at risk by providing nursing care for him. Doesn't she have a right
to know the risks to which she is subjecting herself, especially since she willingly volunteered to take care of her
brother?

If you were the physician, what would you do in this case? Would you breach the norm of confidentiality to protect the
patient's sister, or would you keep confidentiality in order to protect the patient from harm that would come to him
from his other family members, especially his father?

Perhaps as good a question as "what would you do" in this situation is "how would you decide what to do" in this
situation? The process of making a moral decision can be as important as the decision itself, and many ethical decisions
that people encounter are so complex that it is easy to exhaust oneself by talking around the problem without actually
making any progress toward resolving it. The response to many moral dilemmas is "where do I start?" and the person
who is faced with these decisions often needs direction that will enable him or her to move constructively toward
resolution and "see the forest for the trees."

In order to adequately address the ethical dilemmas that people encounter regularly, the following is a model that can
be used to ensure that all the necessary bases are covered. This is not a formula that will automatically generate the
"right" answer to an ethical problem. Rather, it is a guideline that is designed to make sure that all the right questions
are being asked in the process of ethical deliberation.

Given the ethnic and religious diversity of our society, it is important that the model used for making ethical decisions
have "room" in it to accommodate a whole host of different moral and ethical perspectives. This model is not tied to any
one particular perspective but can be used comfortably with a variety of cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. This
is not a distinctively Christian model, though it is consistent with the Scripture, and any Christian can use Biblical
principles in utilizing this model. As was explored in chapter 2, what makes many moral dilemmas so difficult is that the
Scripture does not speak to the issue as clearly as one would prefer because it has not directly addressed the issue.

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More general principles can be brought to bear on the issue at hand. However, in these instances, there is often
disagreement about which biblical principles are applicable to the specific issue under discussion. For example, in Case
#1 (Please Don't Tell), the physician could invoke the Biblical principle of compassion toward his patient by refusing to
disclose information that would harm him. But at the same time, he could invoke the same principle of compassion
toward the sister by protecting her from the risk of medical harm. It is not clear that an appeal to principles alone will
conclusively resolve this case. Thus, to insist that all ethical dilemmas are resolved simply by appeal to Biblical principles
seems to oversimplify the case. Certainly, many moral questions are resolved conclusively by appeal to Scripture. But
there are other cases in which that does not happen. That is not to say that Scripture is not sufficient for the believer's
spiritual life, but that the special revelation of Scripture is often supplemented by the general revelation of God outside
of Scripture. This model makes room for both general and special revelation and gives each a place in helping to resolve
the difficult moral dilemmas facing people today.

Instruction:
Provide facts on each step of Rae’s model.
Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Identification of facts and issues 12 Points 0 Points 12 Points
Facts and issues are clearly categorized under each step. Full Marks No Marks
Decision 8 Points 0 Points 8 Points
The decision is logically premised on facts and issues. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

References
Instapedia. (n.d.). Impediments to human action. [Link]
and-human-interface/impediments-to-human-action/
Newey, C. (2022, September 15). Impartiality in Moral and Political Philosophy.
[Link]
Rae, S. (2010, March 6). Model for making ethical decisions. Lifting hands.
[Link]
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2022, August 19). Kant and Hume on morality.
[Link]

I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on telos, or purpose, the natural law and

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
Module 4 its tenets, virtue as habit, and happiness as constitutive of moral and
FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES cardinal virtues. The module also provides an avenue for self-reflection on
BEHIND MORAL DISPOSITION what truly brings happiness to men.

Module 4: Weeks 10 and 11: [Link] OUTCOMES

Virtue Ethics and Virtue and Virtue and At the end of the course, students must be able to:
Happiness  understand the significance of the postulates of morality to human
actions,
 apply Kant’s categorical imperatives in dealing with ethical issues,
 differentiate moral rights from legal rights, and
 differentiate positive rights from negative rights.

Aristotle’s Concept of Virtue Ethics

Telos
 Telos is derived from the ancient Greek term that means purpose, end, fulfillment, completion, goal, or aim. Every
human action is thought to be aimed at some goal. Every human action is thought to be aimed at some goal. The
telos of a tree is to grow, which is merely to state an obvious fact about nature. If one of your telos (purposes or
goals) in life was to be happy, you're discussing something you chose for yourself. In the natural science of Aristotle,
the telos of a member of a species is the complete and perfect state of that entity in which it can reproduce itself
(so, insects reach their telos when they become adults).

Proper Functioning

 Virtue theory reflects the ancient assumption that humans have a fixed nature—an essence—and the way we
flourish is by adhering to that nature. Everything has a function, and a thing is good to the extent that it fulfills its
function, and bad to the extent that it doesn't. What is the function of knife? A dull knife is a bad knife.
 What are the functions of humans? Since humans are animals, they need to grow and be healthy and fertile.
Humans are rational and social animals. Humans use reason and get along with others. Aristotle argued that nature
has built into us the desire to be virtuous. Aquinas purported that God made us with the tools we need to know
what’s good.

Preliminary Activity
 Instruct students to form groups of five.
 Scenario: Walking home from a movie, you see an old lady being mugged. What is the most courageous action for
you to take? Are you going to intervene? call for help? Or leave?

Aristotle’s Golden Mean and Buddhism’s Middle Path

 The golden mean is a virtue, the desirable middle between two extremes or vices, deficiency or excess, or too much
or too little.
 Analogy: Some traditions say that, absorbed in meditation, a boat with musicians talking passed by on the nearby
river. When they were playing the sitar, one of them said to the other, "When the string is too tight, the music flies
away; when it is too loose, it is silent and the music dies; grant the sitar neither too loose nor too tight." From there,
Siddhartha understood that his asceticism was too extreme and that it did not allow him to meditate properly.
whereupon he developed the middle way as the main way and started eating properly.
 Honesty is the virtue or the "golden mean" between the deficiency of failing to say things that need to be said and
the excess of brutal honesty. Generosity is the virtue between stinginess or a lack of generosity and prodigality or
wasteful extravagance in spending.

REFLECTION ACTIVITY

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
Name one activity that you have done more of than you should have and one that you have done less of. What effects
did the aforementioned activities have on you?

Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Insights 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
Insights drawn are strongly supported by premises. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 10 Points

What does it mean to be virtuous?

 Having virtue just means doing the right thing at the right time, in the right way, in the right amount, toward the
right people. If you’re virtuous, you know what to do all the time. You know how to get along with others. You have
good judgment. You can read a room, and you know what’s right and when.

Eudaimonia
 You can attain the pinnacle of humanity if you are virtuous. It allows you to achieve "eudaimonia," or human
flourishing, or a life well-lived. Choosing to live life this way means facing disappointments and failures. It’s the
satisfaction of knowing that you have accomplished a lot and that you’ve pushed yourself to be the very best
person you could be. Honing your strengths while working on your weaknesses The kind of person who lives like
this is the kind of person who will do good things.

Moral Exemplars
 Moral exemplars are people who already have virtues and individuals who demonstrate outstanding moral conduct
in the face of difficult or demanding circumstances (going above and beyond the "call of duty"). We’re built to
recognize moral exemplars and emulate them.

PERFORMANCE TASK
Create five groups according to your moral role models. Show the class a mental map of your moral role models. The
mental map will include the beginning, actions, effects on society and you, among other things.
Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

A narrative about the moral exemplar 5 Points Full Marks 0 Points No 5 Points
The narrative provides a clear overview of the person. Marks
Influences 15 Points Full 0 Points No 15 Points
The influences of the moral exemplar are clearly outlined. Marks Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

Aquinas’ on Virtue and Happiness

 “Virtue is the path to happiness.”-Aquinas

 Most people think that morality is about following rules that God or the church impose on us, which make us do
some things that we would rather not do and forbid us from doing some things that we may want to do.
 Morality is about figuring out what will make us truly happy in a deep and lasting way by attaining what is truly
good for us and then arranging our lives so that we can move towards that goal.
 Morality is about seeking what leads to our flourishing and success.
 False candidates for true happiness (Summa Theologica): money, honor, power, fame, and pleasure.

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 Final happiness consists in beatitude, or supernatural union with God. For this reason, we not only need the virtues;
we also need God to transform our nature—to perfect or "deify" it—so that we might be suited to participate in
divine beatitude.

Cardinal Virtues

 The cardinal virtues are the four principal moral virtues. The English word cardinal comes from the Latin word
cardo, which means "hinge." All other virtues hinge on these four: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance.
 Prudence. St. Thomas Aquinas ranked prudence as the first cardinal virtue because it is concerned with the intellect.
Aristotle defined prudence as recta ratio agibilium, "right reason applied to practice." It is the virtue that allows us
to judge correctly what is right and what is wrong in any given situation. When we mistake the evil for the good, we
are not exercising prudence—in fact, we are showing our lack of it. Because it is so easy to fall into error, prudence
requires us to seek the counsel of others, particularly those we know to be sound judges of morality. Disregarding
the advice or warnings of others whose judgment does not coincide with ours is a sign of imprudence.
 Justice. Justice, according to Saint Thomas, is the second cardinal virtue because it is concerned with the will. As Fr.
John A. Hardon notes in his Modern Catholic Dictionary, it is "the constant and permanent determination to give
everyone his or her rightful due." We say that "justice is blind" because it should not matter what we think of a
particular person. If we owe him a debt, we must repay exactly what we owe. Justice is connected to the idea of
rights. While we often use justice in a negative sense ("He got what he deserved"), justice in its proper sense is
positive. Injustice occurs when we, as individuals or by law, deprive someone of that which he is owed. Legal rights
can never outweigh natural ones.
 Fortitude. The third cardinal virtue, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, is fortitude. While this virtue is commonly
called courage, it is different from much of what we think of as courage today. Fortitude allows us to overcome fear
and remain steady in our will in the face of obstacles, but it is always reasoned and reasonable; the person
exercising fortitude does not seek danger for danger's sake. Prudence and justice are the virtues through which we
decide what needs to be done, and fortitude gives us the strength to do it. Fortitude is the only one of the cardinal
virtues that is also a gift of the Holy Spirit, allowing us to rise above our natural fears in defense of the Christian
faith.
 Temperance. Temperance, Saint Thomas declared, is the fourth and final cardinal virtue. While fortitude is
concerned with the restraint of fear so that we can act, temperance is the restraint of our desires or passions.
Food, drink, and sex are all necessary for our survival, individually and as a species, yet a disordered desire for any
of these goods can have disastrous physical and moral consequences. Temperance is the virtue that attempts to
keep us from excess and, as such, requires the balancing of legitimate goods against our inordinate desire for them.
Our legitimate use of such goods may be different at different times; temperance is the "golden mean" that helps
us determine how far we can act on our desires.

SUGGESTED VIDEO CLIPS/DOCUMENTARIES

NBC News Learn. (2020, May 1). Mohandas Gandhi, the Power of Nonviolence [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Catholic 365. (2021, Marh 22)The Life Of Mother Teresa (The Saint Of The Gutters). YouTube.
[Link]

References
Brennan, T. (2002). Telos. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[Link]

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
Flloyd, S. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Thomas Aquinas: moral philosophy. [Link]
moral-philosophy/
Crash Course (2016, December 6). Aristotle and virtue theory: crash course philosophy #38 [Video file]. YouTube.
[Link]
Legge, D. (2017, January 24). Virtue and happiness w/ Fr. Dominic Legge, O.P. YouTube.
[Link]
Richertt, S. (2019, January 3). What are the 4 cardinal virtues? Learn religions. [Link]
cardinal-virtues-542142
Frey, W. and Cruz, J. (2021, March 3). Moral Exemplars in Business and Professional Ethics. Libre Texts.
[Link]
01%3A_Ethical_Leadership/1.04%3A_Moral_Exemplars_in_Business_and_Professional_Ethics#:~:text=Moral
%20Exemplar%20Terms-,Moral%20Exemplar,%2C%20ordinary%2C%20or%20even%20extraordinary
Van Thiel, E. (2022, April 8). Personality test. 123 Test. [Link]

I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on postulates of morality, rights, and

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Kant’s categorical imperatives. The module also examines moral issues in
Module 4: Week 12: Rights, Categorical the context of universalizability and humanity.
Imperatives, Family Obligations, and
Ethics of Care [Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 understand the significance of the postulates of morality to human
actions,
 apply Kant’s categorical imperatives in dealing with ethical issues,
 differentiate moral rights from legal rights,
 differentiate positive rights from negative rights, and
 the contemporary perspective on care ethics.

Categorical Imperatives
 Categorical imperatives are commands you must follow regardless of your desires. Moral obligations are derived
from pure reason. It doesn't matter whether you want to be moral or not. The moral law is binding on all of us. You
do not need religion to determine what the law is because what is right and wrong is totally knowable by just using
your intellect.
 Formulation 1: The Universalizability Principle: “Act only according to that maxim which you can at the same will
that it should become a universal law without contradiction.”
 Formulation 2: The Formula of Humanity: “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or, in
that of another, always as an end, and never as a mere means.”
 Kant maintained that each of us has a worth or dignity that must be respected. This dignity makes it wrong for
others to abuse us or to use us against our will. Kant expressed this idea in a moral principle: humanity must always
be treated as an end, not merely as a means. To treat a person as a mere means is to use a person to advance one's
own interests. But to treat a person as an end is to respect that person's dignity by allowing each the freedom to
choose for himself or herself.
 Kant's principle is often used to justify both a fundamental moral right, the right to freely choose for oneself, and
also rights related to this fundamental right. These related rights can be grouped into two broad categories:
negative and positive rights.
 Negative Right. The holder of a negative right is entitled to non-interference. Negative rights oblige inaction. The
right against assault, the right to privacy, the right not to be killed, the right to do what one wants with one's
property, and rights that protect some form of human freedom or liberty are examples of negative rights. These
rights are called "negative" rights because they are a claim by one person that imposes a "negative" duty on all
others—the duty not to interfere with a person's activities in a certain area. Where "negative" rights are
"negative" in the sense that they claim for each person a zone of non-interference from others, The right to
privacy, for example, imposes on us the duty not to intrude into the private activities of a person.
 Positive Right. The holder of a positive right is entitled to the provision of some good or service. Positive rights
oblige action. The right to welfare assistance is a prototypical positive right. They claim for each person the
positive assistance of others in fulfilling basic constituents of human well-being like health and education. In
moral and political philosophy, these basic human needs are often referred to as "welfare" concerns (thus, this
use of the term "welfare" is similar to but not identical with the common American usage of "welfare" to refer to
government payments to the poor). Many people argue that a fundamental right to freedom is worthless if
people aren't able to exercise that freedom. A right to freedom, then, implies that every human being also has a
fundamental right to what is necessary to secure a minimum level of well-being. Positive rights are rights that
provide something that people need to secure their well-being, such as the right to an education, the right to
food, the right to medical care, the right to housing, or the right to a job. Positive rights impose a positive duty on
us—the duty actively to help a person have or do something. A young person's right to an education, for
example, imposes on us a duty to provide that young person with an education. Respecting a positive right then
requires more than merely not acting; positive rights impose on us the duty to help sustain the welfare of those
who are in need of help.

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 It is sometimes said that negative rights are easier to satisfy than positive rights. Negative rights can be
respected simply by each person refraining from interfering with each other, while it may be difficult or even
impossible to fulfill everyone’s positive rights if the sum of people’s claims outstrips the resources available.

REFLECTION ACTIVITY
Articles from the news that illustrate violations of the universalizability or humanity principles of Kant's categorical
imperatives should be presented. Using solid arguments, support your choice of the article.
Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Selection of news articles 5 Points 0 Points 5 Points
The news articles are carefully selected. Full Marks No Marks
Discussion on ethical issues 15 Points 0 Points 15 Points
Kant’s categorical imperative formulations are critically applied. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

 Family Obligations. Once you’re grown, you don’t owe your parents anything.-Jane English, American philosopher
 Obligations you have to your parents
 The Unconditional View. Just by virtue of being your parent, they deserve, at the very least, your presence and
care.
 The Conditional View. Based on what your parents gave you, you owe them.
 The Friendship View. Despite how much you have profited from your parents' parenting, you do not owe them
anything once you are an adult.
 Jane English is not giving us a pass to freeload off our parents.
 If you have a good relationship with your parents, you’ll probably want to help them out when you can, but
that’s not an obligation.
 According to LaFollette, parents ought to obtain a license before being permitted to have children.
 Ethics of Care
 Carol Gilligan's Ethics of Care. Moral Development
 Pre-conventional stage: Women tend to be self-centered.
 Conventional stage: Women are now more aware of their obligations to other people.
 Post-conventional stage: Women have come to understand their interdependence with others..
 She stressed a "ethics of justice" and put her method squarely in opposition to Lawrence Kohlberg's
theory of moral growth, which she said was skewed against women.
 Modern Ethics of Care Theory
 Beyond feminist theory and feminist ethics of care, care-based ethics has had a greater influence. The
responsibilities outlined in this philosophy are expanded by modern ethics of caring to include all people.
 One of the most classic ways that contemporary care ethics are used is in nursing care. when a foreign
national receiving medical care in a conflict zone is attended to by a nurse. The accompanying image
shows the U.S. By making sure that the child's condition is stable and the equipment is operating as
intended, the army nurse is putting the nursing ethics of care into practice. It doesn't matter what the
child's political, religious, or cultural background is—the nurse is still providing for him.

References
Crash Course. (2017, January 24). Family obligations: crash course philosophy #43 [Video file]. YouTube.
[Link]

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Crash Course. (2016, November 15). Kant & categorical imperatives: crash course philosophy #35 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Markkula Center for Applied Ethics. (2014, August 8). Rights. [Link]
decision-making/rights/#:~:text=Kant's%20principle%20is%20often%20used,categories%E2%80%94negative%20and
%20positive%20rights.
Reed, H. (2022, January 26). Ethics of care: theory and examples. [Link]. [Link]
[Link]
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2005, December 19). Rights. [Link]
US News. Best countries for raising kids. [Link]
family?slide=2
Vinney, C. (2019, June 30). Gilligan's ethics of care. [Link]. [Link]

I. INTRODUCTION

Module 5 The module provides discussions on the social contract theories of Hobbes,
SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORIES, Locke, Nozick, and Rawls and their application to one’s co-existence. The
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CONCEPTS OF JUSTICE, AND module also provides a discussion on egoism as a moral theory.
PREJUDICES
[Link] OUTCOMES
Module 5: Week 13: At the end of the course, students must be able to:
Hobbes, Locke, Nozick, and Rawls  explain various social contract theories,
 apply concepts of social contract to co-existence with others, and
 explain various concepts of justice.

Social Contract Philosophers

 Hobbes. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) argued in his book Leviathan that, without
government, life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Hobbes imagines what life would be like in the
"state of nature," a hypothetical world without governments. Hobbes thinks all humans are equal when it comes to
matters of survival. Nobody is powerful enough to be immune to attack. Even the weakest person can kill the
strongest if there’s nobody around to stop them. In the state of nature, this equal ability to kill each other leads to
mistrust. All of your belongings and your life itself might be taken at any moment because there is no greater power
to stop anyone from attacking you. Some people would attack you because they needed your resources to survive.
Others would attack you because they wanted to be more powerful than everyone else. Even those who don’t need
or want to attack you are a danger because they can’t trust that you will leave them alone, so to be safe, they must
attack you first. The end result is that the state of nature consists of a war of all against all, or bellum omnium
contra omnes. You must constantly be ready to fight, even if you’d prefer not to, because the only way to ensure
your safety is to go after others before they go after you. Hobbes thinks that humans are rational creatures, and we
can all see that it would be better if we agreed not to rob and murder each other. But without a government, these
agreements will fall apart because there’s nobody to ensure that all parties stick to the deal. In the state of nature,
agreements "are but words." "To secure peace, we will need to form a government that is strong enough to enforce
these agreements," says Hobbes. We do this by forming a special sort of contract or agreement with each [Link]
contract Hobbes imagines goes like this: if everyone else agrees to obey some sovereign ruler, you too will obey
that sovereign.
 Locke. For Locke, the state of nature was not one of war but of freedom. In fact, it was a state of purest freedom,
where people could act however they wished without restriction, but this created a paradox, as a world of absolute
freedom created an environment in which the freedom of one individual could violate the natural rights of another.
Locke believed that all people possess three fundamental rights: life, liberty, and property. He argued that these
rights are both natural, meaning that they originate in nature itself, and inalienable, meaning that they cannot be
taken away, only violated. Locke also argued that individuals have a moral duty and a rational interest in preserving
their rights. Another problem Locke attributed to the state of nature was a lack of impartial justice. When conflict
arises between two parties regarding violations of their rights, Locke argues that neither one has the means to
decisively resolve the situation peacefully, as both regard their own position as the true and correct one and are too
biased and personally invested to offer an objective viewpoint. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that people were
ultimately rational actors who sought to avoid violent conflict wherever possible, and so in such a situation,
opposing sides consented to allow a third party to mediate the case, let them deliver a verdict of their own, and
agree to hold by that verdict. That, to Locke, is where the origins of government lie—not in the population agreeing
to submit to a higher authority, but in the population itself agreeing to a mediator that could guarantee the
preservation of their natural rights and balance liberty and justice.
 Rawls. Justice as fairness is Rawls’s theory of justice for a liberal society. As a member of the family of liberal
political conceptions of justice, it provides a framework for the legitimate use of political power. Yet legitimacy is
only the minimal standard of moral acceptability; a political order can be legitimate without being just. Justice sets
the maximal standard for the arrangement of social institutions that is morally best.
 Rawls. Rawls constructs justice as fairness around specific interpretations of the ideas that citizens are free and
equal and that society should be fair. He sees it as resolving the tensions between the ideas of freedom and
equality, which have been highlighted both by the socialist critique of liberal democracy and by the conservative

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critique of the modern welfare state. Rawls also argues that justice as fairness is superior to the dominant tradition
in modern political thought, utilitarianism.
 Nozick. To show that theories of justice based on patterns or historical circumstances are false, Nozick devised a
simple but ingenious objection, which came to be known as the "Wilt Chamberlain" argument. Assume, he says,
that the distribution of holdings in a given society is just according to some theory based on patterns or historical
circumstances—e.g., the egalitarian theory, according to which only a strictly equal distribution of holdings is just.
In this society, Wilt Chamberlain is an excellent basketball player, and many teams compete with each other to
engage his services. Chamberlain eventually agrees to play for a certain team on the condition that everyone who
attends a game in which he plays puts 25 cents in a special box at the gate, the contents of which will go to him.
During the season, one million fans attend the team’s games, and so Chamberlain receives $250,000. Now,
however, the supposedly just distribution of holdings is upset because Chamberlain has $250,000 more than
anyone else. Is the new distribution unjust? The strong intuition that it is not unjust is accounted for by
Nozick’s entitlement theory (because Chamberlain acquired his holdings by legitimate means), but it conflicts with
the egalitarian theory. Nozick contends that this argument generalizes to any theory based on patterns or historical
circumstances because any distribution dictated by such a theory could be upset by ordinary and unobjectionable
transactions like the one involving Chamberlain. Nozick concludes that any society that attempted to implement
such a theory would have to infringe grossly on the liberty of its citizens in order to enforce the distribution it
considers just. "The socialist society," as he puts it, "would have to forbid capitalist acts between consenting
adults."

Justice
 Justice as equality. This is the belief that everyone should get the same kind and amount of stuff.
 Need-based justice. Everyone shouldn’t get the same, because our needs aren’t the same.
 Merit-based justice. Justice actually giving unequally, based on what each person deserves.
 Retributive justice. The only way for justice to be satisfied is for a wrongdoer to suffer in proportion to the way he’s
made others suffer. Retribution is based on the concept of lex talionis—that is, the law of retaliation. At its core is
the principle of equal and direct retribution, as expressed in Exodus 21:24 as "an eye for an eye." Under retributive
justice schemes, it is also important that offenders actually be guilty of the crime for which a penalty has been
imposed. Retribution also forbids the punishment of offenders who cannot be held responsible for their actions.
Insane or intellectually disabled individuals, for example, should not be penalized for acts that result from mental
illness or disability. Acts that are truly accidental, as well as those committed by children, are not subject to the
same punishment as those committed by adults who possess criminal intent.
 Welfare maximization. There’s no good to be found in vindictively causing pain to wrongdoers. But some form /of
punishment is still ion order.
 Rehabilitation. Give wrongdoers help, so they can learn how to get along in the society and follow its rules.
 Restorative justice. The focus is on making amends, rather than on making the wrongdoer suffer. Restorative Justice
is a process through which remorseful offenders accept responsibility for their misconduct, particularly to their
victims and to the community. The restorative justice process is actively participated in by the victim, the offender,
and/or any individual or community member affected by the crime to resolve conflicts resulting from the criminal
offense, often with the help of a fair and impartial third party. Examples of restorative processes include mediation,
conferencing, sentencing/support circles, and the like. The restorative outcome is the agreement obtained as a
product of a restorative justice process. Examples of restorative outcomes include restitution, community work
service, and any other program or response designed to accomplish reparation for the victim and the reintegration
of the victim and/or offender.
 Distributive justice. Distributive justice refers to the extent to which society's institutions ensure that benefits and
burdens are distributed among society's members in ways that are fair and just. When the institutions of a society
distribute benefits or burdens in unjust ways, there is a strong presumption that those institutions should be
changed. The American institution of slavery in the pre-Civil War South was condemned as unjust because it was a
glaring case of treating people differently on the basis of race.
 Compensatory justice. Compensatory justice is the extent to which people are fairly compensated for their injuries
by those who have injured them; just compensation is proportional to the loss inflicted on a person. This is
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precisely the kind of justice that is at stake in debates over damage to workers' health in coal mines. Some argue
that mine owners should compensate the workers whose health has been ruined. Others argue that workers
voluntarily took on this risk when they chose employment in the mines.
 Rawls: The stability of a society depends upon the extent to which the members of that society feel that they are
being treated justly.

REFLECTION ACTIVITY
Provide actual examples of restorative, retributive, distributive, and compensatory justice found in news articles.
Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Examples of restorative, retributive, distributive, and 5 Points 0 Points 5 Points
compensatory justice Full Marks No Marks
Examples carefully selected.
Insights 15 Points 0 Points 15 Points
The situation depicted in the article is critically assessed in the Full Marks No Marks
context of justice.
TOTAL 20 Points

References
Britannica. (n.d.). The entitlement theory of justice of Robert Nozick. [Link]
Nozick/The-entitlement-theory-of-justice
Crash Course. (2016, November 29). Contractarianism: crash course philosophy #37 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Crash Course. (2016, November 29). What Is justice?: crash course philosophy #40 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Department of Justice. What is restorative justice? [Link]
Shea, M. (n.d.). Hobbes, Locke, and the social contract. [Link]
social-contract
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2021, April 12). John Rawls.
[Link]
Weltman, D. (2021, July 14). Nasty, brutish, and short: Hobbes on life in the state of nature.
[Link]
Meyer, J. retributive justice. [Link]
Velasquez, M., Andre, C., Shanks, T. and Meyer, M. (2014, August 1). Justice and fairness. Markkula Center for Applied
Ethics. [Link]

I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on egoism and utilitarianism as ethical

Module 5: Week 14: theories. Examples of altruism in the business sector are also provided in

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Egoism, Altruism, and Utilitarianism this module. This module also invites learners to reflect on their actions
and evaluate whether they are altruistic or not.

[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 explain egoism and altruism as ethical theories,
 explain utilitarianism as an ethical theory, and
 evaluate the impact of utilitarianism in various sectors of the society.

Egoism

 Egoism is the theory that states that one’s self is, or should be, the motivation and goal of one’s own action. The
term "egoism" derives from "ego," the Latin term for "I" in English. Egoism should be distinguished from egotism,
which means a psychological overvaluation of one’s own importance or of one’s own activities. Altruism is the
opposite of egoism.
 Psychological egoism. Self-interest and selfishness are very different things. Your actions can be purely motivated by
doing what's best for you, but sometimes it's in your best interest not to be selfish. Selfishness is very commonly
not in your best interest. For example, it's selfish to want to take something from a store without paying. But that
would be theft, and stealing is against your best interests because you would be arrested. People would treat you
differently for being a thief; you could lose your job, and you'll end up in a state prison with face tattoos and
fermenting wine in a toilet. It's in your best interest to avoid that.
 Psychological altruism. Altruism is the unselfish concern for other people—doing things simply out of a desire to
help, not because you feel obligated to out of duty, loyalty, or religious reasons. It involves acting out of concern for
the well-being of other people. Psychological altruism holds that all human action is necessarily other-centered and
other-motivated.
 Examples of altruism
 Doing something to help another person with no expectation of reward
 Forgoing things that may bring personal benefits if they create costs for others
 Helping someone despite personal costs or risks
 Sharing resources even in the face of scarcity
 Showing concern for someone's well-being

Utilitarianism
 "The greatest good for the greatest number" is a maxim of utilitarianism.
 Utilitarianism is a tradition of ethical philosophy that is associated with Jeremy Bentham (1747–1832) and John
Stuart Mill (1806–1873), two late 18th- and 19th-century British philosophers, economists, and political thinkers.
Utilitarianism holds that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce sadness,
or the reverse of happiness—not just the happiness of the actor but that of everyone affected by it.
 At work, you display utilitarianism when you take actions to ensure that the office is a positive environment for your
co-workers to be in and then make it so for yourself.
 Principles of Utilitarianism
 Pleasure, or happiness, is the only thing that has intrinsic value.
 Actions are right if they promote happiness, and wrong if they promote unhappiness.
 Everyone's happiness counts equally.
 Utilitarianism is a moral theory that focuses on the results, or consequences, of our actions and treats intentions as
irrelevant.
 Types of utilitarianism
 Rule utilitarianism. Rule utilitarianism is a form of utilitarianism that says an action is right as long as it
conforms to a rule that leads to the greatest good or that "the rightness or wrongness of a particular
action is a function of the correctness of the rule of which it is an instance." According to the rule of

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utilitarianism, morality is a matter of creating utility in the world. For rule utilitarians, the rules that are
viewed as morally good are those that add happiness to the world and decrease suffering.
 Example of rule utilitarianism. An example of the rule of utilitarianism in business is tiered pricing for
a product or service for different types of customers. In the airline industry, for example, many
planes offer first-, business-, and economy-class seats. Customers who fly in first or business class
pay a much higher rate than those in economy seats, but they also get more amenities;
simultaneously, people who cannot afford the higher rates benefit from the lower rates. This
practice produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people. And the airline benefits, too.
The more expensive upper-class seats help ease the financial burden that the airline created by
making room for economy-class seats.
 Under act utilitarianism, an action's moral goodness or badness is based on how it affects the world, and
the ideal action is one that affects the world in the best way by producing the largest quantity of net
happiness for people in general. Unlike rule utilitarianism, act utilitarianism does not consider whether
the person followed a rule when they acted; the action is the only important consideration. Like all types
of utilitarianism, act utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism because it cares about consequences.
 Example of act utilitarianism. An example of act utilitarianism could be when pharmaceutical
companies release drugs that have been governmentally approved, but with known minor side
effects because the drug is able to help more people than are bothered by the side effects. Act
utilitarianism often demonstrates the concept that "the end justifies the means"—or it's worth it.

REFLECTION ACTIVITY
Give examples of your charitable deeds and explain how you carried them out.
Rubric
Criteria Ratings Points
Examples of Acts of Altruism 5 Points 0 Points 5 Points
Provided genuine examples of altruism. Full Marks No Marks
Insights 15 Points 0 Points 15 Points
The examples provided are clearly described. Full Marks No Marks
TOTAL 20 Points

References
Cherry, K. (2022, July 17). What Is altruism? how to cultivate selfless behavior. Verywell Mind.
[Link]
CrashCourse. (2016, November 15). Kant & categorical imperatives: crash course philosophy #35 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
CrashCourse. (2016, November 22). Utilitarianism: crash course philosophy #36 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
McCombs School of Business. 2018, December 18). Consequentialism: ethics defined [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Mosley, A. Egoism. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [Link]
Muscato, C. (2021, November 8). Comparing psychological and ethical egoism. [Link].
[Link]
Philo-notes. (2020, April 13). What is deontological ethics? [Video].YouTube. [Link]
v=v6FdxomCR3M
Philo-notes. (2021, October 26). What is egoism? egoism defined, egoism explained, definition of egoism, meaning of
egoism [Video]. YouTube. [Link]
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2002, November 4). Egoism. [Link]
Tardi, C. (2022, June 10). Utilitarianism: what it is, founders, and main principles. Investopedia.
[Link]

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I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on racism, sexism, and speciesism.

Module 5: Week 15: Towards the end of the module, laws that protect living beings from the
Racism, Sexism, and Speciesism said injustices are identified and discussed.

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[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 identify manifestations of racism in the society,
 identify manifestations of sexism present in speeches, films,
advertisements, and other forms of media,
 explain speciesism as an ethical concept, and
 identify laws that protect living beings from racism, sexism, and
speciesism.

Racism

 Racism is a system of structuring opportunity and assigning value based on physical properties such as skin color
and hair texture. This "system" unfairly disadvantages some individuals and groups and damages their physical and
mental health. Its effects range from daily interpersonal interactions shaped by race to race-based opportunities for
good education, housing, employment, etc. It is reflected in disparities in, but not limited to, health, wealth,
income, justice, and voting. It also unfairly advantages individuals belonging to socially and politically dominant
racial groups. Racism is structural, institutional, interpersonal, and internalized.
 Systemic racism. Decades after the civil war, many government agencies started to draw maps dividing cities into
sections that were either desirable or undesirable for investment. It usually blocks off the entire black
neighborhood from access to private and public investment. Banks and insurance companies have used these maps
for decades to deny black people loans and other services based purely on race. Historically, owning a home and
getting a college education have been the easiest ways for an American family to build wealth. This opened a
wealth of opportunities that they were able to pass on to their kids and grand kids. In the late 1980s, an
investigation into the Atlanta real estate market showed that banks were more willing to lend to low-income white
families than to middle- or upper-income African-American families. As a result, today, for every hundred dollars of
wealth held by a white family, black families have five dollars and four cents. 2017 Study: Redlining is still affecting
home values in major cities like Chicago.
 Scenario: When Jamal’s parents wanted to buy a house, the bank refused because they live in a neighborhood
that was redlined. Jamal’s grandparents were not able to buy a home, and because colleges would prevent them
from attending through legal segregation, their options for higher education were really scarce. Kevin’s
grandparents got a low-interest loan to buy their first house and got accepted into a handful of top universities,
which traditionally only accept white students.

Sexism

 Sexism is prejudice or discrimination against a person or group based on their sex or gender. It primarily affects
women and girls, and it is the root cause of gender inequity worldwide. Sexist acts include any that frame one sex
or gender as inferior. Sexism can be conveyed through behavior, speech, writing, images, gestures, laws, policies,
practices, and traditions.
 Sexism can be hostile, benevolent, or ambivalent. Sexism can operate on different levels in society. It can be
institutional, interpersonal, or internalized.
 Hostile Sexism. This refers to beliefs and behaviors that are openly hostile toward a group of people based on
their sex or gender. Misogyny, or the hatred of women, is an example of hostile sexism. People who hold views
that are hostile and sexist may view women as manipulative, deceitful, and capable of using seduction to control
men who need to be kept in their place. These views may also apply to anyone with feminine traits or anyone
who expresses their gender in a way that is associated with femininity. People who perpetuate hostile sexism
want to preserve men’s dominance over women and people of other marginalized genders. They typically
oppose gender equality and may also oppose LGBTQIA+ rights, seeing these things as threats to men and the
systems that benefit them.

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 Examples of hostile sexism include: using sexist language or insults; making threatening or aggressive
comments based on a person’s gender or sex; harassing or threatening someone for defying gender norms,
online or offline; treating people as subordinates based on their sex or gender and punishing them when they
"step out of line"; believing that some victims of sexual assault "ask for it" due to their behavior or clothing;
and engaging in physical or sexual assault.
 Benevolent Sexism. Benevolent sexism includes views and behaviors that frame women as: innocent, pure,
caring, nurturing, fragile, in need of protection, and beautiful.
 Some examples of benevolent sexism include: basing a woman’s value on her role as a mother, wife, or
girlfriend; focusing attention and praise on someone’s appearance rather than their other attributes; believing
that people should not do things for themselves, such as manage money or drive a car, because of their
gender; assuming that a person is a nurse, assistant, or secretary—not a doctor, executive, or manager—based
on their gender; supporting policies that make it difficult for women to work, have independence, or deviate
from traditional gender roles.
 Ambivalent Sexism. This is a combination of benevolent and hostile sexism. People who engage in ambivalent
sexism may vary between seeing women as good, pure, and innocent and seeing them as manipulative or
deceitful, depending on the situation.
 Some examples of ambivalent sexism include glorifying traditionally feminine behavior and demonizing
"unladylike" behavior in media coverage, for example, hiring someone because they are attractive, then firing
them if they do not respond to sexual advances. differentiating between "good" women and "bad" women
based on how they dress.
 Institutional Sexism. This refers to sexism that is entrenched in organizations and institutions, such as the
government. the legal system the education system the healthcare system and financial institutions the media
and other workplaces When policies, procedures, attitudes, or laws create or reinforce sexism, this is institutional
sexism. Institutional sexism is widespread. It can be hostile, benevolent, or ambivalent. One of the clearest
indicators is the lack of gender diversity among political leaders and business executives. Another indicator is a
gender pay gap. This refers to a difference in the median earnings between women and men. In the U.S.,
according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, a woman earns 82 cents for every dollar that a man earns. Overall,
women earn less than men in almost every occupation. This gap is wider for women with children and for Black,
Latina, Indigenous, Asian, and Pacific Islander women.
 Interpersonal Sexism. This manifests during interactions with others. It can occur in the workplace, within
relationships, among family members, and in interactions with strangers.
 Examples of interpersonal sexism include: telling someone to be more ladylike; judging someone for not
fitting into stereotypes of femininity, such as by being caring or submissive; making inappropriate comments
about someone’s appearance; talking down to someone based on assumptions about their gender; engaging
in unwanted sexual attention or touching; justifying sexist behavior by saying "boys will be boys".
 Internalized Sexism. Internalized sexism refers to sexist beliefs that a person has about themselves. Usually, a
person adopts these beliefs involuntarily as a result of exposure to sexist behavior or the opinions of others.
Internalized sexism may cause feelings of: incompetence self-doubt powerlessness shame. It also causes people
to unintentionally collude with sexism. Research suggests that the lower rate of women working in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics may be due to internalized sexism. Studies have shown that sexist
stereotypes affect academic performance. As many believe that boys are better than girls at math and science,
this could cause a lack of confidence.
 Some other examples of internalized sexism include: making self-deprecating jokes about one’s gender,
such as "blonde jokes," someone basing their self-worth on how desirable they are in the eyes of men, feeling
ashamed of aspects of being female, such as having periods or female genitalia, and feeling that it is essential
to conform to gender ideals, even if this means harming oneself through restrictive dieting.

Speciesism

 "Speciesism" is the human-held belief that all other animal species are inferior. Speciesist thinking involves
considering animals—who have their own desires, needs, and complex lives—as means to human ends. This
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supremacist line of "reasoning" is used to defend treating other living, feeling beings as property, objects, or even
ingredients. It’s a bias rooted in denying others their own agency, interests, and self-worth, often for personal gain.
This toxic worldview also leads humans to draw non-existent distinctions between animal species based solely on
the purpose that those animals might serve. For example, most humans wouldn’t dream of treating their dog the
way pigs are treated in the food industry, even though pigs are able to experience the same pain, joy, fear, and
misery that canines do. Many humans wear coats lined with fur trim taken from trapped coyotes or sleep on a
pillow stuffed with feathers pulled from a screaming goose, but they’d never consider ripping fistfuls of fur out of a
crying kitten’s back with their own hands. It’s speciesist to believe that farmed and captive animals don’t suffer or
feel emotions to the same extent as the animals with whom we lovingly share our homes.
 PETA’s mission statement says, "Animals are not ours to experiment on, eat, wear, use for entertainment, or abuse
in any other way." This means that animals are individuals—their own people—and have the right to live free from
human exploitation. Speciesism is the ugly counterpoint to this truth. Although it goes unnoticed by most people,
speciesism has devastating real-world effects on billions of animals. That’s why PETA and compassionate people
everywhere work hard to fight it. Rejecting speciesism also means taking an objective look at our personal choices
and changing the ones that hurt animals. One of the best places to start is by voicing our disapproval of animal
testing by buying only products that are not tested on animals and donating only to charities that never fund or
conduct animal experiments. Leaving animal-derived foods off our plates by going vegan is also fundamental, and
PETA has plenty of resources to help, including our free vegan starter kit. When we start to view other species as
fellow living beings and individuals, we won’t want to exploit them for their skin, fur, down, or wool, so we’ll choose
animal-free clothing and entertain ourselves in humane ways instead of patronizing circuses or roadside zoos.

PERFORMANCE TASK
Students are to create a social campaign in the form of an infomercial, blog, vlog, etc.

Rubric
Criteria Ratings Points
Content 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
The contents of the social campaign are well-founded. Full Marks No Marks
Impact 10 Points 0 Points 10 Points
The social campaign has evoked emotions from the people. Full Marks No Marks
Creativity 5 Points 0 Points 10 Points
The social campaign showed great imagination, insight, and Full Marks No Marks
style.
TOTAL 30 Points

References
[Link]. (2019, April 17). Systemic racism [Video].YouTube. [Link]
American Psychological Association. Racism, bias, and discrimination. [Link]
discrimination
Council of Europe. Sexism: see it. name it. stop it. [Link]
Golez, L. (2021, May 10). 10 cruelty-free local beauty brands and what to shop from them. Preview.
[Link]
Medical News Today. (2021, May 27). 6 types of sexism, examples, and their impact.
[Link]
PETA. What is speciesism? [Link]
United Nations. Fight racism. [Link]
United Nations. World conference to combat racism and racial discrimination 14-25 August 1978, Geneva.
[Link]

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I. INTRODUCTION

Module 6 The module provides discussions on the egalitarianism, socialism, and

SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS AND capitalism. Examples of the said social organizations and their benefits to
CHALLENGES OF PLURALISM the society will also be emphasized in this module.

Module 6: Week 17: [Link] OUTCOMES

Egalitarianism, Socialism, Capitalism At the end of the course, students must be able to:
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 evaluate the impact of egalitarianism in the society,
 explain socialism and its social implications, and
 explain capitalism and its social implications.

Egalitarianism

 Egalitarianism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes equality and equal treatment across gender, religion,
economic status, and political beliefs. Egalitarianism may focus on income inequality and distribution, which are
ideas that influenced the development of various economic and political systems. Egalitarianism also looks at how
individuals are treated under the law. Karl Marx used egalitarianism as the starting point in the creation of his
Marxist philosophy. John Locke considered egalitarianism when he proposed that individuals had natural rights.
 The types of egalitarianism are economic egalitarianism, legal egalitarianism, moral egalitarianism, political
egalitarianism, racial equality, and gender equality.
 Economic Egalitarianism. Proponents of economic egalitarianism or material egalitarianism believe every
member of society should have equal access to wealth and the ability to make money, whether that be through
investments, entrepreneurial efforts, or income from employment, and that this should translate into everyone
having similar levels of income and money. This line of thinking forms the basis for Marxism and socialism.
Economic egalitarianism in a free market is the belief that everyone should have an equal opportunity to become
wealthy by investing in and supporting entrepreneurship and employment. Starting a business can be attempted
by anyone and represents an opportunity to make money. The entrepreneur will typically seek financing and
invest the capital in a business enterprise. Customers, meanwhile, have an equal opportunity to buy the
company's products or services. They have an equal choice to respond to the company's prices and quality of
goods or services to make an informed decision about a purchase. A few things limit economic egalitarianism in a
free-market society. Money supply, inflation, a lack of jobs, and consumer prices may limit economic activity for
people who lack wealth. Legal constraints also affect economic egalitarianism.
 Legal Egalitarianism. Legal egalitarianism is the principle that everyone is subject to the same laws, meaning no
group has unique legal protections over another.
 Moral Egalitarianism. Moral egalitarianism is the idea that all human beings must have equal respect for and
concern for each other. It is the idea that humanity is connected and that everyone deserves human rights. Of
course, the definition of equal respect or fairness may vary and depend on individuals, making it hard to enforce
true egalitarianism.
 Political Egalitarianism. People who believe in political egalitarianism espouse democracy, demanding that every
person has equal standing concerning governmental power. Political egalitarianism posits that each individual
has the same social power or influence over politics in work, government, and daily life. For example, principals
have the authority over their teachers and staff to make choices for the school and grade. However, under
political egalitarianism, every educator at the school would have the same level of authority and power.
 Racial Egalitarianism. Racial egalitarianism is the idea that everyone should have equal respect for one another,
no matter their race or ethnicity.
 Gender Egalitarianism. Gender egalitarianism believes that men and women, no matter their gender, are equal
and must be treated as such. Gender egalitarianism supports equal rights, roles, and responsibilities for men and
women. It does not support the idea that there is "women's work" and "men's work" or gender-specific roles in
business and the home. In a society where there is gender equality in families, parents play equal roles within the
family structure.

Socialism

 Socialism is a populist economic and political system based on collective, common, or public ownership of the
means of production. Those means of production include the machinery, tools, and factories used to produce goods
that aim to directly satisfy human needs. In contrast to capitalism, whereby business owners control the means of
production and pay wages to workers to use those means, socialism envisions shared ownership and control among
the laboring class. In a purely socialist system, all production and distribution decisions are made by the collective,
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directed by a central planner or government body. Worker cooperatives, however, are also a form of socialized
production. Socialist systems tend to have robust welfare systems and a social safety net, so that individuals rely on
the state for everything from food to healthcare. The government determines the output and pricing levels of these
goods and services. Socialists contend that shared ownership of resources and central planning provide a more
equal distribution of goods and services and a more equitable society. While socialism calls for collective or shared
ownership of the means of production, it does not imply that there is no private ownership of personal property.
Thus, corporations and factories would be shared among the members of society, but individuals and households
would still own their own personal effects.
 The following are socialist countries: Bangladesh, Eritrea, Guyana, India, Nepal, and Nicaragua. Portugal, Sri Lanka,
and Tanzania.

Socialism vs Capitalism

 Capitalist economies (which today is often synonymous with the free-market or market economies) and socialist
economies differ by their logical underpinnings of the structures of ownership and production. Socialists and free-
market economists tend to agree on fundamental economics—the supply and demand framework, for instance—
while disagreeing about its proper adaptation and how commodities should be produced. Functionally, socialism
and free-market capitalism are often divided on two core issues: property rights and control of production. In a
capitalist economy, private individuals and enterprises own the means of production and have the right to profit
from them; private property rights are taken very seriously and apply to nearly everything. In a purely socialist
economy, the collective owns and controls the means of production; personal property is allowed, but only in the
form of consumer goods. Essential services like healthcare, education, and public transportation are administered
for free by the government and funded through taxation. In a socialist economy, public officials known as "central
planners" may control the behavior of producers, consumers, savers, borrowers, and investors by taking over and
regulating trade, the flow of capital, and other resources.

Socialism vs Communism

 Communism and socialism are umbrella terms referring to two left-wing schools of economic thought; both oppose
capitalism, but socialism predates the "Communist Manifesto," an 1848 pamphlet by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, by a few decades. These are both economic philosophies that advocate for public ownership, particularly
over the means of production and the distribution and exchange of goods in a society. Both philosophies run
contrary to free market capitalism, which, they contend, exploits workers and creates a widening gap between rich
and poor. There are differences between socialism and communism, however. In fact, communism can be thought
of as a strict and all-encompassing version of socialism. Under communism, all property is communally owned;
private property doesn't exist. Under socialism, individuals can still own private property. Karl Marx predicted that a
violent worker uprising against the middle and upper classes would bring about the communist state, whereas
socialists tend to seek change and reform without overthrowing the prevailing social and political structure.
According to communist theory, workers should be given what they need, while under socialist theory, they are to
be compensated for their level of contribution to the economy.

SUGGESTED VIDEO CLIP

Crash Course. (2012, September 7). Capitalism and socialism: crash course world history #33 [Video].
YouTube. [Link]

References
Crash Course. (2012, September 7). Capitalism and socialism: crash course world history #33 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Kenton, W. (2022, July 31). Egalitarianism: definition, ideas, and types. Investopedia.
[Link]
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Kenton, W.. (2022, July 18). Socialism: history, theory, and analysis. Investopedia.
[Link]
Rosenberg, M. (2020, April 11). A list of current communist countries in the world. ThoughtCo.
[Link]
World Population Review. Social countries 2022. [Link]
countries

I. INTRODUCTION

The module provides discussions on pluralism and fundamentalism and

Module 6: Week 17: Pluralism, their implications for morality. In the latter part of the module,
Fundamentalism, and Challenges to characteristics of the Fillinnials are assessed and their challenges are
the Filinnials identified.

[Link] OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students must be able to:
 explain pluralism as a political philosophy and its impact on society,
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 explain fundamentalism as an ideology and its implication to morality,
and
 identify the challenges encountered by the Filinnials.

Pluralism

 Pluralism is a political philosophy holding that people of different beliefs, backgrounds, and lifestyles can coexist in
the same society and participate equally in the political process. Pluralism assumes that its practice will lead
decision-makers to negotiate solutions that contribute to the "common good" of the entire society. Pluralism
recognizes that in some cases, the acceptance and integration of minority groups should be achieved and protected
by legislation, such as civil rights laws. The theory and mechanics of pluralism are also applied in the areas of culture
and religion. The most extreme example of pluralism is found in a pure democracy, where each individual is allowed
to vote on all laws and even court decisions.
 How pluralism works? Pluralism will help achieve a compromise by helping decision-makers become aware of and
fairly address several competing interests and [Link] the US, labor laws allow workers and their employers to
engage in collective bargaining to address their mutual needs. The best examples of the pluralism movement can be
found in the end of white apartheid in South Africa and the culmination of the racial Civil Rights Movement in the
United States with the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The ultimate
promise of pluralism is that its process of conflict, dialog, and negotiation leading to compromise will result in the
abstract value known as "the common good."
 Cultural Pluralism. Cultural pluralism describes a condition in which minority groups participate fully in all areas
of the dominant society while maintaining their unique cultural identities. In a culturally pluralist society,
different groups are tolerant of each other and coexist without major conflict, while minority groups are
encouraged to retain their ancestral customs. The US is considered a cultural "melting pot," in which indigenous
and immigrant cultures live together while keeping their individual traditions alive. Many U.S. cities have areas
like Chicago’s Little Italy or San Francisco’s Chinatown. Many Native American tribes maintain separate
governments and communities in which they practice and hand down their traditions, religions, and histories to
future generations.
 Religious Pluralism. Sometimes defined as "respect for the otherness of others," religious pluralism exists when
adherents of all religious belief systems or denominations co-exist harmoniously in the same society. Religious
pluralism should not be confused with "freedom of religion," which refers to all religions being allowed to exist
under the protection of civil laws or doctrine. Instead, religious pluralism assumes that the different religious
groups will voluntarily interact with each other for their mutual benefit. Pluralism exists only when engagement
between religions or cultures molds diversity into a common society. For example, while the existence of a
Ukrainian Orthodox church, a Muslim mosque, a Hispanic Church of God, and a Hindu temple on the same street
is certainly diversity, it becomes pluralism only if the different congregations engage and interact with each
other.
 Fundamentalism. Fundamentalism is a religious reaction against aspects of modernity. The concept of
"fundamentalism" first emerged in American Christianity in the early 20th century, but later developed to denote
movements in other cultures too. Fundamentalist religion sometimes overlaps or converges with radical
nationalism and xenophobia.
 Types of fundamentalism
 Christian fundamentalism. Christian fundamentalism is the belief that the text of the Bible was inspired by God.
Christian fundamentalists believe that every word in the Bible is literally true and cannot be contradicted by
human beings. This belief is also sometimes called the belief in the inerrancy of the Bible. Christian
fundamentalists make up a minority among Christians and are often found among Baptists and Methodists in the
American South; however, people from many other Protestant denominations are fundamentalists as well.
Christian fundamentalists usually oppose homosexuality, pre-marital sex, and the teaching of evolution in
schools. This is because these activities violate biblical teachings. Most Christian denominations, including
Catholicism, have a more liberal approach to the Bible. They generally believe that the Bible was inspired by God

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but that the text is not his literal voice. They interpret the Bible in a manner suited to the theologies of their
particular sect.
 Islamic fundamentalists believe that the text of the Quran was literally dictated to their prophet Mohammed by
the archangel Gabriel. The teachings in the Quran cannot be contradicted by human authorities. Islamic
fundamentalists are found among both Sunni and Shia Muslims. Fundamentalism is relatively common in the
Islamic world, which is why issues such as equal rights for gay people or women are very controversial among
Muslims. Sunni Islam (/suni, sni/) is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its
name comes from the word "Sunnah," referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni
and Shia Muslims arose from a disagreement over the succession to Muhammad and subsequently acquired
broader political significance as well as theological and juridical dimensions. According to Sunni traditions,
Muhammad left no successor, and the participants of the Saqifah event appointed Abu Bakr as the next-in-line
(the first caliph). This contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law and
cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Unlike Christian fundamentalists, Islamic fundamentalists do not
necessarily oppose the teaching of evolution.
 Jewish fundamentalism. Fundamentalism among Jews is also relatively rare. It is found mostly among the ultra-
Orthodox sects of Judaism. The ultra-Orthodox Jews still abide by the dietary restrictions found in the Jewish
Bible. Many aspects of their daily lives are also guided by this text.
 Hindu fundamentalism. Fundamentalism can also occur in other religions, such as Hinduism, but it is much rarer
outside of the Abrahamic religions. One of the reasons for this is that most religions do not see their religious
texts as coming directly from God. Hindu fundamentalism mostly revolves around creating a religious identity for
the nation of India. This is a problem considering the large Muslim population in India. The government has tried
to combat communalism by promoting secularism and allowing individuals to follow their own religious path.
Despite this, strict adherence to religious doctrines is common in both Hindu and Muslim fundamentalist groups
in India. Several clashes between the two groups have occurred. This is ironic considering that India's founders,
including Gandhi himself, promoted religious pluralism, which is the existence of two or more religions existing
harmoniously in the same area.

Challenges to the Filinnials

 According to a 2015 census by the Philippine Statistics Authority, Filinnials comprise 53% of the working-age
population, with 45% employed. The staggering rate at which they descend on jobs means that they also have
growing purchasing power. Emerging Millennial Market Businesses must learn how to better market their brands to
these young consumers, whose behaviors and ideals are drastically different from previous generations.
 Traits of a typical Fillinial.
 They value authenticity.  They will pay for experience.
 They want to be rewarded for their  They are socially conscious.
loyalty.  They carefully consider prices.
 They favor word-of-mouth  They love good content.
recommendations.  They have a selective attention span.
 They are tech-savvy.  They go at their own pace.

References
Longley, R. (2019, July 19). What Is pluralism? definition and examples. ThoughtCo.
[Link]
Dimock, M. (209, January 17). Defining generations: where fillennials end and generation z begins.
[Link]
Ahmed, U. and Brekke, T. What is fundamentalism? C-REX - Center for Research on Extremism. [Link]
rex/english/groups/compendium/[Link]
Petrarca, R. (). Fundamentalism in the world today. [Link]. [Link]

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GENERAL EDUCATION-SOCIAL SCIENCES & NSTP DEPARTMENT
Ortiz, N. Understanding Filipino millennials: top 10 traits of a typical filennial. [Link]
filipino-millennials-top-10-traits-of-a-typical-filennial/

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