Formulae
🔹 What is a Chemical Formula?
A chemical formula tells us:
● Which elements are present in a substance, and
● How many atoms of each element are in one molecule of that substance.
It is like a "recipe" that shows the composition of a compound.
Chemical Symbols of Elements
Each element is represented by a symbol, usually one or two letters:
● The first letter is always capitalized (e.g., H for hydrogen, O for oxygen).
● If there is a second letter, it is lowercase (e.g., He for helium, Cl for chlorine).
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Lithium Li Calcium Ca
Chromium Cr Gold Au
Aluminium Al Sulfur S
Diatomic Elements
Some elements naturally exist as diatomic molecules — meaning two atoms of the same
element are joined together.
These are:
H₂, N₂, O₂, F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂
(H = Hydrogen, N = Nitrogen, F = Fluorine, O = Oxygen, I = Iodine, Cl = Chlorine, Br =
Bromine)
So instead of writing “O” for oxygen gas, we write O₂.
Molecular Formula
A molecular formula shows:
1. The type of atoms (given by chemical symbols), and
2. The number of each atom (given by subscript numbers).
Examples:
Substance Molecular Formula Description
Hydrogen H₂ 2 hydrogen atoms
Chlorine Cl₂ 2 chlorine atoms
Water H₂O 2 hydrogen + 1 oxygen
Methane CH₄ 1 carbon + 4 hydrogen
Ammonia NH₃ 1 nitrogen + 3 hydrogen
Sulfuric acid H₂SO₄ 2 hydrogen + 1 sulfur + 4 oxygen
Models and Diagrams
Chemists use models or ball-and-stick diagrams to show molecules and their arrangement
of atoms.
For example:
● Water (H₂O): The oxygen atom (red) is in the middle, with two hydrogen atoms
(white) on each side forming a bent shape.
Not in a straight line.
● Methane (CH₄): One carbon (black) in the center with four hydrogens (white) around
it.
These diagrams help visualize how atoms are bonded in a molecule.
Worked Example
Question:
What is the molecular formula of this compound?
(Imagine a structure showing 4 carbon atoms in a straight chain, each bonded to hydrogen
atoms.)
Step 1: Count the atoms
● Carbon (C): 4 atoms
● Hydrogen (H): 10 atoms
Step 2: Write the formula
Molecular formula = C₄H₁₀
Name: Butane
Key Takeaways
● Formula = chemical composition of a substance.
● Diatomic molecules exist naturally as pairs of atoms (H₂, O₂, N₂, etc.).
● Subscript numbers show the number of atoms (e.g., H₂O = 2 H + 1 O).
● Models help visualize how atoms are arranged in molecules.
● The molecular formula gives the exact count of each atom in one molecule.
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1 — Empirical formulae
Definition:
The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound (smallest integer ratio).
For ionic compounds the empirical formula is the formula unit (because ionic
compounds are not discrete molecules).
How to find an empirical formula (short method)
1. If given percent composition: assume 100 g → convert % → grams → moles (divide
by atomic mass).
2. Divide all mole values by the smallest number of moles among them.
3. If needed, multiply all ratios by 2, 3, 4 ... to get whole numbers.
4. Write the formula with those whole numbers as subscripts.
Key point: molecular vs empirical
● Molecular formula = actual number of atoms per molecule (e.g. C₂H₄O₂).
● Empirical formula = simplest ratio (e.g. CH₂O for C₂H₄O₂).
Example (from your notes):
Ethanoic acid = C₂H₄O₂ → divide each subscript by 2 → empirical formula CH₂O.
Worked small example (counting atoms):
Butane structure has 4 C and 10 H → ratio 4:10 → divide by 2 → 2:5? Wait — check: 4:10
simplified is 2:5, but we normally give empirical as smallest whole numbers so C₂H₅ would
be empirical.
(But note: your earlier note gave C₄H₁₀ empirical = C₄H₁₀ because 4:10 cannot be simplified
by integer? That was inconsistent — correct simplification of 4:10 is 2:5 so empirical should
be C₂H₅. Keep this in mind when doing problems: always reduce to smallest integers.)
2 — Formulae of ionic compounds
Basic idea
Ionic compounds are made of cations (+) and anions (−). The overall charge of the formula
unit must be zero (neutral). Combine ions so the sum of positive charges = sum of negative
charges.
Two common methods to get the formula
A. Direct (charge-balance) method
● Write the charges.
● Find the smallest combination where total positive charge + total negative charge = 0.
● Example: Fe²⁺ and SO₄²⁻ → +2 and −2 → one of each → formula FeSO₄.
B. Swap-and-drop (cross-over) method — quick method
1. Write the ion charges: Cu²⁺ and Cl⁻.
2. Swap the magnitude (ignore signs) and drop them as subscripts: Cu₁Cl₂ → CuCl₂.
3. If any subscript is 1, it is not written. After swapping, always simplify to lowest whole
numbers if both subscripts share a common factor.
Important: after swap-and-drop, always reduce to simplest whole-number ratio.
Polyatomic ions
When a multi-atom ion is needed more than once, use parentheses for the ion and put the
subscript outside:
● Al³⁺ and SO₄²⁻ → need 2 Al³⁺? No: charges +3 and −2 → least common multiple of 3
and 2 is 6 → combine 2 × Al³⁺ (2×+3 = +6) and 3 × SO₄²⁻ (3×−2 = −6) → formula
Al₂(SO₄)₃.
Common exam polyatomic ions to remember (examples):
● CO₃²⁻ (carbonate)
● SO₄²⁻ (sulfate)
● OH⁻ (hydroxide)
● NO₃⁻ (nitrate)
● NH₄⁺ (ammonium)
3 — Naming ionic compounds (quick rules)
● Simple binary ionic (metal + non-metal): metal name + non-metal root + -ide
e.g. NaCl = sodium chloride
● Transition metals with variable charge: include oxidation state in Roman numerals:
e.g. FeCl₂ = iron(II) chloride, FeCl₃ = iron(III) chloride
● Polyatomic anions: use their usual names:
e.g. CaCO₃ = calcium carbonate, Al₂(SO₄)₃ = aluminium sulfate
4 — Worked examples
a) Fe³⁺ and Cl⁻
● Charges: +3 and −1 → need three Cl⁻ to balance one Fe³⁺ → formula FeCl₃.
● Name: iron(III) chloride.
b) Cu²⁺ and Cl⁻ → swap/drop → CuCl₂ (already simplest). Name: copper(II) chloride.
c) Fe²⁺ and SO₄²⁻ → charges cancel → FeSO₄. Name: iron(II) sulfate.
d) Al³⁺ and NO₃⁻ → need 3 nitrate to balance 1 Al → Al(NO₃)₃ (use parentheses). Name:
aluminium nitrate.
e) Ca²⁺ and OH⁻ → Ca(OH)₂ → calcium hydroxide.
The Mole and Avogadro’s Constant
● Mole (mol): The unit used to measure the amount of substance.
● 1 mole = 6.02 × 10²³ particles (atoms, molecules, or ions).
This number is called the Avogadro Constant.
Examples:
● 1 mol of Sodium (Na) → 6.02 × 10²³ atoms of Na
● 1 mol of Hydrogen (H₂) → 6.02 × 10²³ molecules of H₂
● 1 mol of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) → 6.02 × 10²³ formula units of NaCl
Molar Mass
● Molar mass = mass of 1 mole of a substance.
● For elements: it’s equal to the Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) in grams.
→ Example: Ar of Carbon = 12 → 1 mol C = 12 g
● For compounds: it’s equal to the Relative Molecular/Formula Mass (Mr) in grams.
→ Example: Mr of H₂O = 18 → 1 mol H₂O = 18 g
Mole and Volume of Gases
● According to Avogadro’s Law, equal moles of gases occupy equal volumes under the
same temperature and pressure.
● At Room Temperature and Pressure (RTP) →
1 mole of any gas = 24 dm³ (or 24,000 cm³)
RTP conditions: 20°C and 1 atm.
Formulas