MANMOHAN JOSHI

PROGRAMMED
LEARNING

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2
Programmed Learning
1st edition
© 2019 Manmohan Joshi & [Link]
ISBN 978-87-403-2966-7

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Contents

CONTENTS
About the author 7

1 Meaning of Programmed Learning 8

1.1 Introduction 8
1.2 What is Programmed Learning? 8
1.3 Origin of Programmed Learning (Instruction) movement 8

2 Principles of Programmed Learning 12

2.1 Behavioural analysis 12
2.2 Continuous active responding 13
2.3 Immediate confirmation 14
2.4 Self-pacing 14
2.5 Small steps 14
2.6 Validation 14
2.7 Sample programme 15

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Contents

3 Types of Learning 28
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Concepts of learning 28
3.3 Forms of Learning 29
3.4 Sample programme 32

4 Linear Programming 38
4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 Sequencing and small steps 38
4.3 Sample of programme for a six-attribute concept 39
4.4 Features of linear programme 41
4.5 Limitations 42

5 Branching Programming 43
5.1 Introduction 43
5.2 Features of branching programme 44
5.3 Limitations of branching programme 47

6 Mathetics Programming 48
6.1 Origin and meaning 48
6.2 Format 48
6.3 Sample programme 50
6.4 Limitation 53

7 Computer Assisted Learning 54

7.1 Introduction 54
7.2 What is CAL? 54
7.3 Technique of CAL writing 55
7.4 Types of frames 56
7.5 The structure of a CAL unit 57
7.6 CAL and future prospects 58

8 Preparation of Programme 60
8.1 Introduction 60
8.2 Programme preparation stages 60

9 Priming, Prompting and Testing 65

9.1 Priming 65
9.2 Prompting 66
9.3 Testing 79
9.4 Use of priming, prompting and testing operations 79
9.5 Programme construction summary 79

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Contents

10 Review and editing of a programme 81

10.1 Introduction 81
10.2 Types of editing 81
10.3 Hierarchy of editing 83

11 Evaluation of Programme 84
11.1 Introduction 84
11.2 Concept of programme evaluation 84
11.3 Precautions for evaluation 88

References 89

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING About the author

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Manmohan Joshi, M.A., [Link]., Cert. Educational Admin, Dip. HRD, Dip. Mgmt. (UK),
MBA, Ph.D. (Mgmt.), has over 45 years’ teaching, training and administrative experience.
He has worked as Principal of large and reputed educational institutions in India, Kuwait
and the Sultanate of Oman.

For his work on Innovative Practices in Value Education he was awarded by the National
Council of Educational Research and Training, India.

He is also the recipient of the Best Teacher Award from the Govt. of Tamilnadu as well as
the Central Board of Secondary Education, India.

He has presented papers at various national and international conferences under the auspices
of UNESCO. He has also conducted various workshops for teachers, students, parents and
administrators. The topics covered a wide area viz., Leadership and Team Building, Value
Education, Administration Skills, Career Choice, Effective Decision Making in Administration,
Effective Communication Skills, Interpersonal Relationships, Continuous Comprehensive
Evaluation, Skills in Dealing with Managers, Secretarial Skills. He has also authored several
books on different subjects.

Later he worked as Acting Chief Executive for a reputed Training Institute in the Sultanate
of Oman.

His recent formal official assignment was at a group of educational institutes in Bangalore,
India, where he conducted workshops and training programmes – especially training in
Soft Skills and Business Communication – for college professors and students, and taught
students of MBA, [Link]. and Law.

Currently he is a freelancer and conducts workshops and training programmes for college
students, professors as well as those working in the corporate sector – particularly in the
area of Soft Skills, Business Communication, Pedagogy of Teaching at College/School level.

He spends a great deal of time in writing books which are published as eBooks on www.
[Link]

He can be contacted through e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

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7
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Meaning of Programmed Learning

1 MEANING OF PROGRAMMED
LEARNING

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The terms ‘Programmed Learning’ and ‘Programmed Instruction’ are usually used
interchangeably. By whatever name we call it, it is a programme that is learner-centred.
Instructional methods are designed in such a way that learning takes place, which is based
on the learner’s ability, level, and pace.

1.2 WHAT IS PROGRAMMED LEARNING?

Educational technology has had rapid development particularly because of emphasis on
learner-centred pedagogy. This has led to the growth of Programmed Learning which is
a relatively new technology with a long history in that it is the outcome of research in
pedagogic thought. It could be fairly claimed that it is, on the one hand, an attempt to put
into practice in the classroom the experimental findings of the psychological laboratory, and
on the other hand, to use some industrial techniques such as task analysis, job evaluation
and data processing. It is also an attempt to make the teacher a more efficient mediator
between learning and the learner.

The educational experiments conducted by Edward L. Thorndike, Sidney L. Pressey, Ivan

Pavlov and B.F. Skinner paved the way for preparation of programmed learning material
which is based on the concept of providing information through a series of small steps. After
each step information is reinforced and stimulus provided so that the learner moves on to the
next step with motivation. Physical presence of the teacher is not necessary. They may come
to give instructions regarding the programme. Students are left to learn at their own pace.

1.3 ORIGIN OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

(INSTRUCTION) MOVEMENT
During the first half of the 20th century, stress was laid on behaviourism. Thorndike’s (1911)
theorems revolved around the law of recency, the law of effect, and the law of exercise. Sidney
Pressey (1926) invented a mechanical device designed to automate testing of informational
material. This device could provide control over drilling and practice exercises, teaching as
well as testing. However, his efforts did not have a lasting effect on education.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Meaning of Programmed Learning

Skinner (1957) was the leading proponent of operant conditioning which involves the
relationships among stimuli, the responses, and the consequences that follow a response.
Skinner demonstrated that by manipulating these variables, experiments could elicit quite
complex new behaviours from laboratory experiments.

Skinner carried out an experiment on a rat. He kept the rat in a box within which he had
fixed a bar. When the rat pushed the bar accidentally, it was served with food. The next
time it pushed the bar, food was again given. From the repetition of pushing the bar and
getting the food the rat learned that whenever it wanted food it must push the bar. Later
the task was made a little difficult. A flashlight was attached, which made the rat learn that
each time light flashed, it got food.

Skinner deduced that in the same manner a child learns what the society wants them to learn.
We can say that a child imitates no matter what they hear from the parents. According to
this concept, stimulus carries a response followed by reinforcement resulting in repetition.
For example, a stimulus is produced when a baby feels hungry or lonely. The baby cries in
response. Reinforcement is provided when the mother gives food or comforts them. There
is repetition if the same process happens again. In this way, the baby learns new behaviour
that every time they feel hungry or lonely, they should cry.

Stimulus

New
Response
Behaviour

Repetition Reinforcement

Fig. 1/1 Skinner’s Stimulus-Response Theory

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9
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Meaning of Programmed Learning

Reinforcement could be of two types:

• Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement results in increase of repetition

process. For example, when a child cries for candy, they receive the candy and
learn that crying results in reward in the form of candy.
• Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement results in reduction of the
repetition process. For example, a child cries for candy but they are slapped.
They learn that slap is the consequence of crying. As a result, the child ceases
crying for the accomplishment of their desires.

The operant conditioning proposed by Skinner is based on four elements:

Stimulus

Response

Reinforcement

Repetition

Fig. 1/2 Elements of Operant Conditioning

Skinner applied the principles of operant conditioning to academic tasks. He analysed the
deficiencies of group-based traditional instruction. He developed a mechanical device in
which the contingencies of reinforcement could be carefully controlled. In this new format
the content was arranged in small steps called frames. These steps lead the learner from the
simple to the complex. At each step the learner is required to make a response. The learner
is then informed whether they got the right answer. A lever will then reveal the correct
answer. Some others referred to this device as a ‘teaching machine’, and it soon gained
widespread attention, and was known as programmed instruction.

By late 1950s this new technology became quite popular, and it was realised that Programmed
Instruction lessons could be published in book format. This format could have short
instructional frames followed by a question, and correct answer could be lower on the page
(covered).

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Meaning of Programmed Learning

Skinner and his colleagues employed Programmed Instruction in formal education in the
college courses in the 1950s. This experiment made a significant impact on learning. Authors
and publishers brought out a lot of programmed materials. Even though the publication
of new titles gradually declined, programmed materials are still distributed and used by
learners because they feel empowered by the ability to work through material methodically.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Principles of Programmed Learning

2 PRINCIPLES OF
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
The material of the programme is so structured that the learner is expected to make a
series of responses to a series of problems. Through the programme they receive immediate
confirmation of the correctness of their answer before proceeding to the next step. If
the answer is not correct, they are sent to a further teaching item which will clarify any
misunderstanding. It is important to note that while the onus of learning is upon the learner,
the onus of ensuring that the programme teaches is on the programmer. For this purpose,
the programmer must carry out the behavioural analysis of the skills to be learned.

The principles of programmed learning consist of the following:

• Behavioural analysis;
• Continuous active responding;
• Immediate confirmation;
• Self-pacing;
• Small steps; and
• Validation.

2.1 BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS

It defines and breaks down the task to be performed into separate components so that the
programme objectives can be formulated. The factors kept in mind are:

• Time involved;
• Stability of course content;
• Size of target population; and
• Subject matter.

As a matter of fact, learning can be defined as a ‘change in behaviour’ which is observable

as well as measurable. The objectives are clearly specified e.g. the objectives of a programme
on typing may be specified as given below:

“At the end of this programme the student will be able to type with 98 per cent accuracy from
printed matter, excluding numerals, at a speed of not less than 25 words a minute.”

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12
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Principles of Programmed learning
PrinciPles Learning

This general statement is then broken down into a series of smaller objectives which specify
what the learner will be able to ‘do’ at each stage of the programme. In other words, all
objectives must be expressed in operational terms suchPROGRAMMED
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and emotional factors in instruction.
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learners who work faster to go at their own pace.
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programmer diversity.
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A geyser is a natural hot spring. The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which

The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________

___________________________________________
water. (heat)
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__________________________________________________________________________
13
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Principles of Programmed Learning

2.3 IMMEDIATE CONFIRMATION

It lets the learner know immediately, each time they make a response, whether they are
right. It is one of the factors which makes programmed learning significantly different from
conventional teaching.

In fact, in the learning stages, feedback for even smaller steps, such as parts of a simple
problem, often helps learners learn faster than waiting for confirmation at the end of the
entire problem. Immediacy of consequences, then, is an aspect of selection mechanism that
a programmer designs into every type of programmed learning.

2.4 SELF-PACING
Each learner has their own pace. Programmers should respect this diversity and allow them
to decide on the desirable speed of learning. It allows the learner to proceed on their own
pace. This is not always essential, as recent work with group teaching machines has shown.

2.5 SMALL STEPS

Each step gives the learner only the amount of information which they can handle at any
one time. ‘Small’ is a relative term. Early programmes broke down material into the smallest
possible steps. The modern approach is to concentrate on ‘optimum operant span’. This is
not as contradictory as may appear at first sight because the maximum amount of learning
which can take place at each step may still be quite small, depending on subject matter
and the relative ability of different groups of learners.

2.6 VALIDATION
It ensures testing the programme on sample groups and editing the instructional material
on the basis of feedback from validation data. First of all, degree of previous knowledge
is tested in order to work through the programme. It is called ‘pre-pre-test’. The terminal
behaviour of the target population is tested and the error rate is determined by testing on
sample target population. Validation is done in two ways:

• Field testing; and

• Master validation.

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14
 PROGRAMMED LEARNING PrinciPles of Programmed learning
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13

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A geyser is a natural hot spring.
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The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________

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A geyser is a natural hot spring. 13

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17
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Download free eBooks at [Link]

21
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23
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25
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13

A geyser is a natural hot spring.

The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________

water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
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26
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
2.2 CONTINUOUS ACTIVE RESPONDING
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13

13

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27
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Types of Learning

3 TYPES OF LEARNING

3.1 INTRODUCTION
When one conducts research on behaviour for the purpose of understanding the processes, it
is usually necessary to study the underlying process indirectly. There is always a continuous
change or variation in the behaviour of an organism as complex as the human. Change
may be a function of several underlying processes such as:

• Motivation;
• Perception;
• Physiology;
• Emotion; and
• Learning.

Learning then refers to changes in behaviour, changes which are attributable to a set of
antecedent conditions categorized as experience and training rather than the processes such
as maturation, growth, physiology, perception or motivation. In addition, the changes in
performance, which we define as learning, are relatively speaking permanent rather than transitory.

3.2 CONCEPTS OF LEARNING

Reinforcement and contiguity are two concepts which play an important role in discussion
of learning.

3.2.1 REINFORCEMENT

To reinforce a response is to strengthen it. Those stimuli which by their presentation

strengthen responses (food, water) are positively reinforcing while those which, by their
termination, strengthen responses are negatively reinforcing (electric shock). Whether stimuli
are reinforcing is an empirical question which can be answered by determining the effect
which any stimulus has on changing the probability of the occurrence of a response. For
example, if we were interested in reinforcing efforts of praise in the form of ‘Very Good’,
‘That’s right’, and rebuff in the form of ‘That’s wrong’ on learning to spell, we could design
a simple study consisting of four groups, each of which would be treated as given below:

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28
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Types of Learning

Group 1 Each correct oral spelling of a word is followed by praise.

Group 2 Each incorrect oral spelling of a word is followed by rebuff.

Each correct oral spelling of a word is followed by praise and each incorrect oral
Group 3
spelling of a word is followed by rebuff.

Each oral spelling of a word is followed by the instruction: ‘Spell the next word’,
Group 4
whether the spelling was correct or incorrect.

Assuming that the groups in the study were equally proficient in learning to spell, that they
were given an equal amount of practice, and that they were treated alike in all respects except
as noted, we should probably find that group 4 learned less from theirs i.e. the probability
of correct responses would be increased as a function among themselves, difficult to predict
from what is known about the effect of praise and rebuff. The point at issue is that the
effects of psychological variable such as reinforcement must be inferred from empirical
investigations in which some set of carefully defined response is manipulated.

3.2.2 CONTIGUITY

It refers to the spatial and temporal relationships between stimuli and responses or between
responses:

• Some theories of learning propose that contiguity of a stimulus and a response

in the absence of a reinforcing stimulus will result in learning.
• Other theories hold that learning occurs only when there is reinforcement of
contiguous stimuli responses, or stimuli and responses.
• Still other theories hold that the contiguity of stimuli or of stimuli and response
is reinforcing.

3.3 FORMS OF LEARNING

There may be several categories of learning that can be defined by the operations which
are carried out. There is little agreement among psychologists on the number of categories,
although it appears that most psychologists would agree that there are at least two, though
some would argue for six or more (Milton, 1964; Gagne, 1965).

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29
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Types of Learning

3.3.1 SIX- CATEGORY CLASSIFICATION

A six-category classification of forms of human learning is given in Table 3/1 below. The
types are arranged in what is assumed to be an increasing order of complexity ranging from
conditioned response learning to problem solving of the type given.

Type Paradigm Description

Establishment of a response-
Response Learning SR connection to a stimulus specified
along physical dimensions

Establishment of chains of response

Chaining S–R S–R
connects
S–rs
Establishment of labelling responses
S – r s – concepts
to stimulus varying physically
Verbal Learning S–rs within limits of primary stimulus
S – r (SS––R)r s
(paired associates) generalisations. Previous ‘response
S – r s – concepts learning’ assumed (as indicated by
S–rs brackets).

S–rs
Establishment of mediating response
Concept Learning
S – r s – concepts to stimuli which differ from each other
S–rs physically (classifying 2).
Concept
Rule
Concept
Concept
Establishment of a process which
Rule
Principle Learning functions like a rule ‘If A, then B’,
Concept where A and B are concepts.

Concept
Rule Rule
Higher Establishment of process which
Problem solving Concept ‘combines’ two or more previously
Rule Order Rule learned rule in a higher order rule.
Rule Higher

Table 3/1 A suggested ordering ofRule Order

the types of human Rule
learning

Rule Higher

Rule Order Rule

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30
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Types of Learning

3.3.2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning is a form of associate learning developed by Pavlov (1927). He

presented a pair of stimuli in strict contiguity to an organism. One stimulus, the UCS
(Unconditioned Stimulus) is capable of eliciting a reliable response.

In the classical conditioning model of learning, the CS (Conditioned Stimulus) followed

closely by UCS, are presented to the organism. For example, a tone and a puff of air (UCS)
to the eye of a human subject could be paired in an effort to condition the eye blink
response to a tone, following several presentations of the tone and the puff of air, the tone
(CS) alone would elicit the eye blink if conditioning occurs. Some theorists have interpreted
this learning as stimulus substitution, a case in which the CS through association with the
UCS becomes a functional substitute for the UCS. Others have interpreted it to be a form
of expectancy learning, a case in which the CS serves as a signal that the UCS is to follow:

(Paradigm)

UCS (Puff of air) UCS Eye blink

CS + UCS (Tone + Puff of air) UCR

CS (Tone) CR

3.3.3 INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING

Instrumental learning, sometimes called operant conditioning, is based on a different set of

operations. In this model, it is assumed that behaviours are largely emitted rather than elicited;
the responses are not ‘caused’ or forced by an external stimulus as is implied by ‘elicit’. The
pecking response of birds and the exploration of novel situations by children are examples
of behaviour for which eliciting stimuli are not evident. In fact, it may be argued that much
of the behaviour of higher organisms consists of operant or responses for which there are
no known external stimuli. To modify an operant requires that its occurrence be followed
closely in tune with a reinforcing stimulus. Contiguity between a response and a reinforcing
stimulus rather than between a CS and UCS is the mark of operant conditioning. In the
example of determining the effect of praise and rebuff on learning to spell, the purported
reinforcing stimuli of ‘That’s right’ and ‘That’s wrong’ were to be presented immediately
following the learners’ response of spelling a word. The oral responses were to be treated
as operant, and a learner’s response determined the consequences i.e. the responses were
instrumental in changing the environment.

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31
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Types of Learning

PROGRAMMED LEARNING PrinciPles of Programmed learning

3.3.4 CONDITIONING AND INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING

There are several basic concepts used widely in research on learning which can be defined
This general statement is then broken down into a series of smaller objectives which specify
conveniently in terms of response learning. Initially in learning, response became associated
what the learner will be able to ‘do’ at each stage of the programme. PROGRAMMED LEARNING
In other words, all
with a class of stimuli rather than with a stimulus per se. For example, if the eye blink
objectives must be expressed in operational terms such as:
response is conditioned to a tone of 2,000 cycles per second, it turns out that it actually
This general statement is then broken dow
is conditioned
PROGRAMMED
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36
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A geyser is a natural hot spring.

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water. (heat)
13
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__________________________________________________________________________
13
37
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Linear Programming

4 LINEAR PROGRAMMING

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The linear or straight programme was developed and used by Skinner and his associates. From
laboratory studies conducted with pigeons and rats he laid the ground work of a science
of learning and extended his findings into the realm of human behaviour. Programmed
instruction is an example of this.

4.2 SEQUENCING AND SMALL STEPS

A linear programme takes each learner through the same sequence, in small steps, and is
structured in such a way that the probability of a correct answer being given is kept very
high (usually about 95 per cent). The process of rewarding the correct response to a stimulus
increases in general tendency to give a response to a stimulus.

4.2.1 STIMULUS RESPONSE CHAIN

The complex behaviour can be taught through a stimulus response chain. In this case each
response becomes the stimulus for the next response. For a simple example the rat might
be trained to press a lever to make a buzzer sound, giving this brief chain:

Stimulus > Response Stimulus > Response

Press Buzzer go to bed

Lever Sounds happier

The above type of chain can be quite long even with lower order animals. Pigeons, for
example, can be taught to dance in intricate patterns, and rat can be taught to run through
complicated mazes without error. These behaviours are built gradually step by step, with
a reward for each correct response. As regards the human behaviour, a student is given a
small amount of information and then is called upon to answer a question on the basis of
information. As soon as they respond, the student is given the desired answer.

The desired response is a confirmation of the student’s response. The information is considered
to serve the same reinforcing function for a human that the food pallet serves for a rat.

Download free eBooks at [Link]

38
This general
• List;statement is then brokenobjectives down into a series
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learner will be able to ‘do’ at each stage of the programme. In other words, all
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LEARNING expressed in operational • terms
Write;such as: Linear Programming
• Construct. • List; PROGRAMMED LEARNING

A linear• Write;
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4.3 SAMPLE OF PROGRAMME FOR A SIX-ATTRIBUTE CONCEPT
But activity itself is not enough. Theoflearner must respond to the appropriate
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of linear animal.
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13 A geyser is a natural hot spring.
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A geyser is a natural hot spring. 13
______________________________
13 which ___________________________________________
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________

Download free eBooks at [Link]

39
ais,unique
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Download free eBooks at [Link]
__________________________________________________________________________
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances 40 which ___________________________________________
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upon
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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Linear Programming
of linear programmes based on operant conditioning e.g.
But activity itself is not enough. The learner must respond to the appropriate stimuli, that
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is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ provides for continuous active responding on the part
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A geyser is a natural hot spring.

4.4 word
The FEATURES OF
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A linear programme is composed of small steps leading logically through the subject matter
__________________________________________________________________________
from topic to topic. The increments in information which the student is expected to absorb
13
are small.

The following are specific features of a linear programme:

• The arrangement of stimulus response is linear. Every learner follows the

13
same path and this is why it is called a straight-line programme. The learner
starts from their initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following a
straight-line sequence.
• The programmer controls the responses of the learner. The order of responses is
fixed by the programmer. The learner has no choice of their own. The responses
are controlled by the extrinsic factor and this is why the linear programme is
also called extrinsic programme.
• The error of the response is reduced to the minimum. The learner is allowed to
proceed by avoiding the errors. The error rate should not be more than 5 per cent.
• The emphasis is upon the response. The learner must respond actively and
accurately before they are permitted to go to the next step.
• The feedback or reinforcement is quick in the form of the knowledge
of result. The knowledge of result increases the general tendency of the
learner to give a response.
• The learner is prompted in the beginning of the programme. In the beginning
more prompts (hints or cues) are provided to the learner. Towards the end, these
prompts are gradually withdrawn and the learner is required to give responses
from their own understanding.
• Cheating is discouraged by not revealing the answers until the next frame on the
next page.

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41
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Linear Programming

• Stimulus discrimination is very important. The learner discriminates the best

occasion for the response. Stimulus discrimination is schematized by a pair of
adjacent sets of elements. The continuous process of differentiation is indicated
by chains of discriminative stimuli overlapping with one another in terms of the
elements shared between successive frames or discriminative stimuli.
• A linear programme may be used even from the lower grade because its
mechanism is easy to follow.
• The learner can skip over certain frames.

4.5 LIMITATIONS
In spite of several advantages, a linear programme has some limitations:

• It is alleged that learning becomes dull and uninspiring because of the straight path.
• It is believed that learner’s freedom of choice gets inhibited and this results in
cramping their imagination and initiative for higher levels of learning.
• The printed linear programmes involve logistic problems if they have to be
printed for a large number of students.
• There is no scope for flexibility. A particular programme may not be optimally
effective for all members of a typical class. Students differ in both previous
experience and inherent ability.
• A linear programme requires a high standard of honesty and sincerity on the
part of learners. Learners may attempt to respond without reading the frames of
the programme.

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42
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Branching Programming

5 BRANCHING PROGRAMMING

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The branching or intrinsic method of programming originated with Norman A. Crowder
(1962). It adapts to the needs of the students. The information given to a student is in
much larger steps than the linear programme, followed by multiple-choice answers, from
which the student must select the one which appears to them to be correct. According to
the item which they have chosen, they are directed to a different part of the programme
to check their answer. If their answer is correct, they proceed along the main stem of the
programme. If not, they are told why their answer is not correct and are either returned to
the original item of instruction, or branched along a sub-sequence which gives them their
additional information before they return to the stem.

Branching programme runs as shown in Fig. 5/1 below.

2a 2b

5b 5a

Fig. 5/1 Branching programme

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43
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Branching Programming

5.2 FEATURES OF BRANCHING PROGRAMME

Branching programme has the following features:

• It may be produced for use on a teaching machine or in book form. The

book form is known as a ‘scrambled text’ because the pages do not follow
in normal sequence. The learner is directed to different pages in the book
according to their choice of answer. On a teaching machine, however, they
are instructed to press a particular button corresponding to their choice of
answer. The programme is presented on film which is electrically coded to route
automatically to the appropriate frame on depression of the button. The learner
sees the frame on a small screen to which the film is projected by the machine.
An error counter records each incorrect answer chosen.
Fig. 5/2 below shows the sequence of branching.

Fig. 5/2 Sequence of branching

• The branching or intrinsic programme is based on traditional tutorial methods.

Interaction is the characteristic feature of this relationship. The student responds
to what the tutor does, and the tutor modifies their behaviour on the basis of
what the student does.
• Intrinsic programming assumes that the basic learning takes place during the
student’s exposure to the new material. Multiple-choice questions are asked
to find out whether the student has learned. It is not necessarily regarded as
playing an active part in the primary learning process. The basic purpose of the
questions asked is to control the presentation of the material.
• In a branching programme the errors are first detected and then corrected
because it is impractical and undesirable to attempt to eliminate errors.
• In branching programmes, the learner generally selects the responses but it is
not always so. Sometimes the learner has to construct the response. For example,
given a problem in multiplication of choice of response such as (a) 934 (b)
935 (c) 936, the student must work out the problem – that is, construct the
response – before they can select the answer.

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44
 • Calculate; and
2.2 • CONTINUOUS
Construct. ACTIVE RESPONDING
It makes the learner ‘do’ something at each stage. Most programmed learning has been
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Branching Programming
Programmed learning, according to Vargas and Vargas (1991), promotes diversity. It encourages
based on ‘overt’ responding. That is to say, at every stage of learning the learner is called
learners who work faster to go at their own pace. By writing behavioural objectives the
upon to give an active response, either by writing an answer or carrying out some action,
5.2.1 EXAMPLE
programmer must OF A BRANCHING
consider PROGRAMME
what learners have to do to perform competently and do so in
thus providing the teacher or programmer with feedback. Moreover, the activity of active
aA unique
branchingmanner. Greer (1980)
programme has suggested that objectives can also include the aesthetic
responding must occur at has a number
a high rate. of tracks or branches following which the learner
and emotional
attains mastery factors in instruction.
behaviour. An example of the programme type given by Crowder (1962)
PROGRAMMED LEARNING PrinciPles of Programmed learning
is as activity
But follows:itself is not enough. The learner must respond to the appropriate stimuli, that
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
This general
1 ofstatement
the book isthe
then
On‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’
page broken
student down
finds the into
first a series of smaller objectives which specify
of provides for unit of information
continuous and the first
active responding onmultiple-
the part
2.2
what
choice
of
CONTINUOUS
the learner will
question.
the learner. Eachbeof
To ensure
ACTIVE
able to
thethe
this,
‘do’ RESPONDING
at each
alternative
programmer
stage toof the
answers
provides
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programme.
constructed
In other by
is identified
response
words,
a pageall
which is typical
objectives
number. must be expressed in operationaleachterms such as:
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of linear For
makes the example,
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programmes the something
‘do’
based question
on operantonatpage 1stage.
of the
conditioning scrambled
Most book may
e.g. programmed look like
learning has this:
been
based on ‘overt’ responding. That is to say, at every stage of learning the learner is called
• Write;
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
upon to give an active response, either by writing an answer or carrying out some action,
• List;
thus providing the teacher or programmer with feedback. Moreover, the activity of active
A the•multiplication
In geyser
responding
Measure;
is amust
natural 3 xat
hot
occur 4 a= high
12 israte.
spring. called the product and the numbers 3 and 4 are called the:
• Calculate; and
The
But • Construct.
Pageword
15: Quotient
activity‘geyser’
itselfisisused
not for domestic
enough. Theappliances which
learner must ___________________________________________
respond water. (heat)
to the appropriate stimuli, that
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
Programmed learning, according to Vargas and Vargas (1991), promotes diversity. It encourages
__________________________________________________________________________
Page 29: Factor
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ provides for continuous active responding on the part
learners who work faster to go at their own pace. By writing behavioural objectives the
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
programmer
Page must consider what learners have to do to perform competently and do so in
43: programmes
Powers
of linear based on operant conditioning e.g.
a unique manner. Greer (1980) has suggested that objectives can also include the aesthetic
and emotional factors in instruction.
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

The
A student
geyser chooseshot
is a natural what they believe is the13 correct answer to the question and turns to
spring.
the page number given in front of that answer. If they have chosen the correct answer, the
2.2
The toCONTINUOUS
pageword which
‘geyser’they
is used ACTIVE
turnforwill RESPONDING
presentappliances
domestic unit of___________________________________________
the next which information, orwater.
the next concept to
(heat)
be makes
It mastered,the and
learnerthe ‘do’
nextsomething
question. Ifat they
eachhave
[Link]
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programmed learningthehas
page to
been
__________________________________________________________________________
which on
based they thereby
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responding. explain why
is to say,their answer
at every wasofincorrect,
stage learning and
the will direct
learner them
is called
to return
upon to the
to give an original choice page
active response, to by
either trywriting
again. Thus, the student
an answer finds out
or carrying the some
right action,
answer
to each
thus question.
providing the teacher or programmer with feedback. Moreover, the activity of active
responding must occur at a high rate.
The example shown above the first question in a scrambled book deals with the structure
of number
But activity system, and enough.
itself is not the first The
topic to bemust
learner developed
respondin to
thethebook is the basic
appropriate concept
stimuli, that
of they
is, exponent
must notation. The answer
get the right purposeforofthethe‘right’
first
13 question is simply
reason. The factor to
of establish whether the
operant conditioning
student
of is familiar with the use of the
‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ word ‘factor’.
provides for continuous active responding on the part
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
Thelinear
of correctional material
programmes thaton
based appears on conditioning
operant the wrong answer
e.g. page – page 43 – reads as follows:

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

A geyser is a natural hot spring.

The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________

water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
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45
2.2 CONTINUOUS ACTIVE RESPONDING
It makes the learner ‘do’ something at each stage. Most programmed learning has been
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Branching Programming
based on ‘overt’ responding. That is to say, at every stage of learning the learner is called
upon to give an active response, either by writing an answer or carrying out some action,
Page providing
thus 43 the teacher or programmer with feedback. Moreover, the activity of active
responding must occur at a high rate.
Your answer was ‘powers’.
But activity itself is not enough. The learner must respond to the appropriate stimuli, that
Youthey
is, willmust
get togetpowers of numbers
the right answer pretty
for thesoon butreason.
‘right’ we are Thenot there
factoryet. The numbers
of operant that are
conditioning
multiplied
of together to form a product are
‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ calledfor
provides ‘factors’ not ‘powers.’
continuous active responding on the part
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
Now
of return
linear to page 1 and
programmes basedchoose the rightconditioning
on operant answer. e.g.

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

The
A student
geyser who hashot
is a natural turned to page 43 will now presumably return to page 1, and choose
spring.
the right answer ‘page 29 – factor’ and turn to page 43.
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________
water. (heat)
The material on the right answer page corresponding to the first question confirms the
__________________________________________________________________________
correctness of the student’s choice and introduces the next concept.

13


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Click on the ad to read more
46
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Branching Programming

There is an emphasis on explanation of error rather than a prevention of errors and on the
need to enrich the meaning of a correct response. In this framework, errors are looked upon
as opportunities for further explanation and ratification of subjective conceptions rather
than as evil elements that interrupt the learning process.

5.3 LIMITATIONS OF BRANCHING PROGRAMME

A branching programme may have the following limitations:

• The learner can find the correct answer by the process of elimination or guessing
rather than by understanding. However, some later audio-visual branching
devices have taken steps toward eliminating this problem.
• It is said that no branching method, either printed or in an elaborate computer
programme, can provide infinite branching to take care of all possible needs of
every individual student. The human has the best branching system available in
the form of the brain. No amount of branching can overcome poor instruction.
• Since the cost of any branching programming is – initially at least – rather high
when compared to traditional teaching approaches, it would seldom be profitable
to re-programme extensively every two or three years.
• The branching programmes can be used only in higher grades as the younger
ones may not be able to understand the mechanism.

There has been some disagreement among researchers and practitioners of audio-visual
techniques about the effectiveness of certain stimuli, interference between stimuli, the nature
of response and other critical issues. However, as knowledge and practical experience are
growing, more imaginative programming is being done.

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47
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Mathetics Programming

6 MATHETICS PROGRAMMING

6.1 ORIGIN AND MEANING

The basic precepts of Mathetics were originally formulated by Thomas F. Gilbert (1962). The
term is derived from the Greek word ‘mathein’ meaning ‘to learn’. A Mathetics programme
begins, as does any other well-thought-out instructional plan, with a detailed analysis of
what is to be taught. Gilbert emphasises that analysis must concentrate on learner’s activity
and subject matter coverage.

Although mathetical programming may be applied to any subject, the emphasis on task
simulation makes it a particularly suitable vehicle for teaching skills where transfer of training
forms an essential part of instruction. For skills learned in the classroom to be transferred
to job situations, a high degree of simulation, or use of actual equipment, is required, and
many mathetical programmes are, therefore, described as ‘kits’ or simulators. The pictures
and diagrams in various stages of completion are also liberally used.

6.2 FORMAT
One of the basic concepts of mathetics is to start with the most motivating task. As with
serial task, this is likely to be the last operation which completes the process. Backward
chaining is sometimes applied in mathetical programmes. The entire chain of operation is
displayed to the learner. The learner then completes the last task in the serial, then the last
but one and so on regressing through the chain.

6.2.1 STEPS

The basic steps in mathetical programmes are:

• Data collection and task analysis;

• Prescription for mastery;
• Characterisation and lesson plan;
• Exercise writing; and
• Editing.

The mathetics programme runs like this:

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48
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Mathetics Programming

1. 6
D
2. 5 6
D P
3. 4 5 6
D P R
4. 3 4 5 6
D P R R
5. 2 3 4 5 6
D P R R R
6. 1 2 3 4 5 6
P P R R R R
7. 1 2 3 4 5 6
R R R R R R

Legend:

D = Demonstrated to and performed by the learner P = Prompted R = Released

As is seen in the diagrammatic representation, the number of steps always exceeds the
number of operants by two, in a simple chain sequence. The learner always completes the
sequence until they can finally accomplish the task without prompts.

There are various stages of development of the mathetics programmes. Retrogressive chaining
represents the aspect of the mathetical approach that makes it unique among all the styles
of programming.

6.2.2 RATIONALE

The rationale for the retrogressive chaining technique is that the closer the student is to the
reinforcement when they are being taught the more effective that reinforcement becomes. The
reinforcement, in this case, is the completion of the task. Each time the student performs,
they complete the task.

The six-frame sequence that follows uses retrogressive chaining to teach a mathetics procedure.
It is an example of how this technique looks when applied to an academic subject.

It is designed to teach you something by making you apply the knowledge you already have
plus new information that this programme will supply.

Download free eBooks at [Link]

49
 • Measure;
But activity itself is not enough. The learner must respond to the appropriate stimuli, that
2.2 • CONTINUOUS
Calculate; and ACTIVE RESPONDING
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
PROGRAMMED
• Construct. LEARNING PrinciPles of Programmed learning
It
of makes the learner ‘do’ somethingprovides
‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
at each for stage. Most programmed
continuous active Matheticslearning
responding onhas the been
Programming
part
based on ‘overt’
of the learner. To responding.
ensure this, the Thatprogrammer
is to say, atprovidesevery stage of learning
constructed the learner
response which isistypical
called
This general statement
Programmed is then broken
learning, according to Vargasdown andinto
Vargas a series
(1991), of smaller
promotes objectives
[Link] specify
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upon
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on operant writing an e.g.
conditioning answer or carrying out some action,
6.3 the
what
learners SAMPLE
wholearnerwork PROGRAMME
will be able
faster to go to at
‘do’their
at each
own [Link] programme.
writing In other
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objectives all
thus providing the teacher or programmer with feedback. Moreover, the activity of active
objectives
programmer mustmust be consider
expressedwhat in operational
learners have terms to dosuch to as:
perform competently and do so in
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
responding must occur at a high rate.
a unique manner. Greer (1980)PROGRAMMED has suggested LEARNING
that objectives can also include the aesthetic PrinciPles of Programmed

and
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emotional
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activity natural hot enough.
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PROGRAMMED
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symbol, or whatever, in the [Link] general statement is then
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning broken down into a series of smaller objectiv
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the learner will be able to ‘do’ responding
atwater.
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__________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
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A geyser is a natural hot spring.

A geyser is a natural hot [Link] word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which __________________
water

_____________________________________________________________
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________
water. (heat)
13 at [Link]
Download free eBooks
__________________________________________________________________________
50
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
2.2
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13
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13 13

13 13 13
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51
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13

13

A geyser is a natural hot spring.

13

6.3.1
The SIGNIFICANCE
word OF domestic
‘geyser’ is used for appliances which ___________________________________________
THE STEPS water. (heat)
The following are the significant points of this programme:
__________________________________________________________________________

• The entire chain is repeated each time in this sample programme. Each exercise
includes the entire process, part of it supplied by the programme and part of it
supplied by the student. Every exercise of the programme increases the student’s
share and decreases the amount supplied by the programme.
• There are teaching exercises where prompts are used to help the learner to
13
give the desired response. In mathetics the testing exercises are called release
where no prompts are provided just as the last exercise is a release exercise
in the above model.

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52
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Mathetics Programming

• In developing a retrogressive chaining sequence, the first task is to identify

the mastery step of the procedure. This is the step that completes the task or
procedure to be learned. In teaching a chain using the method, the programme
supplies the student with all of the steps leading up to the mastery step and
prompt them to perform this step, and releases the student to practise it. The
basic concept of retrogressive chaining is:
-- Demonstration;
-- Prompting;
-- Release.
• Mathetics is a complete training system that gives the programme:
-- A guide for determining what to teach;
-- The basis for making teaching strategy decisions;
-- A detailed procedure for constructing a programme.
• Mathetics is somewhat eclectic in nature, but is unique in application, if not in
principles. All inclusively, mathetics is a step toward a technology of education.

6.4 LIMITATION
For each illustration in the sample programme (6.3), a very short mathematical procedure
was used. Basically, it consists of only three steps. In teaching a longer chain, obviously,
the programme would become extremely bulky if the programmer were to repeat, or have
the student repeat, every step of the entire chain each time.

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53
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Computer Assisted Learning

7 COMPUTER ASSISTED LEARNING

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The advent of Programmed Learning brought in its wake the hardware – the teaching
machine – which led to a revolutionary change in the educational system. Then came the
computers, and Programmed Learning quietly transformed itself into Computer Assisted
Learning (CAL). The latest information system is that of writing CAL programmes. It is
one of the most creative new skills that have evolved very effectively.

7.2 WHAT IS CAL?

CAL is a learning programme which is self-paced, and provides for constructed response and
immediate feedback. To describe simply, it is about the technique of breaking down information
and skills into small pieces. The student is enabled to work at the learning task in stages
which are simple and achievable. They are able to move forward from one small conceptual
step to another. This they do with the help of timely feedback from the CAL programme.

CAL is not a short cut to learning. It is not a way of teaching without a teacher, but it is
a method of teaching which has measurable objectives. Its sequences are pre-arranged, and
it is self-correcting. The role of the teacher becomes rather more significant, particularly
when they become CAL writers, and provide valuable guidance to their students in the
teaching-learning situation.

CAL is a method of presenting educational material to a learner through a computer

program which provides for individual interaction. A whole range of skills and theoretical
knowledge is put into a CAL program.

CAL is not a teaching aid. It is a complete system of teaching. A CAL program takes a
student from one definable skill to another without interference from any one. The student
gets stimulation in a structured manner, and they are able to respond to the CAL program
individually, actively, and at their own speed. The learning skills get reinforced as they get
accurate and immediate feedback from the computer. If programmed skilfully, computer-
based teaching has a distinct advantage over traditional classroom teaching.

Every student has a different learning speed. Their attributes are different from those of
others, and before they are asked to attempt a new learning task, the teacher must think
about the pre-existing long-term memories in the student’s brain. Moreover, everyone has

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Computer Assisted Learning

their own unique rhythm of attention span which rises and falls every 90 minutes. An
ideal learning system is one that conforms to the pace of the student. The computer very
effectively performs this task.

Contrary to textbook writers who tend to write scientific history and try to present the main
theory or definition in the beginning of a chapter, a CAL program moves from the general
to the specific. It tries to recreate a concept in the same order in which it was formed.
It also moves from the simple to the complex, thus adding one fact to another and then
another in a long chain.

7.3 TECHNIQUE OF CAL WRITING

A CAL unit is a set of frames that a student is expected to complete in one session comfortably.
When information is broken down in small steps, each step is called a ‘frame’. This frame
presents a short piece of text on the computer monitor. A typical example of this is given
in different frames given below:

Frame 1

Look at the square

How will you draw another square exactly twice its size?

The problem is how to draw a square ––––––––––– the size of the first one.

Type the missing word.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Computer Assisted Learning

Frame 2.1

She bought a necklace of red rubies.

The colour of a ruby is –––––––––––.

Type the missing word.

Frame 2.2

Like a ruby, a garnet is ––––––––––– in colour.

Type the missing word.

Frame 2.3

The colour of garnet is –––––––––––.

Type the missing word.

In view of the limitation of human being’s attention span, a unit requiring 40 to 60 minutes
to complete would be an ideal one. The total number of frames in a unit may vary depending
upon the nature of the material. In the early stages of a new subject, a unit may have as
many as 150 frames or more.

7.4 TYPES OF FRAMES

• Introductory frames: The frames through which new facts or concepts are
introduced are called introductory frames. A typical CAL program will have
several I-frames (Introductory frames) at various stages, particularly at the
beginning of the program.
• Test frames: Each I-frame is immediately followed by a T-frame (Test frame). If
the concept introduced in the I-frame is a difficult one, there may be a number
of I-frames.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Computer Assisted Learning

• Link frames: After the new facts or concepts have made an impact on the
student’s mind, L-frames (Link frames) are introduced in order to associate these
facts with others in the program. The L-frames serve the purpose of associating
and comparing the information in a discriminating manner. A CAL writer looks
for as many relevant associations as possible.
• Final Test frames: These are in a way comprehensible L-frames, and contain
most of the facts or concepts that have been presented in the program. They
contain actual examination questions or parts of them.

7.5 THE STRUCTURE OF A CAL UNIT

When the new information that is presented in a CAL unit is not likely to have association
with existing material with the student, it should be introduced at an early stage of the
program. This will enable the student to form new associations as well as connect the new
ones with those they already possess subconsciously.

On the other hand, the new information is likely to have a strong association with the
knowledge already known to the student; it can be introduced at various stages throughout
the program. This regularity of introduction will affect the shaping of concepts. However,
it is essential that the student has plenty of practice after the new information has been
introduced. Hence nothing new should be introduced during the last stages – about 15
minutes of the unit.

A CAL writer may not necessarily be aware of the knowledge existing in the student’s mind
before they prepare a unit, but they can definitely make some assumptions based on the
experience and ability of the student. Drawbacks, if any, will be revealed during the testing
stage, and the same may be rectified accordingly. A strong foundation can be built if a
course contains a long series of units.

A CAL program can be written either in the linear or in the branching style depending
upon the complexity of the subject or the objectives of the CAL writer. In a linear program
the student moves from one definable level of skill to another and higher one through a
path that remains almost invariable. No loose ends for thoughts are left out. On the other
hand, a branching program allows a student to give different responses. Depending upon
their response, they are taken into one of several possible sub-routes before they are finally
brought back to the main route. This type of program enables the better students to move
faster, and at the same time allows the others to learn the concepts well before they are
allowed to move further.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Computer Assisted Learning

7.5.1 STAGES OF A CAL UNIT

Before a CAL unit is presented to the students it must pass through the following stages:

• Before starting to write a program, the CAL writer should read as many
textbooks as possible in order to turn the material into the form of conceptual
hierarchy or an organisation chart. Each unit should also end with specific and
measurable educational objectives.
• Depending upon the nature of the subject, the structure of the unit and the
distribution of different types of frames should be decided.
• After writing a CAL program it needs to be vetted by a subject-matter expert at
the manuscript stage itself.
• After a unit has been completed, it should be tried out at the manuscript
stage with the help of a student. The student cannot be blamed for incorrect
responses. In such cases the CAL writer should discuss the unit with the student,
and then make necessary modifications.
• After the pilot trial the unit should be given to several students of the target
population. A success rate of 95 per cent is required from the first frame to
the last of the unit. The same success rate is required for the total number of
students responding.
• After this field testing only the unit should be given for coding by a programmer
who would put the program in assembly language. During the coding of
the unit it is necessary that the CAL writer and the programmer remain
in constant touch with each other so that if there are any ambiguities they
can be sorted out.
• The final stage is that of documentation and publication. The programmer
should document the program well so that it may be possible to have
translations and enhancements if any need for doing so arises in future.

7.6 CAL AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

We are now passing through the age of information. The growth and development of
computers has given unprecedented support to this trend. Consequent upon the information
explosion there has been a vast increase in the number of specialized jobs. CAL is going
to be developed – and is already being developed – not only for the normal school and
university curricula but also for a vast horde of specialised jobs. The prospects for CAL
are truly phenomenal. In view of this, it is necessary that we provide the students with
sufficient knowledge of Information Technology – both hardware and software – so that
they can benefit from the latest educational technology. At the same time teachers also

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Computer Assisted Learning

need to be exposed to computers. In modern times computer literacy is a basic skill which
all teachers should be capable of handling. The wider potential of computer literacy needs
to be acknowledged by educational administrators and planners, and be made available to
teachers and students alike. A lot of work has already been done in this matter, but much
more still needs to be done.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Preparation of Programme

8 PREPARATION OF PROGRAMME

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The writing of a good programme involves a lot of technicalities. It calls for several specialised
skills. The making of a programme is very challenging and time-consuming exercise. It is
here that the ingenuity of a programmer is put to test. The programmer must have complete
mastery over the subject matter which they are going to programme. They should also be
well-versed in various techniques of programming.

8.2 PROGRAMME PREPARATION STAGES

Preparation stage consists of the following steps:

• Selection of a topic (unit) to be programmed;

• Writing assumptions about learners;
• Defining objectives in behavioural terms;
• Defining pre-requisite knowledge and skills in behavioural terms;
• Developing a criterion test;
• Developing the content outline.

8.2.1 SELECTION OF A TOPIC (UNIT) TO BE PROGRAMMED

The following are the six criteria for the selection of a unit to be programmed:

• The topic selected for a programme should belong directly to the programmer’s
own field of study. Before selecting a unit, the following questions are to be
asked:

-- “Is this something the student must know”?

-- “Is it hard for them to get a good explanation from other sources”?

If the answer is not in the positive, the programmer must not select that topic.

• The subject matter should be simple and generally accepted.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Preparation of Programme

• The length of a unit is another criterion for the selection of a unit. The
beginners should select short units which they can use, evaluate and revise in a
fairly brief period of time.

• Depressed level of learning shown by many students who had been taught by
conventional methods of instruction is another criterion for the selection of a
unit. The programmer should select a unit from such field of knowledge as is a
stumbling block to the learner.

• Logical order of material is another criterion to be followed in the selection

of a unit to be programmed. It is very helpful for the programmer to select a
unit that contains its own inner logic so that the arrangement of items may be
simplified.

• Special student needs are also one of the important criteria in selecting a topic
to be programmed.

8.2.2 WRITING ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE LEARNERS

The programmer must describe fully and accurately the characteristics of the learners for
whom they are writing the programme. They should describe the age, gender, skills, interests
and ambitions of their students. The skills brought to the learning situation by one group
may differ markedly from the skills of another group and yet both may have the same
training objective. To take an example, you want to teach your subject to ride a bicycle on
the motorway. Assume that the subjects are two boys, one six-year-old, the other sixteen,
and that neither had ridden a bicycle before. There is no reason why they will not learn
with equal facility the skills of actually riding a bicycle. But when it comes to reading road
signs, an important part of riding on the motorway, the initial skills of the 16-year old
boy or girl will put them in quite a different category from the 6-year old. Presumably, the
older one will be able to read the warning signs at sight, whereas the 6-year old may well
have to be taught the meanings of the various shapes and symbols. The final performance
may be equal, but the instructions needed will have to be different for each one.

The programmer, therefore, must list basic assumptions about learners in very objective
and concrete terms. These characteristics of learners – their ability, their background and
their purpose – are considered important for undertaking to state assumptions about them
in specific terms.

The programmer should be quite frank in writing assumptions about learners. They should
not be concerned about its length or its literary style.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Preparation of Programme

8.2.3 DEFINING OBJECTIVES IN BEHAVIOURAL TERMS

The writing of objectives in behavioural terms is a very important and useful exercise. The
programmer must write down the points of their programme – the performance by which
they judge when the student has attained the goals of their instructions.

This may look like back-to-front procedure, but there is a reason for this approach. The final
skill is something all your students are going to have in common. The initial skill levels,
on the other hand, may vary widely from one another, particularly if the programmer is
instructing adults.

Defining the objectives is the most critical step in programming. By doing a thorough
job at this step, the programmer should define objectives not only with care but also in
considerable details.

The programmer should not try to write a programme without a much clear statement of
what the student must do.

Robert Mager (1962) suggests that a programmer should write objectives by asking these
questions:

-- “What will the student be doing when they are demonstrating proficiency”?
-- “Under what conditions will this behaviour occur”?
-- “What is the level of acceptable performance”?

In writing behavioural objectives, one should begin with an action word – cut, list, assemble,
add, and so on.

The programmer should write an objective for every single skill that they want their learner
to exhibit. If the programmer writes their objectives in fine enough detail, they should be
able to write a final directly from the objectives. Objectives can be formulated with the
help of Taxonomy of Objectives.

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, developed by B.S. Bloom (1956), is basically a

classification in a hierarchy. The following are the major categories in Bloom’s Cognitive
Domain of Educational Objectives:

• Knowledge: Knowledge is the lowest level in the cognitive domain. It is defined

as the acquisition of factual information.
• Comprehension: It is the lowest level of understanding. The learner is in a
position to present the information in their own words.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Preparation of Programme

• Application: It refers to the ability to use the knowledge already acquired

correctly in particular situations.
• Analysis: It refers to the ability of the students to classify or to break up
material into its components.
• Synthesis: The educational objectives at this level refer to the ability to put parts
together to form a whole.
• Evaluation: Evaluation is the highest level in the hierarchical development
of intellectual abilities. It refers to the ability to judge the value of concepts,
material and procedure etc.

8.2.4 DEFINING PRE-REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE AND

SKILL IN BEHAVIOURAL TERMS

The programmer should properly define the pre-requisite knowledge and skill which their
learner is expected to evidence at the time of taking the programme. The programmer should
regard their list of pre-requisite skills as provisional until they have proved them on a group
of students. The first list of pre-requisite skill is an ‘arm chair’ list, a list of debating points,
and not a collection of solid facts.

There is no fundamental difference in defining both objectives and pre-requisite skill in

behavioural terms but the only important thing is that this time the programmer works
with assumptions.

The list of pre-requisite skills should be prepared in terms of an empirical study conducted
on a representative sample of learners for whom the programme is being prepared. For this
a diagnostic test may be given to a sample of students and on the basis of errors committed
by students, a whole list of pre-requisite skills may be safely developed. It is always better
to define such items in behavioural terms.

8.2.5 DEVELOPING A CRITERION TEST

Writing of criterion test is an important task which should be completed at the preparation
stage of programme development. It helps to sharpen the list of objectives and the list of
pre-requisite skills.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Preparation of Programme

According to Glaser (1965), criterion test is deliberately constructed to yield measurements

that are directly interpretable in terms of specified performance standard. It is quite different
from an achievement test which is designed to ascertain the individual’s achievement in
relationship with some normative group rather than some established criterion of performance.
Hence it requires a completely redesigned technique of test development, different from
that of an achievement test.

Developing a criterion test means designing such test items which would measure student’s
performance on clearly specified learning tasks in an effective manner of a criterion test.
The construction of a criterion test involves the following steps:

• Step-1: Delimit the area to be tested.

• Step-2: State the objectives and define them in specific terms.
• Step-3: Make a content outline.
• Step-4: Prepare a table of specifications.
• Step-5: Set standard of performance.
• Step-6: Select the item types to be used.
• Step-7: Write the test items.
• Step-8: Assemble the items into a test.
• Step-9: Provide for test interpretation.
• Step-10: Review and edit the test items.
• Step-11: Try out the test.
• Step-12: Establish the validity for the test.
• Step-13: Ascertain the reliability of the test.
• Step-14: Get the test printed.

Generally, criterion test is administered at the completion of the programme to test whether
the learner has achieved the specified behavioural objectives.

8.2.6 DEVELOPING THE CONTENT OUTLINE

Developing a list of contents is very important for a programmer. They need to develop a
suitable content structure which would go with the programme as such. The programmer
should write the complete information. They should list all the relevant examples, illustrations,
diagrams, maps, charts and the concepts which would be included in the content of a
programme. The whole structure of content should be reviewed by an expert in the subject.
The subject matter should be authentic.

The programmer may be programming for a learning situation they once experienced. This
valuable source of ideas should not be neglected. The programmer should think retrospectively
and the past experience should be used.
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64
 • Write; what the learner will be able to ‘do’ at each stage of the programme. In other wor
This general statement must
• List;objectives is thenbebroken
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PROGRAMMED LEARNINGLEARNING
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based on ‘overt’ responding. That is to say, at every stage of learning the learner is called
programmer 2.2 CONTINUOUS
response, either ACTIVE
must consider what learners have to RESPONDING do to perform competently and do so in
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provides of operant of active
conditioning
response which is
responding must
of linearoccur
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ at a high rate.
programmes provides
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ensure
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provides constructed backbones
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therefore
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–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
is,
Thethey
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of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’
A geyser is a natural hot provides spring. for continuous active responding on the part
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
__________________________________________________________________________
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
Response:
of
A geyser avertebrates
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natural
The wordhotbasedspring.
‘geyser’ on operant
is used conditioning
for domestic e.g. which _________________________
appliances water. (heat)

The _____________________________________________________________________
word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ____________________________________
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
In geyser
A this example response
is a natural the word ‘vertebrates’ is given in the frame itself and the
hot spring.
learner has to copy out the response. 13

The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ____________________________________

water. (heat)
• Echoic response: According to Skinner (1957), in teaching pronunciation
__________________________________________________________________________
of language or phonics, the stimulus is a sound pattern and 13 the response is
reproducing (or echoing) what is heard.
13

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65 13
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Priming, Prompting and Testing

• Demonstration: When a programmer starts their frame, they show a number of

actions to the learner and showing of actions helps the learner to give a desired
response.

9.1.2 LIMITATIONS OF PRIMING

Priming is useful only in introductory frames, and if a programmer uses more and more
priming in teaching frames, it may happen that the learner may give correct response without
understanding the frame. The student responds correctly to all the frames but fails on the
test of terminal behaviour.

Moreover, in many cases priming can be the wrong step for a programmer to take. It will
slow down the progress towards the unaided mastery response.

9.2 PROMPTING
Prompting refers to the operation of providing prompts that help a student to give correct
answers. A prompt is a supplementary stimulus – a hint, a cue or a bit of assistance – that
helps the student to come up with a correct response. Thus, these are two characteristics
of prompting:

• Something is added to the terminal stimulus to make the frame easier; and
• What has been added is not sufficient to produce the response by itself.

9.2.1 FUNCTIONS OF PROMPTS

The following functions of prompts have been identified by researchers in the field of
programmed instruction:

• The first function of prompts is to guide the learner to the correct response
without over-controlling their behaviour. Thus, they enrich the student’s learning
by helping them to discover new response.
• The second function of prompts is to prevent the student from making
unnecessary errors, or reduction of errors and error rate. The use of prompts
in a programme enables the learner to make – with minimum errors –
the correct response.

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 PROGRAMMED LEARNING PrinciPles of Programmed learning
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Priming, Prompting and Testing

This general statement is then broken downPROGRAMMED into a seriesLEARNING

of smaller objectives which specify
9.2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PROMPTS
what the learner will be able to ‘do’ at each stage of the programme. In other words, all
B.F. Skinner (1957)must
PROGRAMMED
objectives has classified
LEARNING
be expressed prompts into twoThis
in operational major
terms categories:
such
general PrinciPles
as:
statement of Programmed learning
is then broken down into a seri
what the learner will be able to ‘do’ at each stage of
• This
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general
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is then broken downobjectives Stimulus)
into a series
must that
of be has
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expressed which specify
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to increase
what •theList; the probability
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‘do’ at each response
stage (Brethower,
of the programme. 1963). ItInprovides
other words, all
the student
PROGRAMMED
objectives must
• Measure; with beinformation
LEARNING expressed inabout the structure
operational terms • of
suchthe acceptable
PrinciPles
Write; as: of response,
Programmed learning

but not its meaning.

• Calculate; and A formal prompt aids the •stimulus List; to select from among
responses
This general
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statement
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into •a series
Measure;of smaller objectives which specify
• what
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water. (heat)
67
 is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
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to the direct interchangeability of stimuli. For example, both the figures

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13

Download free eBooks at [Link]

68
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69
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for the ‘right’ feedback. TheMoreover, the activity
factor of operant of active
conditioning
PROGRAMMED
objectives must
• Measure; LEARNING
be expressed in operational terms such PrinciPles
as: of Programmed learning
responding must occur at a high rate.
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ • Write;
provides for continuous active responding on the part
• Calculate; and • List;
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
This LEARNING
PROGRAMMED general
• Write; statement is then broken down into a series
Construct. • of smaller
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and Testing
But activity
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programmes enough.
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what •theList; learner will be able to ‘do’ at each stage •ofCalculate; the programme. and In other words, all
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learning, according in to
operational
Vargas andtermsVargassuch•(1991),as: promotes diversity. It encourages
Construct.
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ provides for continuous
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– active responding on the part
learners • Calculate;
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• Write;
programmer Construct.
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spring.
a unique • List;manner. Greer (1980) has suggestedlearners that objectives
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to go at thetheir
aesthetic
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and emotional learning,
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in instruction. promotes diversity. Itlearners
encourages
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliancesprogrammer
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– must consider what
which ____________________________________
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learners • Calculate;
who work and faster to go at their owna pace. [Link] Greerbehavioural
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programmer Construct.
must
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__________________________________________________________________________
In geyser word context do of to the
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atheunique
nervemanner.
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learner hashas suggested
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2.2
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CONTINUOUS
emotional
word ‘geyser’
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based on ‘overt’ responding. That is to say, at every stage of learning the is called
a
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feedback. the form of
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CONTINUOUS
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must to limit
getthethethe
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RESPONDING
responses the reason.
with
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13 student
feedback. canMoreover,
The make of
factor without
the activity
operant of active
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not livesoninoperant
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must respond e.g. to . the appropriate stimuli, that
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––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which
geyser ____________________________________
continuous
is a naturalactive hotresponding
water. (heat)
spring. on the part
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__________________________________________________________________________
AResponse:
of geyser aelephant
linear isprogrammes
natural hotbased on operant conditioning
spring. The worde.g. ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which

word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances__________________________________________

which ____________________________________
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
The water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
In geyser
A the above
is a example, article
natural hot ‘an’ helps the learner to give correct response – response
spring.
will begin with a vowel.
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances 13 which ____________________________________
water. (heat)
• Synonyms and antonyms prompt: Synonyms and antonyms may be used to
__________________________________________________________________________
limit the response range by prompting similar and opposite responses. 13

13

13

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72
 It
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say, with
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(1991), of
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feedback. smaller
promotes
to learning objectives
diversity. which
It
the activity
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encourages
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active
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writing behavioural In other words,
objectives all
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2.2theytoCONTINUOUS
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get the
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rate. writing an answer
reason. The factoror carrying
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some action,
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providingmust
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that
based
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emotional responding.
factors
Programmed in That
instruction.
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to Vargasstageand of learning the learner is called
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get the right prompt:
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upon •to List;
giveitself
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of activity enough. learner
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stimuli,
on the part that objec
thus
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learning, teacher
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for the and
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––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
of the To ensure this, whatVargas
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learners
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responding objectives
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part
2.2
programmer
of
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geyser CONTINUOUS
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is must
andensure
usually
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a natural consider
emotional
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when
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the an RESPONDING
learners haveprovides
in instruction.
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do toconstructed
perform
is promptly competently
rewarded
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linear itself
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programmes. isGreer not enough.
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that respond
objectives tocanthe also
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include the stimuli, that
aesthetic
the learner ‘do’ something at conditioning
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
It makes each stage. Most e.g. programmed learning has been
is, they
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and must learning,
emotional getfactors
isthe right
accordinganswer to for
inforinstruction. Vargasthe and‘right’
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(1991),Thepromotes
factor of diversity.
operant(heat)
conditioning
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The
basedword on ‘geyser’ used
‘overt’ responding. domestic
That isappliances
to say, at which every ____________________________________
stage of learningwater. the learner is called
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’
learners who work faster provides for continuous
to go at their own pace. By writing behavioural objectives
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– active responding on the part the
A geyser
upon to isgive
a natural
an active hotresponse,
spring. either by writing an answer or carrying out some action,
of the [Link] To ensure this,what
the programmer haveprovides
__________________________________________________________________________ toconstructed response which and isdotypical
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programmer consider learners ACTIVE to doRESPONDING
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the teacher or programmer with feedback. Moreover, the activity of active
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unique areinforced
word manner. hotbased
Greer (1980)on operant
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that e.g.
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the aesthetic
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responding natural
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mustIt ismakesused
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‘do’ something which at____________________________________
each stage. Most programmed learning
2.2 CONTINUOUS
and emotional ACTIVE RESPONDING
factors in instruction.
based on ‘overt’ responding. That is to say, at every stage of learning the learner
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
__________________________________________________________________________
The word ‘geyser’ isisused for domestic ____________________________________
It
But makes
activity theitself
learner
upon to‘do’
not something
enough.
give Theappliances
an active at each must
learner
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stage. Most
respond
either programmed
to the an
by writing water.
appropriate
answer (heat)
learning has been
orstimuli,
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based
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the ‘overt’
get
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for
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teacher say,or atprogrammer
‘right’toevery
give stage
reason. The offactor
with learning theMoreover,
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feedback. learner is the
called
conditioning activity
A geyser is word
a natural‘reward’ hot spring. learner
__________________________________________________________________________ correct response that should
upon
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be ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’
a similar responding response,
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for ‘rewarded’. either atbya writing
provides high [Link] answer active
continuous or carrying
respondingout someon the action,
part
2.2
thus
CONTINUOUS
of theproviding
learner. Tothe teacher
ensure
ACTIVE
this,orthe programmer
RESPONDING
programmer 13
with feedback.
provides Moreover,
constructed the activity
response which is oftypical
active
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ____________________________________ water. (heat)
It
of makes
responding the
linear programmes
Example: learner
mustButoccur
Antonym ‘do’at something
based
activity
prompt: aitself
high notatenough.
israte.
on operant each stage.
conditioning Most
e.g. programmed
The learner must respondlearning has been stim
to the appropriate
based on ‘overt’is,responding.
they must get Thattheisright
to say,answer
__________________________________________________________________________ at every stage
for the of learning
‘right’ reason. The the learner
factor ofis operant
called cond
upon to giveitselfan 13
But activity of active
is notresponse,
enough. The either by writing
learner
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ an
must respond answer
provides or
toforthe carrying
appropriate
continuous outactive
some
stimuli,action,
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responding
thus
is, theyproviding
must get ofthetheteacher orToprogrammer
right answer
learner. for the
ensure this, with
‘right’ feedback.
reason.
the programmer TheMoreover, the activity
factor of constructed
provides operant of activewhich
conditioning
response
Reinforcement which consists 13
responding
of
A is amust occur
‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’
geyser natural
of linear hot at a of
[Link]
programmes presenting
[Link]
based sought
onfor after stimuli
continuous
operant (food)
activeisresponding
conditioning called positive
e.g. on the part
reinforcement;
of the learner. To reinforcement
ensure this, which consists of provides
the programmer terminating unpleasant
constructed stimuliwhich
response (loudis typical
noise)
But
of
The linear
wordis called
activity itself
programmes
‘geyser’ isisused
not enough.
based
for on reinforcement.
Theappliances
operant
domestic learner must
conditioningwhich
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– ____________________________________
respond
e.g. to the appropriate water. (heat)stimuli, that
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
13
__________________________________________________________________________
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ provides
spring. for continuous active responding on the part
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
A geyser is a natural hot
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
Response:
of
A geyser anegative
linear isprogrammes
natural
The word hotbased
[Link] isoperant
‘geyser’ used forconditioning
domestic appliancese.g. which ________________________ water. (heat)

The ___________________________________________________________________
word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ____________________________________
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
Here
A theisphrase
geyser ‘the termination
a natural hot spring. of unpleasant13stimuli’ suggests that correct response
should be the opposite of the word ‘positive’.
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ____________________________________
water. (heat)
• Prompting with thematic redundancy: Quite often people use more words
__________________________________________________________________________
to express an idea than a truly efficient use of language would 13 call for. Such
thematic redundancy can be very useful as a prompt in verbal programming. An
example of this can be found in teaching a second
13 language.

• Analogy prompt: Analogy may be used as prompts to respond correctly. The

procedure of using analogy is to present a complete analogy in the text of a
frame followed by an incomplete analogy to13which the student responds.

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73
 based on ‘overt’ responding. That isthus to say, at every
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or programmer withis feedback.
called M
upon to giveitself
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enough. The either by writing
learner
responding mustmust anoccur
answer
respond to or
at athe carrying
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2.2
thus
is, they
• CONTINUOUS
PROGRAMMED Write;
providing
LEARNING
This
must getthe general
theteacher
ACTIVE
statement
or programmer
right answer
RESPONDING
is then
for the ‘right’ broken
with reason. down
feedback.
PrinciPles of Programmed learning
into
TheMoreover, a series of smaller
the activity
factor of operant objectives
of active whic
conditioning
• List; what the learner will be able to ‘do’Priming, at each Prompting
stage
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
It
of makes
responding themust
learner
occur‘do’
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a high rate. at activity
provides
But each for stage.
itself Most activeofresponding
is notprogrammed
continuous enough.
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learning
learner on has
must
In
the been
partother w
respond to
This general
• Measure; statement
objectives is must
then broken
be down in
expressed into a series of terms
operational smallersuch objectives
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based on ‘overt’
of the learner. To responding.
ensure this, the Thatprogrammer
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atprovides
every stage
get the of learning
constructed
right answer thethe
response
for learner
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typical
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Example:•the learner
Calculate; will
and be able to ‘do’ at each stage of the programme. In other words, all
upon
But
of to give
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on operant of by
learner writing an e.g.
must respond
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appropriateout some
provides stimuli,
for action,
that
continuous
PROGRAMMED
objectives must
• [Link]
be expressed in operational terms suchPrinciPles as: of Programmed learning
thus
is, theyproviding
must getthe •right
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answer for with reason.
feedback. TheMoreover, the activity of activeconstru
of the
the ‘right’
learner. To ensure factor
this, theofprogrammer
operant conditioning
provides
responding
of • List;
must occur at a high rate.
‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ ofprovides
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– for continuous
linear programmes based active responding
on operant on the parte.g.
conditioning
This general
• Write;
Programmed statement
learning, • is then broken
according
Measure; to Vargas down andinto
Vargas a series
(1991), of smaller
promotes objectives
[Link] specify
It encourages
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
what
learners•theList;
dollar learner
who work will be
faster
•hot able
to go
Calculate; to at
‘do’
and at each
their own [Link] programme.
writing behavioural In other words, the
objectives all
But
of linear
A geyser ishas
activity 100
a itself
programmes
natural cents.
is not Aenough.
based meter
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programmer must be consider
expressed in operational
what learners have termsto do suchto as:
perform competently and do so in
is, they must get the•right Construct.
answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
a unique• Calculate;
manner. Greer and (1980) has suggested that objectives can also include the aesthetic
____________________________________
of
The‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ provides
geyser is for
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic Aappliances awhichcontinuous
natural active responding
hot spring. water. (heat) on the part
• Write;
and [Link] in instruction.
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which isdiversity.
Programmed learning, according to Vargas and Vargas (1991), promotes typical It en
• List; learners who work faster conditioning
to go at their own pace. By writing behavioural
__________________________________________________________________________
Response: objec
Aof geyser a100
linear isprogrammes
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[Link] operant The word ‘geyser’ is e.g. used for domestic appliances which _______
• Measure;
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Vargas and Vargas
what (1991),
learners have promotes
to do todiversity.
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who work a uniqueand
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has suggested writing thatbehavioural
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The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic __________________________________________________
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appliances which water. can
____________________________________ also include
(heat)
2.2 • CONTINUOUS
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must
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what RESPONDING
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in instruction.
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isthe learner
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has suggested
__________________________________________________________________________
Response tendencies
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statingthe aesthetic
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based on subject matter [Link]
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is to say, such at frames
every stagepresent the statement
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a__________________________________________________________________________
inunique
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13
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75
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__________________________________________________________________________
3. geyser
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13

is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
of
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word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances for
A geyserwhich is a____________________________________
continuousnaturalactive responding
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hot spring. on the part
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A__________________________________________________________________________
Response:
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The ____________________________________________
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––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
• A
Panel
geyserprompt: A panel
is a natural is an information sheet used mainly in linear programme
hot spring.
where the student first reads the information and then, with reference to the
panel,
The wordacts‘geyser’
as a prompt. Thedomestic
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appliances ____________________________________
13 whichacts as a prompt. water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
13

13

13
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76
 But activity itself is not enough. The learner must respond to the appropriate stimuli, that
is, they must get the right answer for the ‘right’ reason. The factor of operant conditioning
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Priming, Prompting and Testing
of ‘stimulus-response-reinforcement’ provides for continuous active responding on the part
2.2 CONTINUOUS ACTIVE RESPONDING
of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
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13
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The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________
water. (heat)
A geyser is a natural hot sprin
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
__________________________________________________________________________ The word ‘geyser’ is used for d
A geyser is a natural hot spring.
Download free eBooks at [Link] ________________________
77 which ___________________________________________
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances water. (heat)
thus
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13 ______________________________
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respond water. (heat)
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__________________________________________________________________________
Stage-3:
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provides for bodies
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of the learner. To ensure this, the programmer provides constructed response which is typical
13

of word programmes
linear ‘geyser’ is usedbasedfor domestic
on operant appliances which ___________________________________________
..............................................................................................................................................
The conditioning e.g. water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Response:
A geyser is a‘The attraction
natural of two bodies toward
hot spring. 13 each other is directly proportional to
their mass and inversely proportional to the square of their distance’.
The word ‘geyser’ is used for domestic appliances which ___________________________________________
water. (heat)

__________________________________________________________________________
13

9.2.6 RULES PERTAINING TO SELECTION OF PROMPTS

There is no general rule for deciding the choice of formal or thematic prompt for a linear,
branching or mathetical type of programme. In fact, both types of prompt can be used
for all types of programmes depending upon the relevance of the context. However, the
following suggestions could be useful:
13

• In a linear programme, both formal and thematic prompts are used depending
upon the type of behaviour which is to be shaped.
• In a branching programme, one rarely talks of prompting, except in the
introductory part.

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78
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Priming, Prompting and Testing

• Formal prompts often serve to keep frames short and minimize error at the
beginning of learning sequence. Therefore, they are most effective in the initial
stage of programme. However, formal prompts should be used sparingly since in
contrast to thematic prompts, they do little to enrich the subject matter.
• Thematic prompts are increasingly more useful as the learner begins to
gain some competence in the subject matter. They are more effective in the
programme developed for mature students.

9.3 TESTING
Testing is the third operation which is used in constructing terminal frames. In this
operation minimal stimulus given to operation provides opportunity for the adequate test
of the subject mastery.

9.4 USE OF PRIMING, PROMPTING AND TESTING OPERATIONS

An introductory frame has to emit behaviour; hence it is heavily primed. Teaching frame
has to establish new behaviour; hence it is prompted. Terminal frame has to assess the
appearance of behaviour without any assistance; hence it is in the form of a test.

9.5 PROGRAMME CONSTRUCTION SUMMARY

9.5.1 MAIN STAGES

• Selection of subject area to be programmed and integration of this into the

training process as a whole;
• Preparation of a general statement of objectives and programme specification;
• Construction of terminal test based on programme objectives;
• Decision regarding teaching point outline i.e. the order in which instructional
matter is to be presented;
• Detailed breakdown of objectives into rules;
• Construction of test frames;
• Development of content including frame writing.

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79
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Priming, Prompting and Testing

9.5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FRAME

• The wording must be unambiguous.

• The response required of the learner must be relevant. Trivial or irrelevant
responses may well produce a low error rate without realising the objectives of
the programme.
• The frame must be challenging and stimulating. Although the response required
from the learner must be within their capabilities, the frame must also pose a
problem to be solved. Material which is too easy will result in boredom,
• The wording must be well-written and lively. Students learn unconsciously
as well as consciously. The programmer must ensure that the language of the
programme is beyond reproach.
• In a branching programme, the answer frames must sort out any fundamental
misconceptions on the part of the learner.
• The frame must be so structured that there is maximum probability of success
on the part of the learner.

9.5.3 TYPES OF FRAMES

• Teaching frames: A teaching frame presents to the learner with new information
in logical sequence. The programmer bases the frames on the rules which he
has compiled on the subject matter. These frames contain a prompt in order to
ensure maximum probability of success.
• Practice frames: Practice frames should follow each new teaching point, and
it is essential that prompts are gradually ‘faded’ until the learner can make an
unprompted response.
• Test frames: At the end of each section there should be ‘criterion’ or ‘key’
frames which test the learner on the concept thought. Criterion frames must
be completely ‘unprompted’ if they are to provide an adequate test of subject
mastery. In a skip-linear programme, this is the point at which the student will
be advanced to another section, or alternatively will be required to complete
further practice exercises in order to single out any misconceptions which may
previously have arisen.

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80
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Review and editing of a programme

10 REVIEW AND EDITING

OF A PROGRAMME

10.1 INTRODUCTION
After having written the first draft of the programme it becomes necessary for the programmer
to make a thorough edit and review of the programme. Review and editing play an important
role in development of a programme. A thorough reviewing and editing, according to Espich
and William (1967), may uncover a programme’s inadequacies, ambiguities and pomposities
prior to testing. Reviewing and editing help a lot in improving the logical sequence of the
frames, technical accuracy and compositional aspect of the programme.

10.2 TYPES OF EDITING

There are three types of editing through which the first draft of the programme is processed.
They are:

• Technical accuracy editing;

• Programming technique editing; and
• Composition editing.

10.2.1 TECHNICAL ACCURACY EDITING

In this type of edit, the subject matter expert checks the programme to ascertain whether
or not the material presented is technically accurate. Too often, a programmer fails to find
out their own errors. Probably while programming they may omit certain items. In doing
so they may cause the student to develop an inaccurate concept. This omission may not be
readily visible to the programmer but it will usually be quite apparent to another expert.

Vocabulary should also be carefully scrutinized. The programmer should see that vocabulary
of the programme is neither too difficult nor too easy for the learner and that it is
technically sound.

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81
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Review and editing of a programme

10.2.2 PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUE EDITING

There are two sub-types of programming technique edit. They are:

-- To edit the programme as a whole; and

-- To edit the frames of the programme individually.

• The programming technique edit – the programme: There are several aspects of
programming technique edit which apply to the programme as a whole. They are:

-- There should be continuity. The programme must flow from item to

item. There should be interrelationship between the different parts of the
programme. The programmer should ask themselves the following questions:

• Is there continuity of the frames?

• Are the ideas logically developed?
• Have examples and illustrations been used aptly to develop ideas?
• Are the students familiar with these examples and illustrations?
• Can the student follow the line of thought through the programme as the
material is developed?
• Does the programme work steadily towards a conclusion?

-- Size of steps with the programme needs to be considered. Too large a step
size is likely to lose the student, and too small a size may drive them to
distraction.

• Programming edit – the frames: The purpose of the individual frame is to

catch obvious faults before they affect the performance of the programme. Much
benefit can be gained from examining each frame and deliberately looking for
inadequacies. It is important to note the following:

-- Illustrations should be used whenever applicable in a programme, but the

frame in which an illustration is used must be so designed that the student
is forced to make use of the illustrations in one manner or the other before
forming their response.
-- The programmer should also check the art work of the programme. The
pictures and diagrams should convey the idea which the programme wants to
convey.
-- The next step in a frame edit is to take a close look at the response required
of the student. The response which a student makes should be relevant.

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82
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Review and editing of a programme

10.2.3 COMPOSITION EDIT

• Here the programme is checked for the following:

-- Grammatical mistakes;
-- Language of the frames;
-- Spelling;
-- Aptness;
-- Punctuation;
-- Length of the blanks; and
-- Uniformity of numbering system.

• It is important to maintain consistency through the programme from the

standpoint of what the student is expected to do.

10.3 HIERARCHY OF EDITING

All three types of editing cannot be done simultaneously. Therefore, the programmer has to
perform editing in a hierarchical manner so that no time is wasted in duplication. Technical
accuracy edit should be done first because it is most important in all the three types of
edits. If there is any technical inaccuracy in the programme, then students are bound to
learn wrong things and no amount of composition or programming technique edit will
correct the situation.

After editing the programme for technical accuracy, the programmer should edit their
programme for programming technique. Finally, the programmer should edit the programme
for composition aspect so as to give it a concrete shape.

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83
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Evaluation of Programme

11 EVALUATION OF PROGRAMME

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Evaluation of the programme is the final stage in the dynamics of programme development.
Here the programmer makes an attempt to assess the worthwhileness of the programme by
way of subjecting it to empirical testing. Two types of testing viz. developmental and field
testing are conducted before the programme is released for its wider use. Cycle of testing
and revision goes on till the achievement of objectives of the programme is demonstrated.

11.2 CONCEPT OF PROGRAMME EVALUATION

The process of programme evaluation includes testing of the programme during its
development and the strategies to improve its effectiveness. This type of evaluation is called
internal evaluation of the programme. There is, however, another type of evaluation of the
programme which is termed as external evaluation. Here the finished product (i.e. validated
programme) is compared with some other teaching media, for instance, conventional teaching
method, in order to make comparative assessment of their effectiveness.

11.2.1 INTERNAL EVALUATION

The internal evaluation of the programme usually takes place in distinct development testing
and field testing.

• Development testing: It is carried out in two phases known as individual testing

and small group testing.

-- Individual testing: It is characterized by the fact that it is usually carried

out informally with individual learners, one at a time. The purpose of the
individual testing is to check how far the first version of the programme
produced is, in fact, suitable for those for whom it is written. This is done
like this:

• A student is selected who is typical of the students for whom the

programme is being written.
• The student must have the desired requisites, but they should not know
the material which is to be taught.

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84
 PROGRAMMED LEARNING Evaluation of Programme

• Before try-out, the programmer establishes proper rapport with the student
to put them in the proper frame of mind.
• The programmer presents first draft of the edited programme to the
learner. The programmer observes and notes down whether the learner
answers correctly or not. Then they discuss with the learner their opinion
of the programme whether they found it interesting or boring, very easy
or very difficult or they thought that there were some parts which were in
some way worse than others.
• The programmer must accept the criticism and note it down.
• The programmer then can either make modifications in the programme
on the basis of comments given by the learner or they can try out in
its original form with another student to see whether or not the same
difficulties recur.
• A repeated try-out situation provides the programmer with considerable
information about their programme.

-- Small group testing: After the programme has been revised in terms of the
individual testing four or five times, it is neatly typed in definite format and
presented to a small but a representative group of 10 to 12 learners for whom
the programme is intended. These are the steps to be followed:

• The programmer, before testing the programme, tries to provide the best
conditions which they can get for studying.
• Then the criterion test already prepared and finalised by the programmer
is administered as pre-test to determine the students’ knowledge in
the area concerned.
• After this, the students are given detailed instructions in the mechanics of
taking the programme.
• The programmer distributes the copies of a programme and asks the
students to go through the material and to underline the difficult or
ambiguous areas in a frame or frame sequence.
• At the completion of the programme, a post-test is administered on all
the students of a small group to find out whether or not the learners have
actually picked up the intended terminal behaviour.
• After finishing the administration of the post-test, the programmer
discusses the difficult areas as marked by the students.
• Soon after, the programmer does statistical analysis in terms of error-rate
information density and sequence progression.
• The programmer then modifies their programme in the light of the
statistical analysis. Now the programme is ready for field testing.

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85
PROGRAMMED LEARNING Evaluation of Programme

• Field testing: The next stage in the production of a programme is to prepare it

for a trial using a larger number of representative learners – about 50 – in the
field, that is, in actual situation in which the programme is going to be used. At
this stage of testing, the programme is administered by the teacher and not by
the programmer since programmer’s presence might create an experimental bias
in the results. The ultimate object of testing is to pinpoint the specific areas of
improvement in the programme.

Following steps are generally followed:

-- Step-1: Selection of students: In the selection of a sample due consideration

is given to homogeneity of the group. Criterion of pre-requisite behaviour or
skills is applied in the selection of this group. It may be mentioned that the
student should score high on the ‘pre-requisite test’.
-- Step-2: Administration of pre-test: Now the general criterion test is
administered as pre-test in order to measure the learners’ knowledge of what
they are about to be taught. The students should score very low on a pre-
test. If some of the students score highly on pre-test, they are not allowed
to work with the programme. Pre-test provides a check on the selection
of the target sample.
-- Step-3: Working with the programme: Now printed copies of the
programme – including instructional material – are distributed among the
students. It is made clear to them that the programme is being tested not
they. They are asked to note down the frames which present any difficulty.
-- Step-4: Administration of post-test: A criterion test is administered as
post-test on the students. Data on this testing helps in calculating the gains
obtained from the programme.
-- Step-5: Administration of Attitude Scale: Obtained scores on this scale are
tabulated and computed so as to give the attitude coefficient. It helps in the
evaluation as well as in the improvement of the programme.
-- Step-6: Applying evaluation measures: A number of measures are usually
taken in order to assess the effectiveness of a programme. Apart from the
measures taken to confirm that the learners have the pre-requisite abilities,
the measures which are taken can be classified into two broad groups: internal
and external measures.

• Internal measures: These consist of the following:

• Error rate: Errors that are made on the actual frames, provide a source
of indication of a programme’s weakness. The concept of error rate is
applicable mainly in respect of programmes of linear and mathetical

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Evaluation of Programme

type. It is calculated on the basis of response obtainable for each frame.

If on a particular frame the learner is not able to respond in accordance
with the stipulation of the programmer, it is given the name of an
‘error’. If the programmer finds high error rate of the programme, then
they may revise their programme in the light of the sources of errors.
This measure is attempted after each of the two testing operations –
small group testing and field testing.
• Information density: The second measure to evaluate the effectiveness
of a programme is to calculate its density. The term density has been
borrowed in programmed instruction from physics where it represents
mass per unit volume. It is used in the same fashion to see whether
the programme is dense or sparse. A tally is made of the number of
different responses required of the student in a section of a programme.
This number is then divided by the total number of responses required.
• Sequence progression: A programme is usually studied in terms
of progression of sequence of frames. It is considered an important
indicator of the authenticity of the programme. It tells whether the
sequence of material presentation – in terms of frames has been logically
developed or not. It also points out whether this sequence is suitable
from the point of view of students learning or not.

• External measures: After taking the internal measures, the programmer

analyses the performance characteristics of the learners with regard to
the programme in terms of 90/90 standard and student’s attitude. These
measures are called external measures.

• 90/90 standard: There are several interpretations of 90/90 standard, but

the most plausible one is given by E. Espich William and Bill William
(1967). According to them, first 90 per cent represents class mean,
considering all the students. The post-tests are graded, the raw scores are
given percentage value and the class mean. This mean must be 90 per
cent or better. The second 90 per cent means that 90 per cent students
will achieve each and every objective of a particular programme. If more
than 10 per cent students incorrectly perform on a particular item, the
area of the programme that instils that behaviour must be revised and
the programme released.
• Student’s attitude: The final measure which is often made to help
in assessing the effectiveness of a programme is to measure student’s
attitude toward it. An attitude scale includes the statements concerning
characteristics of the programme such as step size, difficulty level,
language, lay-out, content clarity, examples and illustrations etc.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING Evaluation of Programme

11.3 PRECAUTIONS FOR EVALUATION

Following precautions should be taken by the programmer while evaluating a programme:

• Only reliable data should be used for the evaluation of the programme.
• Personal bias of the programmer should not enter in the evaluation of a
programme.
• All tests used in the evaluation of a programme should be valid, reliable and
objective.
• Selection of the sample for evaluation purpose should be done on the basis of
pre-test.
• Equal weightage should be given to both types of evaluation measures: internal
and external.

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PROGRAMMED LEARNING References

REFERENCES
• Brethower, D.M., Programmed Instruction: a manual of programming techniques,
Pitman, 1965.
• Bloom, B.S., M. Englehart, E.J. Furst, W.H. Hill & D.R. Krathwohl, Taxonomy
of educational objectives, David McKay Company, New York, 1956.
• Crowder, N.A., Intrinsic and extrinsic programming, in J.E. Coulson (Ed.),
‘Programmed learning and computer-based instruction’ (pp. 58 – 66), Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1962.
• Crowder, N.A., Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming, in E.H.
Galanter, ed., ‘Automatic teaching: the state of the art’, Wiley, 1959.
• Espich, J.E. & Bill William, Developing programmed instructional materials: A
handbook for program writers, Fearon Publishers, Palo Alto, CA, 1967.
• Gilbert, Thomas F., Mathetics: the technology of education, in ‘Journal of
Mathetics’, January 1962.
• Gagne, R.M., The analysis of instructional objectives for the design of instruction,
in R. Glaser (Ed.), ‘Teaching machines and programmed learning II: Data and
directions’ (pp. 21 – 65), National Education Association of the United States,
Washington, D.C., 1965.
• Glaser, R. (Ed.), Teaching machines and programmed learning II: Data and
directions, Department of Audio-visual Instruction, National Education
Association, Washington, D.C., 1965.
• Green, E.J., The learning process and programmed instruction, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York, 1962.
• Leith, G.O.M., A handbook of programmed learning, University of Birmingham,
1966.
• Markle, S.M., Good frames and bad: A grammar of frame writing (2nd ed.), John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1969.
• Milton, O., Learning without class instruction, unpublished manuscript, University
of Tennessee, 1959.
• Mager, R.F., Preparing objectives for programmed instruction, Fearon, San
Francisco, 1962.
• Pavlov, Ivan P., Conditioned Reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of
the cerebral context, translated by G.V. Anrep, Oxford University Press, 1927.
• Pressey, S.L., A machine for automatic teaching of drill material, in ‘School and
Society’, 25 (645) 549 – 552, 1927.
• Pressey, S.L., A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores and teaches, in ‘School
and Society’, 23 (586) 373 – 376, 1926.
• Skinner, B.F., Verbal Behaviour, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1957.

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 PROGRAMMED LEARNING References

• Skinner, B.F., The science of learning and the art of teaching, Harvard Educational
Review, 24, 86 – 97, 1954.
• Skinner, B.F., The technology of teaching, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1968.
• Thorndike, E.L., Animal Intelligence, Hafner, New York, 1911.
• Taber, J.I., R. Glaser & H.H. Schaefer, Learning and programmed instruction,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1965.
• Vargas, Earnest A. & Julie S, Vargas, Programmed Instruction: what it is and how
to do it, ‘Journal of Behavioural Education’, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 235 – 251, 1991.

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