CHAPTER 15: THE VISUAL SYSTEM o Second-order neurons

• Coveys more information to the brain than any o Synapse with ganglion cells.
other afferent system. - Ganglion cells
• Information → processed w/n the brain → form set o Third-order neurons
of maps of the visual world. o Its axons converge to leave the eye w/n
• Humans – “Visual Animals” the optic nerve.
• Large portion of the brain tissue is devoted to - Outer plexiform layers of retina
vision. o Horizonal cells – connects receptor
• Includes: cells w/ each other.
- Eye - Inner plexiform layers of retina
- Retina o Amacrine cells – connect ganglion
- Optic nerves cells to one another.
- Visual pathways o In some cases – connects the bipolar
cells and ganglion cells.
• Process information about different aspects of
visual stimuli:
THE RETINA
- Shape and form
Retinal Rods
- Color
• Rods
- Motion
- More numerous than cones.
- Sensitive to low-intensity light
THE EYE
- Provide visual input when illumination is dim.
• Function and clinical correlations of the CN III, IV,
Ex. At twilight and night
and VI (Chapter 8) – involved in moving the eyes.
• Cones
• Gaze centers
- Stimulated by relatively high-intensity light.
• Pupillary reflexes
- Responsible for:
• Vestibulo-ocular reflex o Sharp vision
o Color discrimination
Anatomy and Physiology
• Rods and Cones
• The optical components of the eye are: - Outer segment
- Cornea o Stacks of flattened disks of membrane
- Pupillary opening of the iris that contain photosensitive pigments
- Lens that react to light.
- Retina - Inner segment
• Light passes through: o Contains the:
- First four components (Cornea, pupillary ▪ Cell nucleus
opening of the iris, lens, and retina) ▪ Mitochondria
- Anterior chamber o Forms synapses with the second-order
- Vitreous (to reach the retina) bipolar cells.
• Point of fixation (direction of gaze) • Transduction of light into neural signals occurs
- Normal – lines up with fovea. when:
• Retina - Photons are absorbed by photosensitive
* Develops as a portion of the brain itself. molecules (called visual pigments) in the rods
* Considered (by some) to be a specialized part of and cones.
the brain located within the eye. • Rhodopsin
- Transforms light into electrical impulses. - Visual pigment w/n the retinal rods
- Organized into 10 layers. - Specialized membrane receptor – linked to G-
- Two types of photoreceptors: proteins.
o Rods
o Cones ***Light (strikes to) → RHODOPSIN
- Four types of neurons: (molecule) → first converted to
o Bipolar cells METARHODOPSIN II → then to
o Ganglion cells SCOTOPSIN and RETINENE₁.
o Horizontal cells ***This light-activated reaction activates a G-
o Amacrine cells protein known as → TRANSDUCIN.
- Rods and Cones (photoreceptors)
o First-order neurons • Transducin
o Synapse with bipolar cells - Breaks down cyclic guanosine monophosphate
- Bipolar cells (GMP).
Reference: Clinical Neuroanatomy by Stephen Waxman (29th Ed)
Notes by: [Link]
 *Cyclic GMP - Receive input from bipolar cells and synapse
- Acts w/n the cytoplasm of the photoreceptors onto other bipolar cells near their sites of input
to keep sodium channels open. to ganglion cells.
- The light-induced reduction in cyclic GMP - “sharpens” the responses of ganglion cells
leads to closing of sodium channels, causing, (same w/ horizontal cells)
hyperpolarization. *Ganglions cells (some) - respond most
• As a result of being struck by light, there is vigorously to a light spot surrounded by
hyperpolarization w/n the retinal rods. darkness.
• Which results to → decreased release of synaptic *Others – respond most actively to a dark spot
transmitter onto bipolar cells, which alters their surrounded by light.
activity. • Macula
- Retinal area for central, fixated vision during
Retinal Cones good light
• Contains visual pigments, which respond • Fovea centralis
maximally to light at wavelengths of: *From the inner layers of the retina in the
- 440 nm macular area that are pushed apart
- 535 nm - Small, central pit composed of closely packed
- 565 nm cones where:
• Corresponding to three primary colors o Vision is sharpest.
- Blue o Color discrimination is most acute.
- Green • Retinal ganglion cells
- Red - Specialized neurons that can be grouped into
• When cones are struck by light of the appropriate two classes that subserve different functions.
wavelength, a cascade of molecular events, similar ❖ Magnocellular ganglion cells
to that in rods activates: o Larger diameter axons
- G-protein – that closes sodium channels, (Faster conduction velocities)
resulting to hyperpolarization. o Sensitive to motion
o Not sensitive to color or details of form
Bipolar, Amacrine, and Retinal Ganglion Cells ❖ Parvocellular ganglion cells
• Horizontal and Amacrine Cells, modified the: o Thinner axons (slower conduction
- Transmission from photoreceptors (Rods and velocities)
Cones, first-order sensory neurons) → bipolar o Convey information about form and
cells (second-order sensory neurons) → retinal color.
ganglion cells (third-order sensory neurons) - These two information streams converge on
• Bipolar cell (each) different layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus.
- Receives input from 20 to 50 photoreceptor • Ganglion cells axons
cells. - w/n the retina, form the – nerve fiber layer.
- Receptive field (of bipolar cell) is modified by - All leave the eye, forming the optic nerve, at a
the horizontal cells. point 3 mm medial to the eye’s posterior pole.
o Ex. Area in the retina that influences - Optic disk
the activity in the cell. o Point of exit
• Horizontal cells o Can be seen through the
- Form synapses on – photoreceptors and bipolar ophthalmoscope.
(nearby) cells – in a manner that “sharpens” the o Has no rods and cones.
receptive field on each bipolar cell. o Corresponds to a small blind spot in
- As a result of this arrangement, bipolar cells: each eye.
o Do not merely respond to diffuse light.
o Some – convey information about A. Visual Adaptation
small spots of light surrounded by • Dark adaptation
darkness. (From brightly lighted environment → dimly
- “on”-receptive fields lighted environment)
- “off”-receptive fields → convey information - Decline in visual threshold.
about small spots of light surrounded by - Nearly maximal in about 20 minutes
darkness. • Light adaptation
• Amacrine cells (From dim → brightly lighted environment)
- Increase in visual threshold.
- Occurs over a period of 5 minutes.
• Pupillary light reflex
Reference: Clinical Neuroanatomy by Stephen Waxman (29th Ed)
Notes by: [Link]
 - Constricts the pupils.
- A protective accompaniment to sudden
increases in light intensity.

Reference: Clinical Neuroanatomy by Stephen Waxman (29th Ed)