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Introduction

CSC 573 Internet Protocols

2025

Agenda
1. History
2. Internet Structure
3. Packet vs circuit switching
4. TCP/IP Protocol Stack

Khaled Harfoush

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History
n Cerf and Kahn are considered the Internet founding
fathers
n Vinton Cerf -> Born in 1943, DARPA program manager, funded and
chairman of ICANN, president of ACM
n Bob Kahn -> Born in 1938, Ph.D. from City University of NY,
worked at AT&T, and was a professor at MIT

n Established internetworking principles:

1. minimalism, autonomy - no internal changes required to
interconnect networks
2. best effort service model
3. stateless routers
define today’s Internet architecture
Khaled Harfoush

1960’s: Early Packet-Switching Principles

n 1961: Kleinrock - queueing theory shows effectiveness of packet-

switching

n 1964: Baran - packet-switching in military nets

n 1967: ARPAnet conceived by Advanced Research Projects Agency

n 1969: first ARPAnet node operational

n 1970: ALOHAnet satellite network in Hawaii

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1970’s: Internetworking, proprietary nets

n 1972:
n ARPAnet public demo

n NCP (Network Control Protocol) first host-host protocol

n first e-mail program
n ARPAnet has 15 nodes

n 1974: Cerf and Kahn - architecture for interconnecting networks

n 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC
n Late 70’s: proprietary architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA
n late 70’s: switching fixed length packets (ATM precursor)
n 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

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1980’s: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

n 1983: deployment of TCP/IP

n 1982: smtp e-mail protocol defined
n 1983: DNS defined for name-to-IP-address translation
n 1985: ftp protocol defined
n 1988: TCP congestion control
n new national networks: Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel
n 100,000 hosts connected to confederation of networks

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1990, 2000’s: Commercialization, the Web, new apps

n early 1990’s: ARPAnet decommissioned

n 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
n early 1990s: Web
n hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]
n HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
n 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
n late 1990’s: commercialization of the Web
n late 1990’s – 2000’s:
n more killer apps: instant messaging, P2P file sharing
n network security to forefront
n est. 50 million hosts, 100 million+ users
n backbone links running at Gbps
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2005 - present

n ~750 million hosts

n Smartphones and tablets
n Aggressive deployment of broadband access
n Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
n Emergence of online social networks:
n Facebook: soon one billion users

n Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own

networks
n Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous” access to
search, email, etc.
n E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their services in
“cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)

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Agenda
1. History
2. Internet Structure
3. Packet vs circuit switching
4. TCP/IP Protocol Stack

Khaled Harfoush

Network devices
n Endhosts (servers and clients)
n Routers, switches, and hubs to connect
endhosts

n A network consists of some number of

endhosts interconnected through
routers/switches/hubs
n The Internet interconnects networks

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Types of Networks
n Not all networks are created equal! Why?

1. Edge Networks: Carry own traffic

Examples: Customer networks such as home networks and
NCSU network
2. Core Networks: Carry transit traffic; i.e.
traffic for their customers (in addition to
own traffic)
Examples: ISP networks such as Sprint, AT&T, Level3, etc

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Structure of Edge Networks

n ??
n Why?

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Structure of Core Networks

n ??
n Why?

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Sprint Network Structure

POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …
…

to/from customers

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Agenda
1. History
2. Internet Structure
3. Packet vs circuit switching
4. TCP/IP Protocol Stack

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Packet Switching

n Hosts break application-

layer messages into
packets
n forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source to
destination
n Packets from different
sources share
intermediate resources
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Host sends packets of data

n L: Size of each packet in bits
R: Transmission rate of link in bits/sec
n Link transmission rate, aka link capacity, aka link
bandwidth two packets,
L bits each

2 1

R: link transmission rate

host
packet time needed to L (bits)
transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
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Store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

n takes L/R seconds to transmit (push out) L-bit packet

into link at R bps
n store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router
before it can be transmitted on next link

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Queueing delay and Packet loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

§ If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate

of link for a period of time:
§ packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
§ packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills
up
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Four sources of packet delay

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

§ check bit errors § time waiting at output
link for transmission
§ determine output link § depends on congestion
§ typically < msec level of router
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Four sources of packet delay

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

§ L: packet length (bits) § d: length of physical link
§ R: link bandwidth (bps) § s: propagation speed in medium
§ dtrans = L/R (~2x108 m/sec)
§ dprop = d/s
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Queueing Delay
average queueing
delay

n R: link bandwidth (bps)

n L: packet length (bits)
n a: average packet
arrival rate traffic intensity
= La/R
v La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

v La/R ≈ 1: avg. queueing delay large

v La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay infinite!

La/R -> 1
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“Real” Internet delays and routes

n traceroute program: provides delay

measurement from source to router along
end-end Internet path towards destination.
For all i:
n sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination
n router i will return packets to sender
n sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
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“Real” Internet delays and routes

traceroute: [Link] to [Link]
3 delay measurements from
[Link] to [Link]
1 cs-gw ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 [Link] ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 [Link] ([Link]) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 [Link] ([Link]) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 [Link] ([Link]) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 [Link] ([Link]) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 [Link] ([Link]) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 [Link] ([Link]) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 [Link] ([Link]) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 [Link] ([Link]) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 [Link] ([Link]) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 [Link] ([Link]) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 [Link] ([Link]) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms
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Circuit Switching

n end-end resources reserved

for “call” between source &
dest
n dedicated resources: no
sharing
n circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
n circuit segment idle if not
used by call (no sharing) In diagram, each link has
n Commonly used in traditional four circuits. call gets 2nd
telephone networks circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
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Packet switching vs circuit switching

(1/2)

N
…..

users
1 Mbps link

Example:
§ 1 Mb/s link
§ each user:
• 100 kb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time

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Packet switching vs circuit switching

(2/2)

circuit-switching:
10 users
packet switching:
with 35 users, probability > 10 active at same
time is less than .0004
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
Q: what happens if > 35 users ?

- packet switching allows more users to use network!

- simpler, no call setup
- congestion possible: packet delay and loss
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Agenda
1. History
2. Internet Structure
3. Packet vs circuit switching
4. TCP/IP Protocol Stack

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What’s a protocol?
Human protocols: network protocols:
n “what’s the time?” n machines rather than
n “I have a question” humans
n all communication
… specific msgs sent activity in Internet
governed by protocols
… specific actions taken
when msgs received, protocols define format, order
or other events of msgs sent and received
among network entities,
and actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
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What’s a protocol?

a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get [Link]
2:00
<file>
time

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Protocol “layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”: Question:
n hosts is there any hope of
organizing structure
n routers
of network?
n links of various
media
…. or at least our
n applications
discussion of
n protocols networks?
n hardware, software
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Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

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Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

n via its own internal-layer actions
n relying on services provided by layer below/above
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Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
n explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces

n modularization eases maintenance, updating

of system
n change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to
rest of system

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Internet protocol stack

n Application: supporting network
applications
n FTP, SMTP, HTTP
application
n Transport: process-process data
transfer transport
n TCP, UDP

n Network: routing of datagrams from network

source to destination
n IP, routing protocols link
n Link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements physical
n Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP

n Physical: bits “on the wire”

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ISO/OSI reference model

n presentation: allow applications to

interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
specific conventions presentation
n session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
n Internet stack “missing” these layers!
n these services, if needed, must be link
implemented in application
physical
n needed?
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source
message M application Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
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Next Lecture
n Review of PHY and Data Link Layers

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