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Secondary 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Topic 1: Prime, Factors and Multiples .............................................................................................................. 4
Topic 2: Real Numbers ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Topic 3: Approximation and Estimation ......................................................................................................... 6
Topic 4: Basic Algebra and Algebraic Manipulations ................................................................................. 8
Topic 5: Linear Equations ................................................................................................................................... 10
Topic 6: Linear Functions and Graphs............................................................................................................ 11
Topic 7: Number Patterns ................................................................................................................................... 12
Topic 8: Percentage ............................................................................................................................................... 13
Topic 9: Rate, Ratio and Speed .......................................................................................................................... 14
Topic 10: Basic Geometry ................................................................................................................................... 15
Topic 11: Polygons and Geometrical Constructions.................................................................................. 16
Topic 12: Perimeter and Area of Plane Figures .......................................................................................... 19
Topic 13: Volume and Surface Area of Prisms and Cylinders ................................................................ 21
Topic 14: Statistical Data Handling ................................................................................................................. 22
Secondary 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Topic 1: Linear Graphs ......................................................................................................................................... 24
Topic 2: Simultaneous Linear Equations ....................................................................................................... 26
Topic 3: Linear Inequalities ............................................................................................................................... 27
Topic 4: Expansion of Algebraic Expression ................................................................................................ 29
Topic 5: Factorisation of Algebraic Expressions ........................................................................................ 30
Topic 6: Quadratic Equations and Graphs .................................................................................................... 31
Topic 7: Algebraic Fractions and Formulae ................................................................................................. 32
Topic 8: Direct and Inverse Proportions ....................................................................................................... 33
Topic 9: Congruence and Similarity ................................................................................................................ 34
Topic 10: Pythagoras’ Theorem........................................................................................................................ 36
Topic 11: Trigonometric Ratios ........................................................................................................................ 37
Topic 12: Volume and Surface Area of Pyramids, Cones and Spheres ................................................ 38
Topic 13: Probability of Single Events............................................................................................................ 39
Topic 14: Statistical Diagrams........................................................................................................................... 40
Topic 15: Averages of Statistical Data ............................................................................................................ 41

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Secondary 3 - Emaths ................................................................................................................................ 42

Topic 1: Quadratic Equations ............................................................................................................................ 42
Topic 2: Simultaneous Linear Inequalities ................................................................................................... 44
Topic 3: Indices and Standard Form ............................................................................................................... 46
Topic 4: Coordinate Geometry .......................................................................................................................... 48
Topic 5: Graphs of Functions and Graphical Solution............................................................................... 49
Topic 6: Further Trigonometry......................................................................................................................... 53
Topic 7: Applications of Trigonometry .......................................................................................................... 54
Topic 8: Arc Length, Sector Area and Radian Measure............................................................................. 55
Topic 9: Congruence and Similarity Tests .................................................................................................... 56
Topic 10: Area and Volume of Similar Figures and Solids ...................................................................... 59
Topic 11: Geometrical Properties of Circles ................................................................................................ 60
Secondary 4 – Emaths ............................................................................................................................... 62
Topic 1: Set Notation and Language ................................................................................................................ 62
Topic 2: Statistical Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 63
Topic 3: Probability of Combined Events ...................................................................................................... 65
Topic 4: Matrices .................................................................................................................................................... 67
Topic 5: Vectors ...................................................................................................................................................... 69
Secondary 3 – Amaths ............................................................................................................................... 72
Topic 1: Non-Linear Simultaneous Equations ............................................................................................. 72
Topic 2: Quadratic Functions, Equations and Inequalities ..................................................................... 73
Topic 3: Surds .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Topic 4: Polynomials, Cubic Equations and Partial Fractions ............................................................... 76
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder ............................................................................................ 76
Topic 5: Binomial Theorem and its Applications ....................................................................................... 79
Topic 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions....................................................................................... 80
Topic 7: Coordinate Geometry .......................................................................................................................... 82
Topic 8: Linear Law ............................................................................................................................................... 83
Topic 9: Trigonometric Functions and Graphs ........................................................................................... 84
Topic 10: Trigonometric Equations and Identities ................................................................................... 86

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Secondary 4 – Amaths ............................................................................................................................... 87

Topic 1: Gradients, Derivatives and Differentiation Techniques ......................................................... 87
Topic 2: Application of Differentiation .......................................................................................................... 88
Topic 3: Differentiation of Trigonometric, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions.................... 90
Topic 4: Integration............................................................................................................................................... 91
Topic 5: Applications of Integration ............................................................................................................... 92
Topic 6: Kinematics ............................................................................................................................................... 94
Topic 7: Proof in Plane Geometry .................................................................................................................... 95

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Secondary 1

Topic 1: Prime, Factors and Multiples

1. A prime number is a whole number (greater than 1) that has exactly 2 different factors which
can be divided by only 1 or itself.
• Examples of prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, and 17.

2. A composite number is a whole number that has more than 2 different factors.
• Examples of composite numbers: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 15.

3. Prime factors are factors that are prime numbers.

4. Highest Common Factor (HCF): multiply the lowest power of each common prime factors
of the given numbers.

5. Lowest Common Multiple (LCM): multiply the highest power of every prime factor of the
given numbers.

6. A perfect square is a number whose square roots are whole numbers.

• Examples of perfect squares: 1,4,9,16,25,36 ...
• The index of the prime factors is always a multiple of two.

7. A perfect cube is a number whose cube roots are whole numbers

• Example of perfect cubes: 1,8,27,64,125,216 ...
• The index of the prime factors is always a multiple of three.
𝑃
8. A number 𝑃 is a multiple of the number 𝑄 if 𝑄 = integer.

9. 0 and 1 are neither prime numbers nor composite numbers.

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Topic 2: Real Numbers

1. Number line
• moving towards left → decreasing in value
• moving towards right→ increasing in value

Negative numbers
Positive numbers

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

2. Inequality signs (<, >, ≤, ≥)

• “<” means ‘is lesser than’
• “>” means ‘is greater than’
• “≤” means ‘is lesser than or equal to’
• “≥” means ‘is greater than or equal to’

3. Four operations (Positive and Negative Numbers)

• 1+2=3
• 1 − 2 = −1
• 1 + (−2) = −1
• 1 − (−2) = 3
• (−1) × 2 = −2
• 1 × (−2) = −2
• (−1) × (−2) = 2
• (−2) ÷ 1 = −2
• 2 ÷ (−1) = −2
• (−2) ÷ (−1) = 2

4. Order of Operations: BODMAS (Bracket, Order, Division and Multiplication (from left to
right), Addition and Subtraction (from left to right).

5. Rational Numbers: Numbers that can be expressed as a fraction

• Integers (Whole numbers: 0 and Positive integers; Negative integers)
• Fractions
• Terminating decimals (0.52, -0.1635)
•
• Recurring decimals (0.333..., 𝟎. 𝟔 )

6. Irrational Numbers
• √2, 𝜋, √10
3

7. Zero is neither positive nor negative number.

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Topic 3: Approximation and Estimation

1. Approximation and Estimation

• Approximation is the process of rounding off a given number to give an approximate value
depending on the required degree of accuracy according to the following:
➢ A given place value
➢ A given number of decimal places
➢ A given number of significant figures
• Estimation is the process of guessing the value of an unknown quantity in real life by
giving an estimated value whereby the quantity is approximately a certain value.

2. To round off a number to a specific place value or decimal place:

Steps Specified Place Value Specified Decimal Place
1 Look at the digit that is just on the Look at the digit that is just on the right of
right of the specified place value. the specified decimal place.
2 If the digit is less than 5, no If the digit is less than 5, drop/ remove
changes to the digit at the this digit (as well as all the digits that is on
specified place value. Replace all the right of the specified decimal place)
the digits on the right of the and no changes to the digit at the specified
specified place value with zeros. decimal place.
If the digit is 5 or more, add 1 to If the digit is 5 or more, drop/ remove this
the digit in the specified place digit (as well as all the digits that is on the
value (regroup when necessary). right of the specified decimal place) and
Replace all the digits on the right add 1 to the digit in the specified decimal
of the specified place value with place (regroup when necessary).
zeros.
3 After rounding off a number to the required degree of accuracy, the degree of
accuracy needs to be presented in brackets.
For example, For example,
4690 ≈ 5000 (nearest 1000) 89.995 ≈ 90.00 (2 decimal places or 2d.p.)

When asked to round off to a specific decimal place, your answer should be in the same number
of decimal places.

3. Significant figures are the number of digits used to denote an exact value to a specific degree
of accuracy, where a number is more accurate when it is given to a greater number of significant
figures.
• 5 Rules to identify the significant digits:
➢ Rule 1: All non-zero digit(s) are significant.
➢ Rule 2: All zero(s) between non-zero digits are significant.
➢ Rule 3: Zero(s) that comes before the first non-zero digit are not significant.
➢ Rule 4: Zero(s) following a non-zero digit after the decimal point are significant.
➢ Rule 5: Zero(s) following a non-zero digit in a whole number may or may not be
significant, depending on how the number is rounded off.

4. A number should be rounded off from its original value instead from the rounded values.

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5. Rounding Off Error is the difference between its true value and the rounded off figure.
• Calculators do not always give exact values due to the number of digits stored that can be
displayed on the calculator screen as well as the capacity of the calculator.
• Rounding off non-exact values in intermediate working may result in a follow-through
error.
• Follow-through errors can occur when non-exact values in intermediate working are
not rounded off to a sufficient degree of accuracy.
• To reduce follow-through errors, the degree of accuracy in the intermediate steps
should be given at least 1 digit greater than the required degree of accuracy in the final
answer.
➢ For example, if we want the final answer to be accurate to 3 decimal places, the
intermediate steps should be given to at least 4 decimal places.
• For accuracy purpose, we use values stored in the calculator to compute the subsequent
steps of the working.

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Topic 4: Basic Algebra and Algebraic Manipulations

1. Basic Algebraic Notation and Terminology

• Letters (e.g. 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑏, etc) are used to represent:
➢ Specific unknown numbers – to solve for unknown
➢ Generalised numbers – to express a general law
➢ Variables – to express a relationship between two or more quantities where the
unknowns vary
➢ Algebraic notations

Algebraic Notations Meaning

𝑎𝑏 𝑎×𝑏
3𝑎 3 × 𝑎 or 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝑎 1
𝑏
𝑎 ÷ 𝑏 or 𝑎 ×
𝑏
2 𝑎×𝑎
𝑎
𝑎3 𝑎×𝑎×𝑎
(2𝑎)3 2𝑎 × 2𝑎 × 2𝑎 = 8𝑎3

➢ Common mistakes (to take note):

❖ 3𝑥 ≠ 3 + 𝑥 but 3𝑥 = 3 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥
❖ 𝑥 2 ≠ 2𝑥 but 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 × 𝑥

• Algebraic Expression involves numbers, variables, and operational signs (+, −,×,÷).
It has no equal sign and is made up of different parts.

Algebraic Expression: 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑥 − 8

Terminology Definition Illustration
Variable A letter that represents a 𝑥 and 𝑦
number and its value can be
varied.
Term + and – signs separate terms 5 terms: 𝑥 2 , 7𝑥𝑦, −3𝑦, 4𝑥 and
from one another. −8
It can be a number, a variable
or the product or quotient of
numbers and variables.
Constant term A term with fixed value that −8
does not contain any
variables.
Coefficient The number that is multiplied Coefficient of 𝑥 2 is 1.
to the variable. Coefficient of 𝑥𝑦 is 7.
Coefficient of 𝑦 is −3.
Coefficient of 𝑥 is 4.
Degree The highest index in the Highest index is 2 as observed
algebraic expression. in 𝑥 2 .
Degree of the expression is 2.

2. Evaluating algebraic expressions is the process of finding the value of the expression by
replacing/ substituting the variables in the expression with the given values.

3. Linear expression is an algebraic expression where the degree of the expression is 1.

Quadratic expression is an algebraic expression where the degree of the expression is 2.
• When an expression contains a term that is made up of more than 1 variables, e.g. 𝑥𝑦, that
expression is a non-linear expression.
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4. Addition and Subtraction of Linear Terms

• Like terms contains the same variable(s) with the same degree.
➢ For example, 2𝑥 and −3𝑥, 5𝑥𝑦 and 9𝑥𝑦, 3𝑦 2 and −4𝑦 2.
• Unlike terms are variables that are not like terms.
➢ For example, 2𝑥 and 3𝑦, 𝑥 2 𝑦 and 𝑥𝑦 2 .
• To add/ subtract like terms, we add/ subtract their coefficients and their variable remains
the same.
➢ For example, 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 = 6𝑥, 8𝑦 − 4𝑦 = 4𝑦.
• We cannot simplify the addition and subtraction of unlike terms.
➢ For example, 2𝑔 − 4ℎ − 𝑔 + 7ℎ = 𝑔 + 3ℎ
• Note: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 (Cumulative Law)
𝑥−𝑦 ≠𝑦−𝑥

5. Multiplication and Division of Algebraic Expressions

• Coefficients and Variables of the respective terms are multiplied or divided on their own.
4𝑏² 2𝑏
➢ For example, 4𝑎𝑏 2 × (−3𝑎𝑏) = −12𝑎2 𝑏3 and 2𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎
• There will be no “×” or “÷’ sign in the result of multiplication and division of algebraic
expressions.
• 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥 (Commutative Law)

6. Expansion of Algebraic Expressions

• Follows the rules and priorities in order of operations.
• When an expression in bracket is multiplied by a constant number or a variable, each
term in the bracket must be multiplied by this constant number or a variable when the
bracket is removed.
𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 (Distributive Law)

7. Factorisation of Algebraic Expressions is the process of expressing an algebraic expression

as the product of two or more factors. It is the reverse process of expansion.
• To factorise an algebraic expression completely, factorise out (take out) the greatest
common factor(s) to ensure that the factorisation is complete.

8. Linear Algebraic Expressions with Fractional Coefficients is an algebraic term with

fractional coefficient or an algebraic fraction that has as algebraic expression in its
2𝑎 2
numerator with an integral denominator. For example, 7
or 7 𝑎.
• Addition/ Subtraction of algebraic fractions is done by using equivalent fractions to
make denominator of the algebraic fractions the same (applying LCM) before proceeding
with the addition or subtraction.

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Topic 5: Linear Equations

1. Equation is a statement in which two mathematical expressions are equal, where it contains an
equal sign (=).

2. Solving Linear Equations: To find the value of the unknown variable in the equation. This
value found is called the solution or root of the equation.
• As the expression on the Left-Hand Side (LHS) of the equation is equal to the Right-Hand
Side (RHS) of the equation, the equation must be balanced/ equivalent.
• Always maintain the balance when manipulating the equation.
• Isolate the unknown on one side of the equation to solve for the unknown variable.
• Steps to solve linear equations
➢ Step 1: Simplifying the given equation where possible
➢ Step 2: Group the unknown variable(s) to one side of the equation by adding,
subtracting, multiplying, or dividing both sides of the equation with the same quantity.
• Check your solution by substituting the value of the unknown that you have found into the
original equation to see if it satisfies the equation where LHS=RHS.

3. Solving Fractional Equations with fractional coefficients and fractional equations.

• Fractional equation is an equation that contains one or more fractional expressions.
• Convert simple fractional equations into linear equations with integer coefficients by
multiplying.
➢ Cross Multiplication
➢ Multiply by Lowest Common Multiple

4. Problem-Solving using Algebra

• Step 1: Let the unknown variable that is required to be found be 𝑥.
• Step 2: Form an equation using the information given in the question using the unknown
variable 𝑥.
• Step 3: Solve the equation by finding the value(s) of the unknown variable 𝑥 to answer the
question.

5. Formula is an equation that expresses the relationship between certain quantities or

variables where it expresses a rule in algebraic terms.

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Topic 6: Linear Functions and Graphs

1. Cartesian Coordinate System consists of:

• Vertical−axis, 𝒚−axis
• Horizontal−axis, 𝒙−axis
• Origin, 𝑶. It is the point of intersection of 𝑥−axis and 𝑦−axis with the coordinates (0,0).
• Coordinates of a point, 𝑃, is written in a fixed order as (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥 is the 𝑥−coordinate of
𝑃 and 𝑦 is the 𝑦−coordinate of 𝑃.
• 𝒙−coordinate represents the horizontal distance to the left or right of the 𝑦−axis.
• 𝒚−coordinate represents the vertical distance above or below the 𝑥−axis.
𝑦−axis
𝑥−coordinate
2 𝑃(2,1)
1 𝑦−coordinate
𝑂 𝑥−axis
−2 −1 1 2
−1
Origin, 𝑂(0,0)
−2

2. Functions: Relationship between two variables, an independent variable 𝑥 (input) that produces
exactly one dependent variable 𝑦 (output). It can be represented using words, an equation, a
table of values or a graph.
• Every set of coordinates of point (𝑥, 𝑦) can be represented as a point on the graph.
• Linear function: A set of points conform to a linear graph where the function of the graph is
known as the equation of the straight line.

3. Equation of straight line: A formula connecting the 𝑥−coordinate and 𝑦−coordinate of all the
points on the line.
• Equation of a straight line: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄 , where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are Point (𝒙, 𝒚) on the line,
constant 𝒎 is the gradient of the line and the constant 𝒄 is the 𝒚−intercept (the line that
crosses the 𝑦−axis.
• Gradient of a straight line, 𝑚, measures the degree of steepness of the slope of the line.
Vertical change rise
➢ Gradient, 𝑚 = Horizontal change or run [change refers to the change in number of units]

4. Types of Straight Lines

• Positive gradient, 𝐿1: Positive slope slant “uphill” from left to right.
• Negative gradient, 𝐿2: Negative slope slant “downhill” from left to right.
• Zero gradient, 𝐿3: Horizonal line
• Undefined gradient, 𝐿4: Vertical line
𝑦−axis 𝐿4
𝐿1

𝐿3

𝑥−axis
𝑂 𝐿2

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Topic 7: Number Patterns

1. Number sequence is a set of numbers that are formed and arranged in a specific manner
governed by a specific rule. Each number in a number sequence is called a term.
• The first number is called 1st term, second number is called the 2nd term, and the 𝑛th
number is called the 𝒏𝐭𝐡 term. The terms can be represented by 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , … , 𝑇𝑛 .
• The 𝒏𝐭𝐡 term of the sequence, 𝑇𝑛 , is also known as the general term. It can be represented
by an algebraic expression.
• For example, 2,5,8,11, 14, …
➢ The terms are 2,5,8,11 and 14.
➢ 𝑇1 = 2, 𝑇2 = 5, 𝑇3 = 8, 𝑇4 = 11 and 𝑇5 = 14.

2. Types of number patterns:

• Number sequence
• Line pattern
• Diagram pattern

3. Common types of Number sequence

• Involving common difference
➢ Start with 2, then add 3 to get to the next term. (Common difference of +3).
For example: 2,5,8,11,14, …
➢ Start with 10, then subtract 4 to get to the next term. (Common difference of −4).
For example: 10, 6, 2, −2, −6, …
• Involving common ratio
➢ Start with 1, then multiply by 2 to get to the next term. (Common ratio of × 2)
For example: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, …
➢ Start with 81, then divide by 3 to get to the next term. (Common ratio of ÷ 3)
1
For example: 81, 27, 9, 3, 1, 3 , …
• Special sequence
➢ Square numbers. For example: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …
➢ Cube numbers. For example: 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, …
➢ Prime numbers. For example: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, …
• There are many different types of number patterns that are not listed above. Observation is
required to identify the pattern in the number sequence.

4. General formula of a sequence

• To find the general term of the sequence, identify the pattern in the sequence and form an
algebraic expression that fits the number pattern.
• For example, “2,5,8,11,14, …” is governed by the rule of “start with 2, then add 3 to get to the
next term”. This can be written in algebraic expression of “2 + 3(𝑛 − 1)” where 𝑛 represents
the position in the sequence. Then, simplify the general term to “3𝑛 − 1”.

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Topic 8: Percentage

1. Percent (%) means “out of every hundred”. Percentage is a fraction with a denominator of 100.
It allows a good comparison of different quantities.
𝑥
• In general, 𝑥% = 100

2. Converting Fraction/ Decimal into a Percentage

• To convert a Fraction into a Percentage, multiply it with 100%. If the fraction is in mixed
number, convert it to an improper fraction first before multiplying it with 100%.
• To convert a Decimal into a Percentage, multiply it with 100% or shift the decimal point two
places to the right and write % behind.

3. Expressing One Quantity as a Percentage of another Quantity

• Expressing quantity 𝑎 as a percentage of 𝑏 (ensure that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are in the same unit)
𝑎 𝑎
➢ Convert the fraction 𝑏 into a percentage, 𝑏 × 100%

4. Percentage Change of a Quantity, Percentage Points and Reverse Percentage

• Change in value of a quantity can be expressed as a percentage increase/ decrease in the
original value.
𝐍𝐞𝐰 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞−𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
➢ Percentage increase = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐮𝐞−𝐍𝐞𝐰 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
➢ Percentage decrease = 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
➢ Increase/ Decrease = % increase/decrease × original value
➢ New Value = final % × original value
• Percentage points refers to the numerical value change in the percentage
➢ For example, the increase from 7% to 9% is two percentage points (not 2%).
• Reverse percentage involves the use of comparison of proportions to find the original value
(100%).

5. Take note: Never add percentages or take the average of percentages when they do not have
the same base.

6. Percentage in real-world contexts

• Profit and Loss
➢ Profit = Selling Price− Cost Price
➢ Loss = Cost Price – Selling price
• Profit/ Loss can be expressed as a percentage of the cost price.
Profit/Loss
➢ % Profit/ Loss= Cost Price × 100%
• Profit/ Loss can be expressed as a percentage of the selling price.
Profit/Loss
➢ Selling Price × 100%
• Discount = Marked Price (original price) − Sale Price (discounted price)
discount
• Percentage discount = marked price × 100%
• Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a tax on consumption, paid in addition to the price of
goods and services. GST is also payable on service charge.
• Commission is the amount of payment an agent receives for selling/ providing a service on
behalf of another party.

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Topic 9: Rate, Ratio and Speed

1. Ratio is used to compare two or more quantities of the same kind that either have no units or
are measured in the same units.
• The order in which the ratio is expressed is important as 𝑥: 𝑦 ≠ 𝑦: 𝑥.
𝑥
• The ratio of 𝑥 to 𝑦 is written as 𝑥: 𝑦 or .
𝑦
• Equivalent ratios have the same value, for example, 1: 4 and 2: 8. Ratios are equivalent
when they have the same simplest form.

2. Rate is a measure of how one quantity changes with respect to another quantity. Rates over a
period of time can be constant or varying.
𝑃𝑅𝑇
• Simple Interest, 𝐼 = 100 , where the principal amount of money, $𝑃, is deposited into a bank
at a simple interest rate of 𝑅% per annum (p.a.) for 𝑇 years.
• Hire Purchase is where part of the purchase price is paid first (deposit/ downpayment) and
the remaining amount is paid in monthly instalments (including interest).
• Currency Exchange rates of different currencies fluctuate constantly due to the daily
demand and supply of the currency. Banks or licensed money changers earn money
through either imposing a direct commission or the exchange or indirectly through buying
and selling at different rates of exchange.
• Income Tax is imposed on all working individuals or businesses to fund expenditure in the
public sector.

3. Speed is the rate of change of distance travelled with time.

Distance
• Speed = Time taken
• Constant speed is when the speed of a moving object does not change throughout the
journey.
• Average speed is the speed of an object that travelled a certain amount of distance over a
period of time. Average speed is used as a moving object typically has varying speeds at
different times.
total distance travelled
➢ Average speed = total time taken
➢ Note: Average speed ≠ finding the average of speeds
• Units Conversion for Speed can be done by converting the units individually.
For example:
1000m 1000
➢ 1 km/h = 60min = 60 m/min
1000m 1000
➢ 1 km/h = 60×60s = 3600 m/s

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Topic 10: Basic Geometry

1. Types of Angles

Acute angle Right angle Obtuse angle

(0° < 𝑥° < 90°) (𝑥° = 90°) (90° < 𝑥° < 180°)

𝑥°
𝑥° 𝑥°

Straight angle Reflex angle

(𝑥° = 180°) 𝑥° (180° < 𝑥° < 360°)
𝑥°
𝑥°

Complementary angles Supplementary angles

∠𝑥 + ∠𝑦 = 90° ∠𝑥 + ∠𝑦 = 180°

𝑥°
𝑦° 𝑦° 𝑥°

2. Properties of Angles

Adjacent angles on a straight line Angles at a point

∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑐 = 180° ∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑐 + ∠𝑑 + ∠𝑒 = 360°

𝑒 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝑑 𝑐
𝑎 𝑐

Vertically opposite angles Sum of angles in a triangle

∠𝑎 = ∠𝑏 and ∠𝑐 = ∠𝑑 ∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑐 = 180°
𝑎
𝑑 𝑐 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐
𝑏
Properties of angles formed by two parallel lines and transversal
• Corresponding angles are equal
➢ ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑐 𝑐
• Alternate angles are equal
➢ ∠𝑎 = ∠𝑑 𝑑 𝑏
• Interior angles are supplementary
➢ ∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 = 180° 𝑎

Note: Transversal is any line that cuts 2 lines.

We can use the above properties to prove 2 lines are parallel.

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Topic 11: Polygons and Geometrical Constructions

1. Classification of Triangles
Types of triangles Figure Properties / Remarks
Equilateral triangle All angles in an equilateral triangle
A triangle with 3 are equal to 60°.
equal sides. (∠s of equilateral ∆)

Isosceles triangle The base angles of an isosceles

A triangle with at triangle are equal.
least 2 equal sides. (base ∠s of isos. ∆)

Scalene triangle All the angles in a scalene triangle

A triangle with no are different.
equal sides.

Acute-angled triangle For example, scalene, equilateral

A triangle with 3 and isosceles triangles.
acute angles. (acute angles are angles that are
less than 90°)
Right-angled triangle There are many types of right-
A triangle with a right angled triangles that are scalene,
angle. but there is only one special type of
right-angled triangle that is
isosceles triangle with angles
45°, 45° and 90°.
Obtuse-angled For example, scalene or isosceles
triangle triangles.
A triangle with an Obtuse angles are angles that are
obtuse angle more than 90° but less than 180°.

2. Triangles
• Basic Properties of Triangles
➢ Largest angle of a triangle is opposite the longest side, smallest angle is opposite the
shortest side.
➢ Sum of the lengths of any two shorter sides of a triangle must be greater than the
length of the third side.
• Angle Properties of Triangles
➢ Sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑐 = 180° (∠ sum of ∆) 𝑐
➢ Exterior angle formed by extending a side of the triangle is 𝑑
equal to the sum of its interior opposite angles. 𝑎 𝑏
∠ 𝑑 = ∠ 𝑐 + ∠ 𝑏 (ext. ∠ of ∆)

3. Angle Properties of Quadrilaterals (4-sided figure)

• Sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°. 𝑐
𝑏
∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑐 + ∠𝑑 = 360° (∠ sum of quad) 𝑑
𝑎

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4. Properties of Special Quadrilaterals

Quadrilaterals Sides Interior angles Diagonals

Rectangle 2 pairs of All 4 corner angles 2 diagonals are equal
𝐴 𝐵 parallel sides. at the vertices are in length. (𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐷)
𝐸 Opposite sides right angles, 90°. Diagonals bisect each
are equal. other.
𝐷 𝐶 (𝐴𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶, 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐸𝐵)
Square 2 pairs of All 4 corner angles 2 diagonals are equal
𝐴 𝐵 parallel sides. at the vertices are in length. (𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐷)
𝐸 All 4 sides are right angles, 90°. Diagonals bisect each
equal in other at right angles at
𝐷 𝐶 length. 𝐸. (𝐴𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶, 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐸𝐵)
Diagonals bisect the
interior angles.
(∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 = ∠𝐶𝐵𝐷 = 45°)
Parallelogram 2 pairs of Opposite angles are Diagonals bisect each
parallel sides. equal. other at 𝐸. (𝐴𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶,
𝐴 𝐵 Opposite sides (∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶, 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐸𝐷)
𝐸 are equal. ∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷)
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 + ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷 =
𝐷 𝐶 180° (int. ∠s)

Rhombus 2 pairs of Opposite angles are Diagonals bisect each

𝐴 𝐵 parallel sides. equal. other at right angles.
All 4 sides are (∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐷𝐶, (𝐴𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶, 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐸𝐷)
equal in ∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷) and ∠𝐴𝐸𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐸𝐶 =
𝐸 length. ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 + ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷 = ∠𝐴𝐸𝐷 = ∠𝐶𝐸𝐷 = 90°
𝐷 𝐶 180° (int. ∠s) Diagonals bisect the
∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴, interior angles.
∠𝐷𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝐷𝐶𝐴 (∠𝐴𝐶𝐷 = ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵,
∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐷𝐶)
Trapezium At least 1 pair ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 + ∠𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝐴 𝐵 of parallel = 180° (int. ∠s)
lines.

𝐷 𝐶
Kite 𝐵 At least 2 pairs ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴, Diagonals cut each
of equal ∠𝐷𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝐷𝐶𝐴 other at right angles at
adjacent sides. 𝐸 (not bisect), ∠𝐴𝐸𝐵 =
𝐴 𝐶 (𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶, ∠𝐵𝐸𝐶 = ∠𝐶𝐸𝐷 =
𝐸
𝐴𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷) ∠𝐴𝐸𝐷 = 90°.
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and The longer diagonal 𝐵𝐷
∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 are bisects the shorter
𝐷 isosceles. diagonal 𝐴𝐶.

5. Angle Properties of Polygons

• Sum of interior angle and its corresponding angle is 180°.
➢ ∠𝑥 + ∠𝑦 = 180°
• Sum of exterior angles of a 𝑛-sided polygon is 360°.
360° 𝑦 𝑥
➢ Each exterior angle of a 𝑛-sided regular polygon, ∠𝑦 = 𝑛
• Sum of interior angles of a 𝑛-sided polygon = 180°(𝑛 − 2).
180°(𝑛−2)
➢ Each interior angle of a 𝑛-sided regular polygon, ∠𝑥 = 𝑛
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6. Common Polygons

Name of Polygons Number of sides (𝒏) Sum of Interior Angles

180°(𝑛 − 2)
Triangle 3 180°(3 − 2) = 180°
Quadrilateral 4 180°(4 − 2) = 360°
Pentagon 5 180°(5 − 2) = 540°
Hexagon 6 180°(6 − 2) = 720°
Heptagon 7 180°(7 − 2) = 900°
Octagon 8 180°(8 − 2) = 1080°
Nonagon 9 180°(9 − 2) = 1260°
Decagon 10 180°(10 − 2) = 1440°

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Topic 12: Perimeter and Area of Plane Figures

1. Conversion of Units
• 1 m2=(100 cm)2= 10 000 cm2
• 1 cm2=(10mm)2= 100 mm2

2. Perimeter and Area of Basic Plane Figures (RECAP)

• Perimeter refers to the length of the outline of the two-dimensional figure, that enclosed the
figure.
• Area refers to the amount of surface that covers the two-dimensional figure.
• The following table shows the formulae of the area and perimeter of some
two-dimensional figures.

Formulae
Figure
Area (square units) Perimeter (units)
Rectangle

𝑏 𝑙×𝑏 2(𝑙 + 𝑏)

𝑙
Square

𝑙 𝑙2 4𝑙

𝑙
Triangle

1
𝑎 𝑐 2
×𝑏×ℎ 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
ℎ

𝑏
Circle

𝑂 𝑟
𝜋𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑑
𝑑

Semicircle
𝑟
𝜋𝑟 + 2𝑟
1 or
𝑑 2
𝜋𝑟 2
1
2
𝜋𝑑 +𝑑

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3. Perimeter and Area of Parallelograms and Trapeziums

Formulae
Figure
Area (square units) Perimeter (units)
Parallelogram

𝑎 𝑏×ℎ 2(𝑎 + 𝑏)
ℎ

𝑏
Trapezium
𝑎

𝑐 𝑑 1
(ℎ)(𝑎 + 𝑏) 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑
ℎ 2

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Topic 13: Volume and Surface Area of Prisms and Cylinders

1. Conversion of Units
• 1𝑚𝑙 = 1 cm3
• 1𝑙 = 1000𝑚𝑙 = 1000 cm3
• 1 m3 = (100 cm)3 = 1000 000 cm3

2. Density is a measure of the heaviness of an object with respect to its volume. It is defined as mass
per unit volume.
Mass
• Density = Volume
• The units of density can be in kg/m3 or g/cm3

3. Cubes and Cuboids (RECAP)

• Cubes
➢ Volume of cube = length × length × length = 𝒍𝟑
➢ Surface area of cube = 6 × length × length = 𝟔𝒍𝟐
• Cuboids
➢ Volume of cuboid = length × breadth × height = 𝒍𝒃𝒉
➢ Surface area of cuboid = 2 (length × breadth + breadth × height + length × height)
= 𝟐(𝒍𝒃 + 𝒃𝒉 + 𝒍𝒉)

4. Prisms are solid objects that has two identical bases and flat sides with uniform cross section.
Any horizontal cross section of a prism is parallel to the bases with identical faces/ lateral faces.
• A Prism has uniform polygonal cross section.
• Some examples of prisms are:
➢ Triangular prism
➢ Quadrilateral prism
➢ Pentagonal prism
➢ Hexagonal prism
➢ Trapezoidal prism
➢ Cube/ Cuboid
• Volume of prism= Area of cross section ×distance between cross-sectional bases
= Base Area × Height
• Total Surface Area of prism = Total area of the lateral faces + 𝟐 × base area
= Perimeter of the base × Height + 𝟐 × base area

5. Cylinder is a 3-dimensional figure with straight parallel sides and a uniform circular cross
section.
• Volume of Cylinder 𝑟
= Area of cross section×distance between cross-sectional bases
= Base Area × Height ℎ
2𝜋𝑟
= 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
• Surface Area of Cylinder = 𝟐 × base area + curved surface area 𝑟
𝟐
= 𝟐𝝅𝒓 + 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉

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Topic 14: Statistical Data Handling

1. Steps in Statistical Data Handling

• Step 1: Collection of Data
• Step 2: Organisation of Data
➢ Using the Frequency Table with Tally (Multiples of 5)
Number of books read by the students in a week
Student Tally Frequency
A //// 4
B //// /// 8
C //// 5
• Step 3: Presentation of Data
➢ Pictogram: Using pictures or icons to represent 1 or more units of data.
➢ Bar Graph: Vertical bar graph, Horizontal bar graph, Double bar graph
➢ Pie Chart: Using sectors of a circle, where the angle of a sector is proportional to the
frequency of data that it is representing.
➢ Line Graph: Formed by joining the points with the data collected using straight lines
• Step 4: Analyse and Interpretation of Data

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Different Types of Statistical Diagrams

Statistical Diagram Advantages Disadvantages
Frequency Table • Organise data collected • Presentation of data not as
• Easy to read the exact visual and appealing as
frequency for each statistical graphs
category • Difficult to compare frequencies
across different categories as
compared to some statistical
graphs
Pictogram • Visually appealing • Difficult to draw pictures and to
• Easy to read quantify a partial picture
• Handles large data set • Time consuming to draw
easily identical picture (shape and
size)
• Only suitable for small number
of categories
• Low degree of accuracy of data
presentation
Bar Graph • Easier to draw than • Less colourful and appealing
pictogram • More abstract as frequency is
• Visually clear representated by length of each
bar
• Data may be distorted/
misinterpreted if frequency axis
does not start from 0.
Pie Chart • Easier to compare • Difficult to compare two sectors
relative size of each of about the same size
category with the whole • No exact numerical data
• Shows percentage of • Will look very cluttered with
each category many categories
• Harder to construct than bar
graph

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2. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Different Types of Statistical Diagrams (Con’t)

Statistical Diagram Advantages Disadvantages
Line Graph • Shows trend in data • Must not read in between
relationship – observe plotted points unlike linear
rising or falling trend of function graphs
a set of numerical data • Data may be distorted and
over a period of time misinterpreted if vertical axis
• Allows projection of does not start from 0.
future values • Data with small fluctuations (flat
• Retains exact data trend lines between 2 values)
values may have no significant
• Shows minimum and meaning/ prevent observation of
maximum values these minor changes (if vertical
axis starts from 0.)

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Secondary 2

Topic 1: Linear Graphs

1. Graphs of linear equations are straight lines.

2. A straight-line graph is expressed as an equation in the form of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.

Vertical Change
• where 𝒎 is the gradient. Gradient = Horizontal Change
• and 𝒄 is the 𝒚-intercept.
𝑦
3. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑐 : A horizontal straight line parallel to 𝒙-axis.

𝑦=𝑐

4. Graph of 𝑥 = 𝑎 : A vertical straight line parallel to 𝒚-axis. 𝑦

𝑥=𝑎

𝑥
𝑎

5. Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 : A straight line that passes through the origin

and has the gradient 𝑚 .
𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥

𝑥
0

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6. Graph of y = mx + c : A straight line that cuts the 𝒚-axis (known as 𝒚-intercept) at (𝟎, 𝒄)
and has the gradient 𝒎

𝑦 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑚 < 0
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑚 > 0

(0, 𝑐)
(0, 𝑐)
𝑥 𝑥
0 0

7. To draw a linear graph, select at least 3 different points for plotting.

8. To solve for a pair of simultaneous linear equations graphically, find the coordinates of
the intersection point between the two graphs.

9. When two straight lines are parallel to each other, they have the same gradient but different
𝒚-intercepts. In such situation, there will be no solutions as the two lines will not intersect.

10. When two straight lines are the same line, they have the same gradient and the same
𝒚-intercept. In such situation, there will be infinitely many solutions.

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Topic 2: Simultaneous Linear Equations

1. In general, 𝑛 equations are needed to solve for the values of 𝑛 unknowns.

2. A pair of simultaneous linear equations is needed to solve for 2 unknowns.

3. Two main methods of solving simultaneous linear equations without graph:

• Elimination Method
➢ Step 1: Compare the coefficients of the unknown (𝑥 and 𝑦) we want to eliminate.
Usually look out for the coefficients that are 1 or −1.
➢ Step 2: If the numerical values of the coefficients of one of the unknown are the same
in both equations (ignore the positive or negative sign), eliminate the unknown either by
adding or subtracting the two equations.
If the numerical values of the coefficients of the unknown are not the same in both
equations, manipulate one/both equations first to obtain new equation(s) whereby the
numerical values of the coefficients of the variable are the same.
Tip: Choose the coefficient of the unknown that has smaller LCM when considering
which unknown to eliminate.
➢ Step 3: Solve the resulting linear equation with one unknown.
➢ Step 4: Substitute the value obtained for the unknown into any one of the original
equations to solve for the other unknown.

• Substitution Method
➢ Step 1: Select one of the two equations and rearrange it to make one unknown the
subject, in terms of the other. Look out for the coefficient of the unknown that is 1 or −1
and use this equation.
➢ Step 2: Substitute the equation in Step 1 into the other equation (do not have to
rearrange the other equation) whereby the resulting equation will only have one
unknown. Solve the equation to find the value of this unknown.
➢ Step 3: Substitute the solution found in Step 2 into the equation in Step 1 to find the
value of the other unknown.

4. When the question did not specify which method to use, use the method that is deemed easier to
solve for unknowns.

5. Check the solution by substituting the values of the 2 unknowns which you have found into the
original equations. (Ensure that LHS = RHS for each equation.)

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Topic 3: Linear Inequalities

1. Inequality signs
• 𝑥 < 𝑎 refers to 𝑥 is lesser than the constant value 𝑎.
• 𝑥 > 𝑎 refers to 𝑥 is greater than the constant value 𝑎.
• 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 refers to 𝑥 is equal or lesser than the constant value 𝑎.
• 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 refers to 𝑥 is equal or greater than the constant value 𝑎.

2. Number Line Representation for Inequalities

• For example, if 𝑥 < −1

𝑥 < −1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

• if 𝑥 > 1

𝑥>1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
• if 𝑥 ≤ −2

𝑥 ≤ −2

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
• if 𝑥 ≥ 2

𝑥≥2

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Note: A circle indicates that 𝑥 cannot take on a particular value while a solid dot
indicates that 𝑥 can take on the particular value.

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3. Arithmetic Operation during Inequalities

• We can add a positive or negative number to both sides of an inequality without
changing the inequality sign.
𝑥>3
𝑥+2>3+2
𝑥+2>5

• We can subtract a positive or negative number to both sides of an inequality without

changing the inequality sign.

𝑥>3
𝑥−5>3−5
𝑥 − 5 > −2

• We can multiply/divide by a positive number to both sides of an inequality without

changing the inequality sign.
𝑥>3
𝑥×2>3×2
2𝑥 > 6

• However, when we multiply/divide by a negative number to both sides of an inequality, we

MUST REVERSE the inequality sign.

𝑥>3
𝑥 × (−3) < 3 × (−3)
−3𝑥 < −9

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Topic 4: Expansion of Algebraic Expression

1. Simplification/ Expansion of Algebraic Expressions using The Distributive Law

• 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 (1 term x 2 terms = 2 terms)

• 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 (1 term x 3 terms = 3 terms)

• (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎(𝑐 + 𝑑) + 𝑏(𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 (2 terms x 2 terms = 4 terms)

• (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑑 + 𝑒) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 + 𝑏𝑒 (2 terms x 3 terms = 6 terms)

2. Special Algebraic Identities

• (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

• (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

• (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

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Topic 5: Factorisation of Algebraic Expressions

1. Factorisation: Process of expressing an algebraic expression as a product of two or more

factors. It is the reverse process of expansion.

2. Factorisation by Extracting Common Factors

• Check for common factor of the terms and extract them before applying other methods of
factorization.
• The common factor can be in a form of 1 term or an expression.
• For example: 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐)

3. Factorisation by Grouping to identify common factors

• Arrange the terms into two groups to find the common factors (especially when the
expression has 4 terms).
• Change the sign of the factor when necessary (by factorising the negative sign).
• For example: 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 = 𝑎(𝑐 + 𝑑) + 𝑏(𝑐 + 𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑑)

4. Factorisation of Quadratic Expressions using “Multiplication Frame” Method

• Example: Factorise 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 77
➢ Step 1: Write the 1st term, 𝑥 2 , in the top-left corner and 3rd term (constant term), −77 in
the bottom-right corner.
×
𝑥2
−77
➢ Step 2: Consider and select the appropriate factors of the 1st term and 3rd term. Write
the selected pair of factors in the first row and the first column.
× 𝑥 11
𝑥 2
𝑥
−7 −77
[Note: Since the overall coefficient of the term in 𝑥 is 4, we select the pair of factors of
−77 to be −7 and 11 as 11𝑥 − 7𝑥 = 4𝑥.]
➢ Step 3: Complete the multiplication frame by multiplying to obtain the coefficient of the
term in 𝑥. Ensure that the result matches the given term in 𝑥.
× 𝑥 11
𝑥 2 11𝑥
𝑥
−7 −7𝑥 −77
Therefore, 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 77 = (𝑥 + 11)(𝑥 − 7).
• The above method can be done by either using Trial and Error or Reasoning when
selecting the pairs of factors.
• It can be used to factorise:
➢ Quadratic expressions of the form 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄,
➢ Quadratic expressions of the form 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄, and
➢ Algebraic expressions involving two variables

5. Factorising using Special Algebraic Identities

• Difference of two squares
➢ 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
• Perfect square
➢ 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2
➢ 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)2

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Topic 6: Quadratic Equations and Graphs

1. Quadratic Equations
• Equation in the form of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎 ≠ 0, constants 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the coefficients of
𝑥 2 and 𝑥 respectively, and 𝑐 is the constant term.
• To solve quadratic equation in the form of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we need to find the value(s) of
𝑥 that satisfies the equation, which is known as the roots of the equation.

2. Methods to solve Quadratic Equations

• Factorisation and Graphical Method (Secondary 2)
• Completing the Square and Quadratic Formula (Secondary 3)

3. Solving Quadratic Equations by Factorisation

• Step 1: Rewrite the given equation in the general form, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 (if necessary).
• Step 2: Factorise the expression on the LHS of the equation.
• Step 3: By using the Zero Product Principle, set each factor equal to 0.
Zero Product Principle (Product of 0)
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are real numbers where 𝑝𝑞 = 0, then 𝑝 = 0 or 𝑞 = 0. Therefore, if 𝑃 and 𝑄
are factors of the quadratic algebraic expression such that 𝑃𝑄 = 0, then 𝑃 = 0 or 𝑄 = 0.
• Step 4: Solve the linear equation(s) in Step 3 to obtain the solution(s)/ roots of the equation.
• Step 5: Check your answers by substituting the solution(s) into the original equation.

4. Graphs of Quadratic Functions

• Quadratic graphs are graphs of the equation form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑎, 𝑏
and 𝑐 are constants.
• Shape of a quadratic graph is a parabola, either a ∪-shaped (smiley face) or ∩-shaped
(sad face) curve, depending on the coefficient of 𝑥 2 , 𝑎.
➢ If 𝑎 > 0, the quadratic graph is ∪-shaped and has a minimum point.
➢ If 𝑎 < 0, the quadratic graph is ∩-shaped and has a maximum point.
➢ The minimum point and maximum point are called the turning points.
• To find 𝒚 −intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0 into the equation to find the value of 𝑦.
• To find 𝒙 −intercept, substitute 𝑦 = 0 into the equation to find the value of 𝑥.
• Quadratic curve is symmetrical about the line of symmetry. Line of symmetry is a vertical
line in the form of 𝑥 = ℎ which passes through either the maximum or minimum point
(𝒉, 𝒌) of the curve.
𝑥₁+𝑥₂
➢ Equation of line of symmetry, 𝑥 = ℎ = 2 , where 𝑥₁ and 𝑥₂ are the 𝑥 −intercepts.
➢ To find the value of 𝑘, substitute 𝑥 = ℎ into the equation of the curve.
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 when 𝑎 > 0 Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 when 𝑎 < 0
𝑦 𝑦
Line of symmetry, 𝑥 = ℎ
𝑦 −intercept
Maximum point (ℎ, 𝑘)

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
2
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥
𝑂 𝑂
𝑥 −intercept 𝑥 −intercept 𝑥 −intercept
𝑦 −intercept Minimum point (ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑥 −intercept Line of symmetry, 𝑥 = ℎ

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Topic 7: Algebraic Fractions and Formulae

1. Algebraic Fractions
𝑨
• Fraction in the form of 𝑩 (where 𝐵 ≠ 0), and 𝐴 and/ or 𝐵 are expressions that contains
algebraic terms.
• One important rule: Value of the fraction remains the same if both its numerator and
denominator are multiplied or divided by the identical non-zero number/ expression.
𝑎 𝑎×𝑐 𝑎 𝑎÷𝑐
➢ 𝑏 = 𝑏×𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑏÷𝑐 where 𝑏,𝑐 ≠ 0.
• To simplify an algebraic fraction, we divide both the numerator and denominator by their
common factors. The numerator and denominator in the final answer should not have any
common factors other than 1.

2. Multiplication and Division of Algebraic Fractions

• Multiplication of two algebraic fractions
➢ Factorise both numerator and denominator where possible.
➢ Divide/ Cancel out the common factors for both the numerator and denominator.
➢ Multiply the remaining terms within the numerator and denominator respectively. (It
works the same way as numeric fractions.)
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎×𝑐 𝑎𝑐
➢ 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 𝑏×𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑, where 𝑏 and 𝑑 ≠ 0.
• Division of two algebraic fractions
➢ Factorise both numerator and denominator where possible.
➢ Convert the division into multiplication by reciprocating the second fraction.
➢ Divide/ Cancel out the common factors for both the numerator and denominator.
➢ Multiply the remaining terms within the numerator and denominator respectively.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
➢ 𝑏 ÷ 𝑑 = 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐

3. Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions

• Algebraic Fractions can be added/ subtracted the same way as numeric fractions
➢ Factorise both numerator and denominator where possible.
➢ Divide/ Cancel out the common factors for both numerator and denominator.
➢ Make the denominators of the fractions the same by finding the lowest common
multiple (LCM) so that the algebraic fractions can be expressed as like fractions.
➢ Add/ Subtract the numerators of the fractions (similar to adding/ subtracting numeric
fractions) while leaving the common denominators the same. Take note to the change
of operation signs when expanding negative terms.

4. Solving Equations involving Algebraic Fractions

• Only 2 algebraic fractions/ numerals within the equation
➢ Use cross-multiplication method
• 3 or more algebraic fractions/ numerals within the equation
➢ Method 1: Express as like fractions by ensuring each side of the equation are
expressed as a single fraction before performing cross-multiplication
➢ Method 2: Multiply throughout individual fractions/ numerals by the LCM of
denominators.
• Always substitute the solutions back into the original equation to check for validity and
ensure that the denominators are always non-zero.

5. Changing the Subject of a Formula

• Formula describes the mathematical relationship between one quantity and the other
quantities. Subject of a formula appears alone on the LHS of the equation.
• Perform algebraic manipulations such as expansion, taking out common factor, etc, to make
the variable (the subject) appear on the LHS of the formula.

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Topic 8: Direct and Inverse Proportions

1. Direct Proportion
• Variable 𝑦 is directly proportional to variable 𝑥 if the ratio of 𝑦 ∶ 𝑥 remains unchanged for all
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
values. For example, 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 or 𝑦1 = 𝑥1
1 2 2 2

• General equation: 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙, where 𝑘 is a constant and 𝑘 ≠ 0 where it can be determined by a

known ordered pair, e.g. (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ).
• Graphical representation of 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙 is a linear relationship, represented by a straight line
with gradient 𝑘 that passe through the origin. 𝑦
• When 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 increases and when 𝑥 decreases, 𝑦 decreases. 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥

𝑥
2. Inverse Proportion 𝑂
1
• Variable 𝑦 is inversely proportional to variable 𝑥 when 𝑦 is directly proportional to .
𝑥
For example, 𝑥1 𝑦1 = 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦
𝒌
• General equation: 𝒚 = or 𝒌 = 𝒙𝒚, where 𝑘 is a constant and 𝑘 ≠ 0. 𝑘
𝒙 𝑦=𝑥
𝒌
• Graphical representation of 𝒚 = 𝒙 is a hyperbola.
1
• Graph of 𝑦 against 𝑥 is a straight line starts from the origin (𝑥 ≠ 0). 𝑥
𝑂
• When 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 decreases, and when 𝑥 decreases, 𝑦 increases.

3. Percentage change
• Increase/ decrease by: New value = Original value +/− amount increase/ decrease
• Increase/ decrease to: New value = Amount increase/ decrease to
Change in Value
• Percentage change = × 100%
Original Value

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Topic 9: Congruence and Similarity

1. Transformation refers to a change in either the position or the size of an object. An image is
obtained when a figure undergoes a transformation.
• Types of transformation:
➢ Translation by ‘sliding’ the figure
➢ Rotation by ‘turning’ the figure
➢ Reflection by ‘flipping’ the figure on a mirror line
➢ Enlargement/ Reduction by ‘resizing’ the figure

2. Congruent Figures
• Two figures are congruent if they have exactly the same shape and same size.
• They can be mapped onto each other under translation, rotation and reflection.
• Symbol for congruency is " ≡ ", which represents “is congruent to”.
• If two polygons are congruent,
➢ all their corresponding angles are equal (same shape), and
➢ all their corresponding sides are equal (same size)
• For example, ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 ≡ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶:
𝐵
𝑃

𝐴
𝑄 𝑅 𝐶

➢ ∠𝑃 = ∠𝐴, ∠𝑄 = ∠𝐵 and ∠𝑅 = ∠𝐶, (all corresponding angles are equal)

➢ 𝑃𝑄 = 𝐴𝐵, 𝑄𝑅 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐴𝐶. (all corresponding sides are equal)
➢ Note that the symbol " ≡ " expresses that the way the two polygons are named have to
be in a concise and precise manner.
This means that we write ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 ≡ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 in a specific manner, whereby the order

of the vertices of one polygon must correspond to the other of the vertices of the other
polygon.

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3. Similar Figures
• Two figures are similar if they have exactly the same shape but not necessarily the same
size.
• If two similar figures also have exactly the same size, they are congruent to one another.
Therefore, a pair of congruent figures is also a pair of similar figures, but a pair of similar
figures may not be congruent to one another. Congruency is a special case of similarity.
• There is no special symbol for similarity.
• If two polygons are similar,
➢ all their corresponding angles are equal, and
➢ all the ratios of the lengths of their corresponding sides are equal.
• Enlargement/ Reduction is a transformation that changes the size of an object without
changing its shape. Image obtained is either enlarged or reduced in size as compared to
the object. The object and corresponding image are similar.
• An enlargement is determined by the center of enlargement and a scale factor, 𝒌.
• The scale factor, 𝒌, of an enlargement is the ratio of the length of a side of the image to the
corresponding length of an object.
Length of a side of the image
➢ Scale factor, 𝒌 = Length of the corresponding side of object.
➢ When 0 < 𝑘 < 1, the image produced is diminished (size of object > size of image).
➢ When 𝑘 = 1, the image and the object have the same size, whereby they are congruent.
➢ When 𝑘 > 1, the image is enlarged (size of object < size of image).
• For example, ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 is similar to ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶:
𝐴
𝑃

𝑄 𝑅

𝐵 𝐶
➢ ∠𝑃 = ∠𝐴, ∠𝑄 = ∠𝐵 and ∠𝑅 = ∠𝐶, (all corresponding angles are equal)
𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑅 𝑃𝑅
➢ 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐵𝐶
= 𝐴𝐶
=𝑘 (all the ratios of their corresponding sides are equal)

4. Map Scale Drawing is an enlarged or reduced drawing of actual figures as the actual objects
might be too large or too small to draw on paper.
• Scale factor of a scale drawing is the ratio of the length of a drawing to the corresponding
length of the actual object. It is usually represented as a linear scale in the form of 𝟏: 𝒏,
where 1 unit in length on the scale drawing represents the actual length of 𝒏 units.
• If the linear scale on map is 𝟏: 𝒏, then the area scale of the map is 𝟏: 𝒏𝟐 .
• Note: There are no units in scale factor, whereby the units in the map scale in the form of
1
fraction 𝑛 or ratio 1: 𝑛 must be the same.
1
➢ For example, map scale of 12500 or 1: 12500 means that 1 cm on the map represents
12500 cm on the actual ground.

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Topic 10: Pythagoras’ Theorem

1. Pythagoras’ Theorem
• In a right-angled triangle, the longest side of the triangle (opposite to the right angle), is
called the hypotenuse, 𝑐. 𝐴
• Pythagoras’ Theorem states that for any right-angled triangle,
hypotenuse
the square of the length of the hypotenuse is always equal to
the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. 𝑏 𝑐
2 2 2
➢ In a right-angled triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 , where 𝐴𝐶 is the
length of the hypotenuse of the triangle.
𝐵 𝑎 𝐶
i.e. 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
➢ Note: When the lengths of any two sides of a right-angled triangle are given, the length of
the third side can be found using Pythagoras’ Theorem.

2. Converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem

• Use to show that a particular triangle is a right-angled triangle. 𝐴
• In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, if 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 , we can conclude that
➢ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a right-angled triangle
𝑏 𝑐
➢ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 90°

𝐵 𝑎 𝐶

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Topic 11: Trigonometric Ratios

1. Trigonometric Ratios 𝐵
• In a right-angled triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 in which ∠𝐶 = 90°,
the trigonometric ratios of ∠𝐴 are:
opp 𝐵𝐶 hypotenuse
➢ Sine of ∠𝐴, or sin 𝐴 = hyp = 𝐴𝐵 SOH opposite
adj 𝐴𝐶
➢ Cosine of ∠𝐴, or cos 𝐴 = hyp = 𝐴𝐵 CAH
opp 𝐵𝐶 𝐶 𝐴
➢ Tangent of ∠𝐴, or tan 𝐴 = adj
= 𝐴𝐶 TOA adjacent
• Trigonometric ratios are only applicable to right-angled triangles.
• Sine, Cosine and Tangents are functions and not algebraic terms. They always come with
angles.
• In any right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse remains the same while the opposite and
adjacent sides changes with reference to the angle used.
• To memorise the three trigonometric ratios, we use “TOA CAH SOH”

2. Use of Calculator to evaluate trigonometric ratios

• When computing angles in degrees, always remember to check/ set the mode of the
calculator to “DEG”.

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Topic 12: Volume and Surface Area of Pyramids, Cones and Spheres
1. Pyramids is a solid with polygonal base and its slanted faces are triangles joined to the sides
of the polygonal base. apex slant
• Vertices are the corner points of the pyramid.
edge
• Apex is where the vertex of all slanted faces meet.
• Types of pyramids slant
➢ Right pyramid is a pyramid with its apex height
height
perpendicularly above the centre of the base.
For example, square/ rectangular pyramid.
➢ Regular pyramid is a right pyramid with centre
base slant
regular polygon base. face
➢ Tetrahedron is a triangular pyramid.
𝟏
• Volume of Pyramid = 𝟑 × Base Area × Height
• Total Surface Area of Pyramid = Total Area of All Faces
= Area of Base + Area of All Lateral Faces
𝟏
• Area of One of the Slant Face (Lateral faces) = 𝟐 × Base Length × Slant Height

2. Cones are not pyramids but like pyramids with circular bases.
𝟏 𝟏
• Volume of Cone = 𝟑 × Base Area × Height = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
• Curved Surface Area of Cone = 𝝅𝒓𝒍 ,where 𝑙 is the slant height of the cone.
• Surface Area of Cone = Base Area + Curved Surface Area = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 + 𝝅𝒓𝒍
apex 2𝜋𝑟

𝑙
ℎ Open Up
𝑥°
𝑟 𝑙 𝑙

3. Spheres are 3D shapes that are perfectly round and symmetrical. Every points on its surface
are equidistant from the centre of the sphere.
• Hemisphere is a half sphere which has a circular base and a curved surface that is half of
that of the corresponding sphere.
• Sphere Sphere
centre
𝟒
➢ Volume of Sphere = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝑟 𝑟
➢ Surface Area of Sphere = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
• Hemisphere 𝑟
𝟐
➢ Volume of Hemisphere = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑
➢ Total Surface Area of Closed Hemisphere = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 + 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑𝝅𝒓𝟐 Hemisphere

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Topic 13: Probability of Single Events

1. Probability and Sample Space

• Probability is the measure of chance/ the likelihood of an event happening, which has
the value between 0 and 1.
• Sample space is the collection of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment. It is
usually denoted by the letter "𝑆", and written using the set notation, { }.

2. Probability of Single Events

• In general, the probability experiment with equally likely outcomes, the probability of an
event 𝐸, 𝑃(𝐸), happening is given by:
number of favourable outcomes for event E n(𝐸)
➢ 𝑃(𝐸) = =
total number of possible outcomes n(𝑆)
➢ 𝑃(not 𝐸) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸)
• For any event 𝐸 to occur, 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐸) ≤ 1.
➢ If 𝑷(𝑬) = 𝟎, the event 𝐸 is an impossible event, whereby it will never occur.
➢ If 𝑷(𝑬) = 𝟏, the event 𝐸 is a certain event, whereby it will definitely occur.

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Topic 14: Statistical Diagrams

1. Dot diagrams
• Dot diagrams involving number line must be drawn with equal intervals to represent the
range of values.
• A set of data is represented by using dots, placing them above a horizontal number line.
The number of dots indicates the value of the data points.
• Advantages: Suitable to display a small set of numerical data
• Disadvantages:
➢ Not suitable to display a large set of numerical data (each dot represents one unit).
➢ Not suitable to display a data set with many different values/ a large range.

2. Histograms for Ungrouped and Grouped Data

• Similar to vertical bar chart except that there are no spaces between the adjacent bars as
the horizontal axis in histogram is a number line.
• In Histogram, the area of the bar denotes the value of frequency, unlike bar graphs where
height denotes the frequency. If the widths of the bars in histogram are equal, then only the
heights need to be considered.
• Advantages:
➢ Suitable for displaying a large set of numerical data.
➢ Suitable to display a data set (grouped data) when individual data values are not
important.
• Disadvantages:
➢ More abstract as frequency is represented by area of each column.
➢ Data may be misinterpreted if the frequency axis does not start from zero.
➢ For grouped data, individual data values are lost.

3. Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams
• Used to display grouped numerical data while preserving the values of each data point.
• Data values are split into two parts – the stem and the leaves.
• Data are grouped into equal class intervals by the stems.
• Stems must be arranged in ascending order from the top to bottom.
• Leaves must be recorded in ascending order separated with spacing, from left to right
(when the leave is on the right of the stem).
• Total number of leaves must tally with the total number of data.
• Back-to-back stem-and-leaf diagram is used to compare two data sets. The two data sets
will share a common stem with one group of the data set represented by the leaves on the
left and the other on the right.
• Advantages:
➢ Suitable to display a data set with many different values by grouping the values into
equal class intervals.
➢ Individual data values are retained. (represented by the leaves)
➢ Can display two sets of data for easy comparison.
• Disadvantages:
➢ Tedious to construct if there ae too many data values.
➢ Limitations to grouping of class intervals. Example,“21-30”, “31-40”, due to the stem.

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Topic 15: Averages of Statistical Data

1. Mean is the average of the values, obtained by dividing the sum of all values by the number of
values.
𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐚 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬
• Mean = 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐚 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬
∑𝒇𝒙
• ̅=
Mean of frequency distribution, 𝒙 ∑𝒇
, where 𝑥 is a data value and 𝑓 is the frequency of
the data value.
∑𝒇𝒙
• ̅=
Estimated mean of grouped data, 𝒙 ∑𝒇
, where 𝑥 is the mid-value and 𝑓 is the
frequency of the class interval.

2. Median is the middle value that divides the data into 2 equal parts.
• To find the median in a data set, the data set has to be arranged in ascending order.
The 2 possible cases to consider when finding the median are:
➢ Case 1: When 𝒏 is odd, where 𝑛 is the number of data.
𝑛+1 th
The median occurs exactly at the middle position, given by ( 2
) position.
➢ Case 2: When 𝒏 is even, where 𝑛 is the number of data.
The median is the average of the two middle values.
For example, if the position of median is 3.5,
then the median = mean of 3rd value and 4th value.

3. Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a data set. If there is no number in a data set
that appears more than once, this data set has no mode.
• There can be more than 1 mode in a data set.
• When the data is presented in a frequency table, the mode is the data value with the
highest frequency.
• In grouped data, the class interval with the highest frequency is known as the modal class.

4. Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)

• Appropriate use of average
➢ Mean is preferred when there are no extreme values as mean takes into account all the
data values in the calculation.
➢ Median is preferred when there are extreme values that affect the mean.
➢ Mode is preferred when we are interested in the data value that is the most common or
popular.

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Secondary 3 - Emaths

Topic 1: Quadratic Equations

1. Factorisation by using Zero Product Principle (taught in Secondary 2).

2. Completing the square to change the algebraic expression from

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 into the form of 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘.

• Coefficient of 𝑥² must be 1. Factorise out the negative/ positive coefficient of 𝑥² from the
equation to make the coefficient of 𝑥² to be 1.
𝑏 2
• Complete the square for 𝑥² + 𝑏𝑥 by adding (2) so that the completed square will be
𝑏 2
(𝑥 + ) .
2
𝑏 2
• To ensure that the equation still has the same value, subtract (2) from the equation after
adding.

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
3. General formula: 𝑥 = for 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real numbers and 𝑎
2𝑎
≠ 0.

4. Graphical method (taught in Secondary 2).

5. Completing the Square: 𝑦 = ±𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be written in the form of 𝑦 = ±(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘

When sketching a quadratic curve using 𝒚 = ±(𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 + 𝒌 by completing the square,
−𝑏
(ℎ, 𝑘) is the vertex, where ℎ = 2𝑎 and 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑘.

−𝑥 2 coefficient (negative) → Quadratic Curve with Maximum Point (sad-face curve).

𝑥 2 coefficient (positive) → Quadratic Curve with Minimum Point (smiley-face curve).
Note: Coefficient of 𝑥² ≠ 0.

Line of symmetry: a straight line across the turning (maximum or minimum) point (ℎ, 𝑘).

Line of symmetry
𝑦 𝑦 Maximum point
(ℎ, 𝑘)
𝑦 = +(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘
𝑦-intercept

𝑥-intercepts
𝑥-intercepts

𝑥 𝑥
0 0
Minimum point
𝑦-intercept (ℎ, 𝑘)
Line of symmetry

Curve with minimum point Curve with maximum point 42

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Things to take note when sketching a quadratic curve:

• Label all 𝒙-intercepts (if any) by substituting 𝑦 = 0 into the equation.
• Label all 𝒚-intercepts by substituting 𝑥 = 0 into the equation.
• Label the Line of symmetry (𝑥 = ℎ).
• Label the Turning Point (maximum/ minimum point) by using the line of symmetry.
• Label the equation of the curve.
• Label the 𝒙-axis and 𝒚-axis.

6. Factorising: = ±𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be also written in the form of 𝑦 = ±(𝑥 − 𝑝)(𝑥 − 𝑞)

When sketching a quadratic curve using 𝑦 = ±(𝑥 − 𝑝)(𝑥 − 𝑞), 𝑝 and 𝑞 are the 𝒙-intercepts.
For 𝑦-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0 to find 𝑦.

Determine the turning points (maximum/ minimum point)

𝑝+ 𝑞
• Line of symmetry: Mid-point of the two 𝒙-intercepts (𝑥 = ) , which is also the
2
𝑥-coordinate of the turning point.

• Substitute the 𝑥-coordinate to find the 𝑦-coordinate of the turning point.

−𝑥 2 coefficient (negative)→ Maximum Point (sad-face curve).

𝑥 2 coefficient (positive) → Minimum Point (smiley-face curve).
Note: Coefficient of 𝑥² ≠ 0.

Line of symmetry, Maximum point

𝑦 𝑝+ 𝑞 𝑦
𝑥= 2
𝑦 = +(𝑥 − 𝑝)(𝑥 − 𝑞) 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 𝑝)(𝑥 − 𝑞)
𝑦-intercept

𝑥 𝑥
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞
0 0

Line of symmetry,
𝑦-intercept Minimum point 𝑝+ 𝑞
𝑥=
2

7. Using Graphical Method to Solve 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

• Construct a table of values of 𝑥 with its associated value of 𝑦 for the equation of the
quadratic curve. (Ensure that the points are well spread out.)
• Choose an appropriate scale for both the 𝑥-axis and 𝑦-axis to allow the largest possible
graph to be drawn on the graph paper (for more accurate results) unless given by the
question.
• Plot the points on the graph paper and connect them to form a smooth curve.
• Ensure that all the labeling are written on the graph paper.
• The solutions of the equation of 𝑎𝑥² + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 will be at the 𝑥-intercepts (where 𝑦 = 0).

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Topic 2: Simultaneous Linear Inequalities

1. Addition Property
• We can add a positive or negative number from both sides of an inequality without
changing the inequality sign.

𝑥>3
𝑥+2>3+2
𝑥+2>5

2. Subtraction Property
• We can subtract a positive or negative number from both sides of an inequality without
changing the inequality sign.

𝑥>3
𝑥−5>3−5
𝑥 − 5 > −2

3. Multiplication/ Division Property

• We can multiply/ divide a positive number from both sides of an inequality without
changing the inequality sign.
𝑥>3
𝑥×2 >3×2
2𝑥 > 6

• However, when we multiply/ divide a negative number from both sides of an inequality, we
MUST change the inequality sign.

𝑥>3
𝑥 × (−3) < 3 × (−3)
− 3𝑥 < −9

4. Transitive Property
• If 𝑥 < 𝑦 and 𝑦 < 𝑧, then 𝑥 < 𝑧. 𝑥 < 3
3 < 𝑧
Therefore, 𝑥 < 𝑧.

5. We can solve linear inequalities the same way as linear equations BUT we need to pay attention
to the changing of inequality signs when multiplying or dividing a negative number.

6. Given that 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) are linear functions of 𝑥.

• To solve linear inequalities of 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑔(𝑥) AND 𝑔(𝑥) < ℎ(𝑥) , we need to solve them
individually and find the range of solution that satisfies both the inequalities.

• To solve linear inequalities simultaneously in the form of 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑔(𝑥) < ℎ(𝑥), we first need to
find the solution(s) to each inequality separately by splitting the inequality into two
inequalities in the form of 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑔(𝑥) and𝑔(𝑥) < ℎ(𝑥) before solving them.

After that, we consider only the common solutions of the inequalities, which is the
overlapping/ intersection of the solutions for the individual inequality. We can represent
the inequalities on a number line to identify the overlapping region that represents the range
of values which satisfies both inequalities.

• When there is no overlapping region on the number line, there is no solution that satisfies
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7. It is always good to maintain a good habit of presenting your final answer of your inequality with
the subject on the left-hand side. This will allow you to read the inequality sign better.

For example: 𝑥 < 3 , 𝑥 ≥ −5

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Topic 3: Indices and Standard Form

1. Index Notation: a × a × a × a… × a (n times) = 𝒂𝒏 where a is called the base and n is

called the exponent or index. It is read as “a to the power of n”.

2. Laws of Indices
Law 1: 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 Rules for same base
Law 2: 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
Law 3: 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑛
𝑎 𝑛 Rules for same index
Law 4: 𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑏)
Law 5: (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 x 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Law 6: 𝑎0 =1
1
Law 7: 𝑎−𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑎
1
𝑛
Law 8: 𝑎 = √𝑎 𝑛
𝑚
𝑛
Law 9: √𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑛 The denominator of the index is always the root.

3. Equations involving Indices

• If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 , then by comparing the power, 𝑥 = n as they have the same base, 𝑎, where
𝑎 ≠ −1, 0 or 1.
• If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥 , then by comparing the base, 𝑎 = 𝑏 as they have the same power, 𝑥.
• An equation that contains a variable in index form is called an indicial/ exponential
equation.
• To solve an exponential equation in the form of 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏, we express 𝑏 in the form of 𝑎𝑛 (to
make both sides of the equation have the same base) so that we can compare the power
whereby 𝑥 = 𝑛.

4. Simple Interest (Recap): Simple interest is based on the principal amount.

Principal Sum × Interest Rate per period × Number of periods

Simple Interest =
100
5. Compound Interest: Compound interest is based on the principal amount AND interest that
accumulates in every period of time.

Total Amount (over a period of time) =

Interest rate per period Number of periods

Principal Sum (1 + )
100
𝑛
6. For √𝑎 , the value of 𝑎 cannot be negative when the power, 𝑛, is an even number.

7. Denominator of a fraction cannot be 0 as it will be undefined.

8. Standard Form: Very large/ small numbers that are usually written in the standard form of,

𝐴 × 10𝑛 , where n is an integer and 1 ≤ 𝐴 < 10

• When expressing a very large number in standard form, the decimal point will be shifted
to the left and the power of 10 will increase according to number of places that the
decimal point is shifted.
• When expressing a very small number in standard form, the decimal point will be shifted
to the right and the power of 10 will decrease according to the number of places that the
decimal point is shifted.
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9. Common Prefixes

Numerical Value Powers of 10 English word SI Prefix Symbol

1 000 000 000 000 1012 trillion tera T

1 000 000 000 109 billion giga G

1 000 000 106 million mega M

1 000 103 thousand kilo k

0.01 10−2 hundredth centi c

0.001 10−3 thousandth milli m

0.000 001 10−6 millionth micro μ

0.000 000 001 10−9 billionth nano n

0.000 000 000 001 10−12 trillionth pico p

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Topic 4: Coordinate Geometry

1. Length of a Line Segment/ Distance between two points on Cartesian Coordinates

• Length of Line AB = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
➢ Derive from Pythagoras’ Theorem, where
Length of AB = √𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 𝑦

𝑦2 B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

𝑦1 C(𝑥2 , 𝑦1 )
A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥
0 𝑥1 𝑥2

2. Gradient of a Line Segment/ Straight Line: Measure of the degree of steepness of the slope
of the line.
vertical change rise
• Gradient = horizontal change = run
𝑦 −𝑦
• Gradient of Line AB, 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1

• Different forms of Gradient of Straight Line

➢ Positive (upward sloping): When (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) have the same sign.
➢ Negative (downward sloping): When (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) have opposite sign.
➢ Zero (horizontal line): When 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 or 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 0, as the numerator (rise) is 0.
➢ Undefined (vertical line): When 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 or 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 0, as the denominator (run) is 0.

3. Equation of a Line Segment/ Straight Line: 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
where
• 𝑚 is the gradient of the line, and
• 𝑐 is the 𝑦 −intercept of a line (crosses the 𝑦 −axis). 𝑐 Gradient = 𝑚

0 x

• If a straight line with gradient 𝑚, passes through a point ( 𝑥1, 𝑦1), then the equation of
tthe straight line can be given by:
𝑦−𝑦
➢ 𝑚 = 𝑥−𝑥1 → 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1
• Equation of a Line Segment/ Straight Line can be formed when given the following
information:
➢ Two coordinate points on the straight line, or
➢ One coordinate point on the straight line and the gradient of straight line.
• Equation of Horizontal Line:
➢ 𝑦 = 𝑦 −intercept = 𝑐
• Equation of Vertical Line:
➢ 𝑥 = 𝑥 −intercept

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Topic 5: Graphs of Functions and Graphical Solution

1. Graphs of 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝒏
• When 𝑛 = 0,
𝑦 𝑦

𝑎 𝑦=𝑎

𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑦 = −𝑎

• When 𝑛 = 1,
𝑦 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑎 > 0

𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑎 < 0

• When 𝑛 = 2,
𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 , 𝑎 < 0

• When 𝑛 = 3,
𝑦 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 , 𝑎 > 0
𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 , 𝑎 < 0

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• When 𝑛 = −1,
𝑦 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −1 , 𝑎 > 0

𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −1 , 𝑎 < 0

• When 𝑛 = −2,
𝑦 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −2 , 𝑎 > 0

𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 −2 , 𝑎 < 0

2. Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒂𝒙, where 𝑎 > 0.

𝑦 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑘𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑘 > 0
𝑘
𝑥 𝑥
0 0
𝑘 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑘 < 0

3. Graphical Solution
• Rewrite the equation of the non-linear graph with 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 when necessary.
• Draw the graph of the equation above by using a table of 𝑥 and 𝑦 values that corresponds
to the equation.
• When solving for 𝑦 = 0 graphically, read off the 𝑥 −coordinates of the point(s) of
intersection(s) of the graph with the 𝑥 −axis.
• When estimating the gradient of the of the curve at any specific point, draw a tangent to the
curve at that point and find the gradient of the tangent.

4. Solving Equations by Graphical Method

• Step 1: Express the given equation in a manner whereby one side of the equation gives the
function of graph while the other side shows a linear expression.
• Step 2: Draw the graphs of both equations on the same axes.
• Step 3: The solution will be the 𝑥 −coordinates of the points of intersection of the two
graphs.

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5. Relationship between a distance-time graph and a speed-time graph

Distance

0 Time
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3

𝑆2

𝑆1
Speed

0 Time
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3

• The gradient of a distance-time graph represents the speed of a moving object.

• Distance travelled by the object = Area under the speed-time graph
• Acceleration of the moving object = Gradient in the speed-time graph
• In Figure 1, the object is moving with constant speed at 0 to 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 to 𝑡3 .
It is at rest from 𝑡1 to 𝑡2 .
• Figure 2 shows its corresponding speed at the time intervals.
• At 𝑡 = 0, the object is at the starting point where Distance and Speed is zero.
• From 0 to 𝑡1 , the object is moving towards 𝐷 where Distance is increasing while the Speed
is uniform/ constant (Acceleration = 0).
• From 𝑡1 to 𝑡2 , the object is at rest at 𝐷. Therefore, the Distance remains the same and the
Speed is 0.
• From 𝑡2 to 𝑡3 , the object is moving back to the starting point where Distance is
decreasing and Speed is uniform/ constant (Acceleration = 0).
• At 𝑡3 , object is back at the starting point where Distance and Speed is zero.

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6. Acceleration in distance-time graph and speed-time graph

Distance

Time
0 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡4

Speed

Time
0 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡4

• From the diagrams above,

➢ the object is travelling at constant acceleration from 0 to 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 to 𝑡3 .
➢ The object is travelling at constant deceleration from 𝑡1 to 𝑡2 and 𝑡3 to 𝑡4 .

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Topic 6: Further Trigonometry

1. Pythagoras’ Theorem (Recap)
• For right-angle triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑏 2 , where 𝐴
𝑏 is the hypotenuse.
𝑏
𝑐
2. Trigonometric Ratios of a right-angle triangle (Recap)
opposite 𝑐
• sin 𝜃 = hypotenuse = 𝑏 [SOH] 𝜃
adjacent 𝑎 𝐵 𝐶
• cos 𝜃 = hypotenuse
= 𝑏 [CAH] 𝑎
opposite 𝑐
• tan 𝜃 = adjacent
= 𝑎 [TOA]

3. Trigonometric Ratios of Acute and Obtuse Angles

𝐴
• As 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 180°,
➢ sin 𝑦 = sin(180° − 𝑥) = sin 𝑥
➢ cos 𝑦 = cos(180° − 𝑥) = − cos 𝑥
➢ tan 𝑦 = tan(180° − 𝑥) = − tan 𝑥

4. Area of Triangle 𝑦
• Area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is given by: 𝑥
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
➢ 2 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶
1
➢ 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴 𝑐 𝑏
2
1
➢ 2
𝑎𝑐 sin 𝐵
𝐵 𝐶
𝑎
5. Sine Rule
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• sin 𝐴 = sin 𝐵 = sin 𝐶 or
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
• 𝑎
= 𝑏
= 𝑐
• Can be used when
➢ Given two angles and a side
➢ Two sides and an angle opposite a given side
• Ambiguous case: When a set of given information using Sine Rule gives two possible sets
of solutions. It occurs when
➢ Length of two sides and a non-included angle are given, and
➢ The given angle is acute, and
➢ The length of the side opposite the given angle is less than the other given side.
• No Ambiguous case when:
➢ The given angle is obtuse, or
➢ The length of side opposite the given angle is greater than the other given side.

6. Cosine Rule
𝑏2 +𝑐 2 −𝑎2
• 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴 ↔ cos 𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑐
𝑎 2 +𝑐 2 −𝑏2
• 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵 ↔ cos 𝐵 = 2𝑎𝑐
𝑎 2 +𝑏2 −𝑐 2
• 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶 ↔ cos 𝐶 = 2𝑎𝑏
• Can be used when:
➢ Given two sides and one included angle
➢ Given three sides

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Topic 7: Applications of Trigonometry

𝐶
1. Angles of Elevation and Depression 𝐷
• ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 or ∠𝑥 is the angle of elevation of 𝐶 from 𝐴. 𝑦
• ∠𝐴𝐶𝐷 or ∠𝑦 is the angle of depression of 𝐴 from 𝐶.
• Using alternate angles properties, ∠𝑥 = ∠𝑦.
Angle of elevation of 𝐶 from 𝐴 is the same as 𝐴 𝑥
𝐵
angle of depression of 𝐴 from 𝐶.

2. Bearings
• Use to describe a precise position and direction.
• A measure from the North in clockwise direction.
• Ranges from 0° to 360°.
• Written as a 3-digit number in degrees if it is an integer (for example, 045°, 190°, 005°) and
rounded off to 1 decimal place when necessary (for example, 029.9°, 130.4° 209.5°).
𝑁

𝑌
• Finding the bearings from Point 𝑌 from Point 𝑋:
➢ Draw the north line at Point 𝑋.
➢ Join Point 𝑋 to Point 𝑌.
➢ Measure the angle from the north line at Point 𝑋 to the line 𝑋𝑌 in a clockwise direction.

3. Shortest Distance from a particular point to a line is the perpendicular distance from the point
to the line.

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Topic 8: Arc Length, Sector Area and Radian Measure

1. Understanding the parts of a circle
𝑃 𝑃
Minor Arc
𝐴 𝐵
Minor Segment Minor Sector
𝐴 𝐵
radii
𝑂 Chord 𝑂
Major Segment Major Sector
Major Arc

𝑄 𝑄
• Chord, represented by line 𝐴𝐵, connects any two points on the circumference of a circle.
Diameter is the longest chord.
• Arc is a part of the circumference of a circle.
➢ Minor arc is represented by arc 𝐴𝑃𝐵.
➢ Major arc is represented by arc 𝐴𝑄𝐵.
• Segment is the region that is enclosed by a chord and an arc of a circle. A chord divides a
circle into two segments.
➢ Minor segment is represented by the region enclosed by arc 𝐴𝑃𝐵 and chord 𝐴𝐵.
➢ Major segment is represented by the region enclosed by arc 𝐴𝑄𝐵 and chord 𝐴𝐵.
• Sector is a part of a circle that is enclosed by two radii and an arc of a circle.
➢ Minor sector is represented by the region enclosed by 𝐴𝑂𝐵𝑃.
➢ Major sector is represented by the region enclosed by 𝐴𝑂𝐵𝑄.

2. Length of Arc and Area of Sector (in degrees)

𝑥∘
• Arc length = 360∘ × Circumference
𝑥∘
=360∘
× 2𝜋𝑟
𝑥∘
• Sector area = 360∘ × Area of circle
𝑥∘
= 360∘ × 𝜋𝑟 2
where 𝑥 ∘ is the angle subtended by the arc at the center of the circle of radius 𝑟.
3. Radian Measure
• Angles can be measured in degrees or radians
• Relationship between degrees and radians: 180° = 𝜋 rad
• Length of arc and area of sector (in radians)
➢ Arc length, 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
1
➢ Sector area = 2 𝑟 2 𝜃
where 𝜃 is the angle, in radians, subtended by the arc at the centre of the circle of radius
𝑟.

4. Area of Segment (Shaded region/ Minor Segment)

𝑥∘ 1
• Area of Minor Segment (degrees) = 360∘ × 𝜋𝑟 2 − 2 × 𝑟 2 × sin 𝑥°
1 1 1
• Area of Minor Segment (radians) = 2 𝑟 2 𝜃 − 2 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 = 2 𝑟 2 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
𝐴
• Area of Major Segment (unshaded region)
= Area of circle − area of minor segment 𝑟
= Area of major sector + area of triangle 𝑥°/
𝑂 𝜃 rad
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Topic 9: Congruence and Similarity Tests

1. Perpendicular Bisector
• A line 𝐶𝐷 is the perpendicular bisector of a line segment 𝐴𝐵 if Perpendicular
➢ 𝐶𝐷 is perpendicular to 𝐴𝐵 𝐶 Bisector
➢ 𝐶𝐷 passes through the midpoint, 𝑀, of 𝐴𝐵
• Any point on the perpendicular bisector 𝐶𝐷 will be
equidistant from the points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
• Constructing a Perpendicular Bisector
➢ Place the compass on point 𝐴 and adjust the arms of
the pair of compasses so that the distance between 𝐴 𝐵
ends is more than half the length of line 𝐴𝐵. 𝑀
➢ Draw an arc that is around point 𝐶 and 𝐷
➢ Without adjusting the arc length of the compass, place
it on point 𝐵. Draw another arc of the same radius to
cut the first arc that is drawn above and below the line 𝐴𝐵. 𝐷
➢ Label the points of the intersection of the 2 arcs as
𝐶 and 𝐷 and mark the right angle at 𝑀 and the equal lengths of 𝐴𝑀 and 𝐵𝑀.

2. Angle Bisector
• If line 𝐴𝑍 is the angle bisector of ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, it divides ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 B
into 2 equal angles, whereby ∠𝐵𝐴𝑍 = ∠𝐶𝐴𝑍. Z
• Any point on the angle bisector 𝐴𝑍 will be equidistant
from the lines 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶.
• A point on the angle bisector is the shortest distance
from 𝐴𝐵 when it is perpendicular to the line 𝐴𝐵. A C
• Constructing an Angle Bisector
➢ Step 1: Place the compass on point 𝐴 and draw an arc that crosses both sides of the
angle.
➢ Step 2: Place the compass on the arc that intersects the line 𝐴𝐵 and draw an arc of
suitable radius (may be different from the step 1) between the two sides of the angle.
➢ Step 3: Without adjusting the radius/ the arc length of the compass, place it on the first
arc that intersects line 𝐴𝐶. Draw another arc that cuts the arc drawn in step 2.
➢ Step 4: Draw a straight line from the intersection of the 2 arcs drawn from step 2 and 3 to
point 𝐴. Mark the equal angle.

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3. Congruent Figures
• Two figures are congruent when they have exactly the same size and shape, noted by the
symbol " ≡ ", representing ‘is congruent to’.
• If two figures are congruent,
➢ all their corresponding angles are equal (same shape), and
➢ all their corresponding sides are equal (same size)
• For example, ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 ≡ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶:
𝐵
𝑃

𝐴
𝑄 𝑅 𝐶
➢ ∠𝑃 = ∠𝐴, ∠𝑄 = ∠𝐵 and ∠𝑅 = ∠𝐶, (all corresponding angles are equal)
➢ 𝑃𝑄 = 𝐴𝐵, 𝑄𝑅 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐴𝐶. (all corresponding sides are equal)
➢ Note that the symbol " ≡ " expresses that the way the two polygons are named have to
be in a concise and precise manner.
This means that we write ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 ≡ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 in a specific manner, whereby the order

of the vertices of one triangle must correspond to the other of the vertices of the other
triangle.
• Congruence Tests
SSS Congruence Test 𝑋 SAS Congruence Test
𝐵 𝑍
𝐵

𝐴 𝐶 𝑌 𝐴 𝐶 𝑌 𝑋
𝑍
If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑋𝑌, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑌𝑍 and 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑋𝑍, If 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑋𝑍, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑋𝑌 and ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝑌𝑋𝑍,
then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≡ ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍. then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≡ ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍.

AAS (or ASA Congruence Test) RHS Congruence Test

𝐵 𝑌 𝑌
𝐵

𝑋
𝐴 𝐶 𝑍
If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑋𝑌, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍 and
∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 = ∠𝑌𝑍𝑋, then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≡ ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍.
or 𝐴 𝐶 𝑍 𝑋
𝐵 𝑌
If the hypotenuse side (𝐵𝐶 = 𝑌𝑍) and one
of the short side (𝐴𝐵 = 𝑋𝑌) of the
𝑋 right-angled triangles are equal,
𝐴 𝐶 𝑍
If 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑌𝑍, ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍 and then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≡ ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍.
∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 = ∠𝑌𝑍𝑋, then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≡ ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍.

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4. Similar Figures
• Two figures are similar when they have exactly the same shape but do not need to be of
the same size. If two similar figures have the same size, they are congruent.
• If two figures are similar,
➢ all their corresponding angles are equal, and
➢ all the ratios of the lengths of their corresponding sides are equal.
• For example, ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 is similar to ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶:
𝐴
𝑃

𝑄 𝑅

𝐵 𝐶
➢ ∠𝑃 = ∠𝐴, ∠𝑄 = ∠𝐵 and ∠𝑅 = ∠𝐶, (all corresponding angles are equal)
𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑅 𝑃𝑅
➢ 𝐴𝐵
= 𝐵𝐶
= 𝐴𝐶
(all the ratios of their corresponding sides are equal)
• Similarity Tests
𝑋
𝐴

𝐵 𝐶
𝑌 𝑍

➢ AA Similarity Test
Two pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍 and ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝑌𝑋𝑍
➢ SSS Similarity Test
All corresponding sides are proportional.
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶
= =
𝑋𝑌 𝑌𝑍 𝑋𝑍
➢ SAS Similarity Test
Two pairs of corresponding sides are proportional and the corresponding included
angles are equal.
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
𝑋𝑌
= 𝑌𝑍 and ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍

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Topic 10: Area and Volume of Similar Figures and Solids

𝐴 𝑙 2
1. Ratios of Area of Similar Figures, 𝐴1 = (𝑙1 ) 𝐴
2 2
• Ratios of Areas of Similar Triangles
➢ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is similar to Δ𝐷𝐵𝐸 ℎ1 𝐷
Area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ℎ 2 𝑏 2
➢ Area of Δ𝐷𝐵𝐸
= (ℎ 1 ) = (𝑏1 ) ℎ2
2 2
𝐵 𝑏 𝐶
2 𝐸
𝑏1
• Ratios of Areas of Triangles with Common Heights 𝐴
1
Area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ×𝑏1 ×ℎ 𝑏1
➢ Area of Δ𝐴𝐶𝐷
= 2
1 =𝑏2 ℎ
×𝑏2 ×ℎ
2
1
×𝑏1 ×ℎ
➢
Area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
= 2
=
𝑏1 𝐵 𝑏1 𝐶 𝑏2 𝐷
1
Area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐷 ×(𝑏1 +𝑏2 )×ℎ 𝑏1 +𝑏2
2
𝐴
• Ratios of Areas of Triangles with Common Base
Area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶
1
×𝑏×ℎ1 ℎ 𝐷
➢ Area of Δ𝐵𝐶𝐷
= 21 = ℎ1
×𝑏×ℎ2 2
2

ℎ2 ℎ1

𝐵 𝐶
𝑏

2. Mass and Volume of Similar Figures

𝑉1 𝑙 3
• Volume of Similar Figures, = ( 1)
𝑉2 𝑙2
𝑚 𝑉 𝑙 3
• Mass of Similar Figures, 𝑚1 = 𝑉1 = (𝑙1 ) , if they have the same density.
2 2 2
➢ Note: Mass = Volume × Density

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Topic 11: Geometrical Properties of Circles

1. Symmetric Properties of Circles
• Perpendicular Bisector of a Chord (⊥ Bisector of Chord)

𝑂 𝑂

𝐴 𝑀 𝐵 𝐴 𝑀 𝐵

➢ If a line 𝑂𝑀 passes through the centre of a circle and bisects the chord 𝐴𝐵, then the line
is perpendicular to the chord, 𝑂𝑀 ⊥ 𝐴𝐵.
➢ If a line 𝑂𝑀 passes through the centre of a circle and is perpendicular to a chord 𝐴𝐵,
then the line bisects the chord, 𝐴𝑀 = 𝑀𝐵.
➢ If a line 𝑂𝑀 bisects the chord 𝐴𝐵 of a circle and is perpendicular to the chord 𝐴𝐵, the line
passes through the centre of the circle, where the perpendicular bisector of a chord
will pass through the centre of the circle.

• Equal Chords
𝐷 𝐷

𝑄 𝑄
𝑂 𝑂
𝐶 𝐶

𝐵 𝐵
𝑃 𝐴 𝑃
𝐴
➢ Equal chords (𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷) of a circle are equidistant from the centre of the circle,
where 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑄.
➢ Chords that are equidistant from the centre of the circle, 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑄, are equal in
length, where 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷.

• Tangent Perpendicular to Radius (tangent ⊥ radius)

Tangent to a circle is a straight line that meets the circle only at one point.
𝐴

𝐵
𝑂

𝑆 𝑅 𝑇
➢ Tangents to a circle are perpendicular to the radii of the circle at the points of contact.
➢ ∠𝑂𝑅𝑇 = ∠𝑂𝑅𝑆 = 90°
➢ ∠𝑂𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝑂𝐵𝐴 = 90°

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• Tangents from External Point

𝑂 𝐵

𝐶
➢ Tangents from an external point are equal in length, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐵.
➢ Line from the centre of a circle to an external point bisects the angle between the two
tangents from the external point, ∠𝐴𝐵0 = ∠𝐶𝐵0.
➢ Line from the centre of a circle to an external point bisects the angle between the radii
𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐶, ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = ∠𝐶𝑂𝐵.
➢ Note: ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵 ≡ ∆𝑂𝐶𝐵.

2. Angle Properties of Circles

• Angle at Centre (∠ at centre = 𝟐∠ at circumcerence)
𝐶
𝐶
𝐶

𝑂 𝑂 𝑂
𝑂

𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶
An angle at the centre of a circle is twice that of any angle at the circumference subtended
by the same arc.
𝐶
• Angle in Semicircle (rt. ∠ in semicircle)
➢ An angle in a semicircle is always a right angle.
➢ ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 90°
𝐴 𝐵
𝑂

• Angles in Same Segment (∠s in same segment)

➢ Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal. 𝑄
➢ ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = ∠𝐴𝑄𝐵 𝑃 𝑄 𝑃
➢ ∠𝑃𝐴𝑄 = ∠𝑃𝐵𝑄

𝐴 𝐵

𝐴 𝐵
• Angles in Opposite Segments (∠s in Opp. Segments)
➢ Angles in opposite segments are supplementary.
➢ ∠𝑎 + ∠𝑐 = 180°
➢ ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑑 = 180° 𝑏

𝑎 𝑐
𝑑

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Secondary 4 – Emaths

Topic 1: Set Notation and Language

1. A set is a collection of well-defined and distinct objects, such as numbers, letters, symbols,
etc.

2. The objects in a set are called the members or elements of the set.

3. Ways of describing a set:

• Listing all the elements in a set in set notation.
For example, 𝑆 = {a,b,c}.
• Describing a set in words.
For example, S is a set of prime numbers.
• Describing the elements in a set in set notation.
For example, 𝑆 = {𝑥 : 𝑥 is a natural number such that 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 5}.

4. Set Language and Notation:

• ∈ represents “... is an element of ...”
• ∉ represents “... is not an element of ...”
• Number of elements in a set 𝐴 is represented by 𝑛(𝐴).
• Universal set which contains all the sets is represented by 𝜀.
• Null set or Empty set is represented by ∅ or { } which contains no elements.
• Equal set is represented by 𝐴 = 𝐵 when the two sets, 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the same elements.
• 𝑨 is a proper subset of 𝑩 is represented by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, if every element of 𝑨 is also an
element of 𝑩, and 𝑨 ≠ 𝑩. If A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C, then A ⊂ C.
• Complement of set 𝐴 is represented by 𝐴′ whereby it contains all elements in ε except
those in 𝑨.
• Intersection of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is represented by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 , where it refers to the set of common
elements find in both 𝑨 and 𝑩 only.
• Union of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is represented by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, where it refers to the set of elements which
belongs to set 𝐴 or set 𝐵 or both.

5. Understanding of Venn Diagrams: Pictorial representation of relationships involving sets.

6. Note: The set {∅} is not an empty set as it contains one element, ∅. Therefore, the set {∅} ≠ { }
or ∅.

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Topic 2: Statistical Data Analysis

1. Measures of Central Tendency (Recap)
• Mean: Average of all the values, obtained by dividing the sum of all values by the number of
values.
➢ For a frequency distribution where 𝑓 = frequency, 𝑥 = value,

Sum of Data ∑ 𝑓𝑥
Mean, 𝑥 = Frequency of Data = ∑𝑓

➢ For grouped data, the mid-value of each class is used to represent the data value in
each group.
• Median: Middle value that divides the number of data into two halves. 50% of the
observations is below the median and 50% of the observations is above the median. (Note:
Always arrange the data in ascending order.)
➢ If the total number of data values is odd, the median occurs at exactly the middle term,
𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
which is ( 2
) term.
➢ If the total number of data is even, the median is the average of the two middle values,
𝑛 𝑡ℎ 𝑛+2 𝑡ℎ
which is the average of ( ) term and ( ) term.
2 2
• Mode: Value that occurs most frequently in a set of values.
➢ If all the data values have the same frequency, the data set has no mode.
➢ If a data set has two modes, it is known as a bi-modal distribution.
➢ For grouped data, the class interval with the highest frequency is known as the modal
class.

2. Standard Deviation: Use to measure the spread of data from the mean.
• Useful in comparing the spread of two separate data sets that have approximately the same
mean.
➢ The larger the standard deviation, the more wide-spread the values are from its
mean – less consistency of the data values relative to the mean.
➢ The smaller the standard deviation, the less wide-spread the values are from its
mean – more consistency of the data values relative to the mean.
• Standard deviation (SD) is given as:
2
∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 ∑ 𝑓𝑥
𝑆𝐷 = √ −( )
∑𝑓 ∑𝑓

3. Median, Quartiles, Percentiles, Range and Interquartile Range

• Lower Quartile (Q1): 25th percentile or the middle value of the lower half of the range.
• Median (Q2): 50th percentile
• Upper Quartile (Q3): 75th percentile or the middle value of the upper half of the range.
• Range: Largest value – Smallest Value
• Interquartile range (Q3− Q1): Indicates how the numbers in a data set are spread around
the median. It shows the degree of variation the data values are. It is the range of the
middle 50% of the data.
➢ Small Interquartile Range indicates that the data is cluster closely around the
median.
➢ Large Interquartile Range indicates that the data is spread across a wider range of
values around the median.
• Px: 𝑥 th percentile
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4. Cumulative Frequency Table and Curve

• Cumulative Frequency Distribution
➢ Cumulative Frequency Curve: Curve that shows the cumulative frequency of a set of
data which is obtained from summing up all the total frequencies in previous smaller data
values up to that point.
➢ Plotted with 𝑦-axis being cumulative frequency against the ungrouped or grouped data
values in the 𝑥-axis.
➢ For grouped data, the curve is drawn by plotting the cumulative frequency against the
upper boundary of the class.

5. Box-and-Whisker Plot: Simplified diagram that illustrates key data such as median, quartiles
(lower quartile and upper quartile) and the range (lower limit and upper limit) for quick
comparison of two sets of data.
• Range = Upper limit − Lower limit

Data Values (𝑥)

lower lower median, upper upper
limit quartile, Q2 quartile, limit
Q1 Q3

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Topic 3: Probability of Combined Events

1. Terms used in Probability
• Experiment: Process with a result/ an outcome that is determined by chance or probability.
• Outcomes: Possible results of an experiment.
• Sample space: A collection of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
• An event: Subset of the sample space which results in one or more outcomes of an
experiment satisfying a given condition.

2. Probability of an Event
Number of favorable outcomes for event E
• Probability, P(E) = Total number of all possible outcomes
• If E is a certain event, P(E) = 1.
• If E is an impossible event, P(E) = 0.
• If E is any event, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1, and
• E’ is the event that E is not happening, then P(E’) = 1 – P(E).

3. Possibility Diagrams and Tree Diagrams (for simple combined events)

• Possibility diagrams
➢ Representation of outcomes by points on a grid or using a table to represent the
outcomes based on a common context.
➢ Used only for two events with many outcomes.
• Tree diagrams
➢ Representation of different outcomes at the end of the branches with their respective
probabilities on the branches.
➢ Used for more events (≥2) with few outcomes (≤3).

4. Mutually Exclusive Events (Addition Law of Probability)

• Mutually Exclusive Events: Events cannot occur simultaneously or at the same time in one
occurrence.
• For two mutually exclusive events, A or B to occur (no common outcomes in A and B):

P(A or B) = P (A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)

• For three mutually exclusive events, A or B or C to occur:

P(A or B or C) = P (A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C)

5. Independent Events (Multiplication Law of Probability)

• Independent events: Occurrence of event A does not affect that of event B (with
replacement)
• For two independent events, A and B to occur:

P (A and B) = P(A∩B) = P(A) × P(B)

• For three independent events, A and B and C to occur:

P (A, B and C) = P(A∩B∩C) = P(A) × P(B) × P(C)

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6. Dependent Events (Multiplication involving Conditional Probabilities)

• Dependent events: Occurrence of second event will depend on the outcome of the first
event (without replacement).
• For two dependent events, A occurs first and B occurs next:

P(A occurs first and B occurs next) = P(A) × P(B occurs after A occurs )

• For three dependent events, A occurs, followed by B, followed by C:

P (A occurs, followed by B, followed by C) = P(A) × P(B occurs after A

occurs) × P(C occurs after A occurs first followed by B occurs next)

• Tree diagrams are commonly used.

7. The minimum value of the probability is always 0 and the maximum value of the probability is
always 1. Therefore, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1.

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Topic 4: Matrices
1. Definition of Matrix: A rectangular array of numbers that is arranged in rows and columns.
21 32 23 54
For example:(10 11 12 13) is a matrix with 3 rows (horizontal) and 4 columns (vertical)
32 28 56 78
• The order of the above matrix is 3 by 4, which is also known as 𝟑 × 𝟒 matrix.
• In general, a 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix has 𝒎 rows and 𝒏 columns.
• The numbers inside a matrix are called the elements of the matrix.

2. Always write the number of rows first when stating the order of matrix.

3. Types of Special Matrices (Plural of Matrix)

• Row Matrix: Matrix with only a single row.
➢ Examples: (2 4), (5 −6 8)
• Column Matrix: Matrix with only a single column.
2
1
➢ Examples: ( ), ( 5 )
3
−8
• Square Matrix: Matrix that has equal number of rows and columns.
➢ Having order of 𝑛 × 𝑛
2 5
➢ Examples: A 2 × 2 square matrix of ( ), and a 3 × 3 square matrix of
3 6
1 −3 2
(−1 4 5).
9 3 6
• Null/ Zero Matrix: Matrix with all its elements being zero.
0
0 0 0 0 0
➢ Examples: (0 0), (0), ( ), ( )
0 0 0 0 0
0

4. Equal Matrices: Two matrices are equal when they have the same order and their
corresponding elements are equal.
𝑎 𝑏 3 2 𝑎 𝑏 3 2
• Example: Given that 𝐴 = ( ) and 𝐵 = ( ), if 𝐴 = 𝐵, then ( )=( ).
𝑐 𝑑 −1 5 𝑐 𝑑 −1 5
Therefore, 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = −1, 𝑑 = 5.

5. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

• Matrices must have the same order for addition/ subtraction of matrices to take place.
• Addition/ Subtraction of matrices can be obtained by adding the corresponding elements
of the matrices.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎𝑤 𝑏𝑥
• In general, ( )  ( 𝑦 𝑧) = ( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑦 𝑑𝑧

6. Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar/ Real Number

• In general, when a matrix is multiplied by a scalar 𝑘, every element in the matrix is
multiplied by 𝑘.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏
• Example: 𝑘 ( )=( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑

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7. Multiplication of Two Matrices

• In general, for multiplication of two matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩, the product 𝑨𝑩 is only possible if the
number of columns of 𝑨 = number of rows of 𝑩.

𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐶
𝑚×𝑛 𝑛×𝑝 𝑚×𝑝

Must be equal

• If 𝑨 is a 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝑩 is a 𝑛 × 𝑝 matrix, the result of the product will be a 𝑚 × 𝑝 matrix.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
• Example: If 𝑨 = ( ) and 𝑩 = ( ), then
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ
𝑨𝑩 = ( )( )=( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ

• The multiplication of matrices is not commutative, where 𝑨𝑩𝑩𝑨.

• The multiplication of matrices is associative, where 𝑨(𝑩𝑪) = (𝑨𝑩)𝑪.

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Topic 5: Vectors
1. Definition of Vectors: Quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

2. Representation of Vectors: It can be represented by a directed line segment where the

direction of the line segment is that of the vector and the length of the line segment represents
the magnitude of that vector.
𝑌
𝒂
𝑦 units

𝑋
𝑥 units
𝑥
• The vector above is denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝑌, 𝒂 and (𝑦). As we cannot bold the letter “𝒂” in writing, we
use 𝑎.
~
• Point 𝑋 is the initial/starting point and Point 𝑌 is the ending/terminal point.
𝑥
• The magnitude of 𝑋𝑌 is denoted by |𝑋𝑌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | or |𝒂| or |( )|.
𝑦
𝑥
• (𝑦) is a column vector where 𝑥 represents the 𝑥 units in 𝑥 −direction and 𝑦 represents the 𝑦
𝑥
units in 𝑦 −direction. They are called the components of the vector (𝑦) where 𝑥 is the
𝑥 −component and 𝑦 is the 𝑦 −components.
➢ 𝑥 −direction is the horizontal direction whereby the position moves to the right in positive
units and left in negative units.
➢ 𝑦 −direction is the vertical direction whereby the position moves up in positive units and
down in negative units.
𝑥
• In general, the magnitude of a column vector 𝒂 = (𝑦) is |𝒂| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 by using Pythagoras’
Theorem. Therefore,
𝑥
➢ Magnitude of a horizontal vector 𝒃 = ( ) is |𝒃| = 𝑥
0
0
➢ Magnitude of a vertical vector 𝒄 = ( ) is |𝒄| = 𝑦
𝑦

3. Equal, Negative and Zero Vectors

• Equal vectors are vectors with the same magnitude and direction.
➢ For example, 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ or 𝒂 = 𝒃.
• Negative vectors are vectors that have the same 𝐵
magnitude but in opposite directions.
➢ For example, 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐸𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ or 𝒂 = −𝒄 𝒂 𝐷 𝐸
Note: |𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐸𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗ | 𝐻
• Zero/ Null vectors are vectors whose magnitude is 0. 𝒃 𝒄 𝒅
It takes place when two vectors are equal in 𝐴
magnitude but in opposite direction are added, where 𝐺
the resultant vector is a zero vector, 𝟎.
𝐶 𝐹
➢ For example, 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐸𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎 or 𝒂 + 𝒄 = 𝟎.
• Note: 𝒂 and 𝒅 have different magnitudes but same direction. It will be covered in Scalar
Multiples of a Vector

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4. Addition of Vectors
• Triangle Law of Vector Addition: 𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂+𝒃
𝒃
Start End
End Start
Common point 𝐴 𝒂 𝐵
➢ In Triangle Law of Vector Addition, the ending point of the first vector must be the starting
point of the second vector. In the example above, there is a common point 𝐵.
• Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition: 𝑄
➢ As ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑃𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 + 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑆
➢ In Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition, both 𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑃𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ),and the resultant 𝒂+𝒃 𝑆
vectors (𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗
vector (𝑃𝑆), starts from the same point, 𝑃. 𝑃
𝑝 𝑟
• If 𝒂 = (𝑞 ) and 𝒃 = ( ), then, in column vectors, 𝒃
𝑠
𝑝 𝑟 𝑝+𝑟 𝑅
𝒂 + 𝒃 = (𝑞 ) + ( ) = (𝑞 + 𝑠).
𝑠
Note that |𝒂 + 𝒃| ≠ |𝒂| + |𝒃|.
5. Vector Subtraction
• Triangle Law of Vector Subtraction:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵 (End)
End End
𝒃
Start Start
Common point 𝒃−𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑂
➢ 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (using addition of vector) 𝑂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) 𝒂 𝐴 (Start)
= −𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 (using negative vector where 𝐴𝑂 = −𝑂𝐴
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝐴
➢ In Triangle Law of Vector Subtraction, both vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑂𝐴
(𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) must start from the same point.

To determine the direction in vector subtraction, use “end minus start”

𝑝 𝑟
• If 𝒂 = (𝑞 ) and 𝒃 = ( ), then, in column vectors,
𝑠
𝑝 𝑟 𝑝−𝑟 Note that |𝒂 − 𝒃| ≠ |𝒂| − |𝒃|.
𝒂 − 𝒃 = (𝑞 ) − ( ) = (𝑞 − 𝑠).
𝑠

6. Scalar Multiples of a Vector and Parallel Vectors

• If 𝒂 and 𝒃 are two non-zero, parallel vectors, and 𝒂 has a magnitude |𝑘| times of 𝒃, then
𝒂 = 𝑘𝒃, where 𝑘 is a scalar and 𝑘 ≠ 0.
• If 𝑘 is positive, 𝒂 and 𝒃 are in the same direction.
If 𝑘 is negative, 𝒂 and 𝒃 are in the opposite direction.
𝑥 𝑘𝑥
• In general, if 𝒂 = (𝑦), then 𝑘𝒂 = ( ), and |𝑘𝒂| = |𝑘||𝒂| for any real number of 𝑘.
𝑘𝑦
• Points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear if 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑘𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ or 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑛𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

7. Expressing a Vector in Terms of Two Other Vectors

• For non-parallel vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃, and 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 and 𝑠 are scalars,
➢ If 𝑝𝒂 = 𝑞𝒃, then 𝑝 = 0 and 𝑞 = 0.
➢ If 𝑟𝒂 + 𝑠𝒃 = 𝑝𝒂 + 𝑞𝒃, then 𝑟 = 𝑝 and 𝑠 = 𝑞.
• In general, 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be expressed uniquely in terms of two other non-zero and non-parallel
vectors, 𝒖 and 𝒗, that lies on the same plane.
➢ For example: 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝒖 + 𝑛𝒗, where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are scalars.
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8. Position Vector and Coordinates of a Point on a Cartesian Plane

• Position vector of a point must have a fixed starting point/ reference point, where it is
usually the origin 𝑂 on a Cartesian plane.
• A directed line segment 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ indicates the position of a point 𝑃 that has taken with reference
to vectors with the origin 𝑂 as the initial point.
𝑥
• In general, the position vector of Point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (𝑦).
• A vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 on a Cartesian plane can be expressed in terms of position vectors.
➢ For example: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝑃 (Note: “end minus start” – vector subtraction)

9. Translation of a Point using Column Vector

• Vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 can be regarded as movement from 𝑃 to 𝑄, which is a translation from 𝑃 to 𝑄.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ becomes a translation vector which describe the movement.
𝑃𝑄
ℎ
• A translation can be represented as a column vector ( ). This refers to a movement of ℎ
𝑘
units along the 𝑥 −axis and 𝑘 units along the 𝑦 −axis.
➢ For example, Point 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏), which can be expressed as 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑎), undergoes a
𝑏
ℎ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ℎ
translation 𝑇 = ( ) to Point 𝑄, then 𝑄 can be found by 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝑃 + ( ).
𝑘 𝑘
𝑎 ℎ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( ) + ( ) = (𝑎 + ℎ
Therefore, 𝑂𝑄 ).
𝑏 𝑘 𝑏+𝑘

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Secondary 3 – Amaths

Topic 1: Non-Linear Simultaneous Equations

1. Linear and Non-linear Simultaneous Equations

• In general, 𝒏 equations are needed to solve for 𝒏 unknowns.
• Methods to solve simultaneous equation:
➢ Drawing graphs: Coordinate of the point of intersection(s).
➢ Elimination: Generally used to solve linear simultaneous equation.
➢ Substitution: Generally used to solve non-linear simultaneous equation.

2. Linear Simultaneous Equations involving 2 variables (Recap)

• A unique solution: Two lines intersect at 1 point.
• Infinitely many solutions: Equations for the 2 lines are identical.
• No solution: Two lines are parallel to each other (Same gradient, different 𝑦-intercept).

3. Non-linear Simultaneous Equations involving 2 variables

• Unique solution(s): Two equations intersect at distinct point(s).
➢ Line tangents to the curve: Intersect at only 1 point.
• Infinitely many solutions: Two identical equations.
• No solution: Two equations that will never intersect each other.

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Topic 2: Quadratic Functions, Equations and Inequalities

1. Completing the Square Form: Expressing 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 in completed square form of
𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘.
• Factorise out the coefficient of 𝑥², 𝑎, as a common factor.
𝑏 2
• Add and subtract the square of half of the coefficient of 𝑥, (2𝑎) .
• Express the variable terms as a perfect square.

2. Maximum and Minimum Values for quadratic function 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 which can be expressed
as 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘.
• The sign of the value 𝑎, determines the nature of the turning point, (−ℎ, 𝑘).
➢ When 𝑎 > 0, the quadratic function has a minimum point.
➢ When 𝑎 < 0, the quadratic function has a maximum point.

3. Sketching of Quadratic Graphs using completed square form.

• Determine the shape of the graph from 𝑎.
➢ 𝑎 > 0: Smiley-face graph
➢ 𝑎 < 0: Sad-face graph
• Using the completed square form to obtain the coordinates of maximum or minimum point.
• Substitute 𝑥 = 0 to find the 𝑦-intercept.
• Substitute 𝑦 = 0 to find the 𝑥-intercept.
• Condition for quadratic curve to lie completely above or below 𝑥-axis (no 𝑥-intercept).
➢ If 𝑎 > 0 and the minimum value, 𝑘, is positive, then the curve lies completely above the
𝑥-axis.
➢ If 𝑎 < 0 and the maximum value, 𝑘, is negative, then the curve lies completely below
the 𝑥-axis.

Remember to label all axes intercepts, turning point, equation of curve

and the axes in your graph.

4. Quadratic Inequalities
• If (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) > 0, then 𝑥 < 𝑎 or 𝑥 > 𝑏. (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) > 0

Values above the

𝑥-axis are > 0 𝑥<𝑎 𝑥>𝑏
𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

• If (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) < 0, then 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.

𝑎<𝑥<𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑥
Values below the
𝑥-axis are < 0
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) < 0

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5. Quadratic Formula
• Roots of a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎 ≠ 0, are given by
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎
• Nature of roots depends on the sign of (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐), which is called the discriminant of the
equation. It determines the number of intersection points.

6. Nature of Roots for Quadratic functions using Discriminant (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐).

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 Nature Intersection of quadratic Intersection of quadratic

of roots curve with 𝒙-axis curve with a straight line
>0 2 real Curve cuts the 𝑥-axis at 2 Line intersects the curve at two
and distinct points. distinct points.
distinct 𝑦
roots 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

𝑎>0 𝑎<0
= 0 Real and Curve touches the 𝑥-axis. Line is tangent to the curve.
equal
𝑦 𝑦
roots
𝑥

𝑥
𝑎>0 𝑎<0

<0 No real Curve lies entirely above Line does not intersect the
roots or entirely below 𝑥-axis. curve.
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥

𝑥
𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 < 0,
always always
positive negative

When the question states that the quadratic function has real roots, we
do not know if the roots are distinct or equal. Therefore, its
discriminant, 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0.

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Topic 3: Surds

1. Definition: Surd is an irrational root of a real number that is written using a radial sign “√ ”. It
3
has infinite number of non-recurring decimals. E.g. √5, √3, etc.

2. Operations on Surds
• Law of Surds (Multiplication and division of surds) – Similar to Law of Indices.
➢ √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 × √𝑏
𝑎 √𝑎
➢ √𝑏 =
√𝑏
• Addition and Subtraction of Surds (Like surds can be added or subtracted).
➢ 𝑥 √𝑎 + 𝑦√𝑎 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) √𝑎
➢ 𝑥 √𝑎 − 𝑦√𝑎 = (𝑥 − 𝑦) √𝑎

Common Misconception (to take note)

• √𝑎 + √𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 + 𝑏
• √𝑎 − √𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 − 𝑏

3. Conjugate Surds
• (𝑎 + 𝑏√𝑐) and (𝑎 − 𝑏√𝑐) are conjugate surds.
• The product of a pair of conjugate surds is always a rational number.
➢ For example: (𝑎 + 𝑏√𝑐)( 𝑎 − 𝑏√𝑐) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏²𝑐

4. Rationalising the Denominator: A technique to rewrite a surd such that the denominator does
not contain a surd term. This is to simplify the fraction and make the denominator a rational
number.
• By multiplying both numerator and denominator by the surd itself.
√𝑎 √𝑎 √𝑏 √𝑎𝑏
➢ = × =
√𝑏 √𝑏 √𝑏 𝑏
• By multiplying both numerator and denominator by the conjugate surds.
1 1 √𝑎−√𝑏 √𝑎−√𝑏
➢ = × =
√𝑎+√𝑏 √𝑎+√𝑏 √𝑎−√𝑏 𝑎−𝑏

5. Solving Equations involving Surds

• Methods
➢ By squaring both sides of the equations
➢ By comparing both sides of the equations – Comparing the coefficients of surds
• Note: Always substitute the solution back to the original equation to ensure that the solution
fits into the original equation as squaring both sides of the equations will introduce another
solution that might not fit into the original equation.

6. Note: Never square root negative numbers.

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Topic 4: Polynomials, Cubic Equations and Partial Fractions

1. Polynomial in 𝑥 is a mathematical expression of a sum of terms, where each term is in the form
of 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑎 is a constant and 𝑛 is a non-negative integer.
• Usually denoted as 𝑓(𝑥).
• General form: 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 and 𝑎1 are coefficients and
𝑎0 is the constant term.
• The degree/ order of 𝑓(𝑥) is given by the highest power of 𝑥.
• The value of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 is 𝑓(𝑐).

2. Identities: Equations in which the expressions on the left-hand side (LHS) is equal to the
expressions on the right-hand side (RHS).
• Methods of finding the unknown constants
➢ By substituting suitable values of 𝑥
➢ By equating/ comparing coefficients

3. Division Algorithm for Polynomials

• Long Division of Polynomials
➢ For example, divide 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 3 by 𝑥 − 1
Quotient
𝑥2 +𝑥 +5
𝑥−1 𝑥3 +0𝑥 2 +4𝑥 −3
−(𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 ) Dividend
𝑥2 +4𝑥
Divisor
−(𝑥 2 −𝑥)
5𝑥 −3
−(5𝑥 −5)
Remainder 2

➢ As the dividend does not have the term in 𝑥 2 , we need to put +0𝑥 2 as our quotient
might have that term.
➢ Always leave the dividend in descending powers of 𝑥, starting from the highest degree
of 𝑥 to the constant term (𝑥 0 ). Never leave out any degree of 𝑥 despite the coefficient of
the term is 0.
➢ Similar to long division of positive integers, whereby they are arranged in its respective
columns of place values, in long division of polynomials, arranged the terms in its
respective degree of 𝑥.
➢ The order of the remainder is always at least one degree less than that of the divisor
and the process of long division stopped when the degree of the remainder is less than
the degree of the divisor.

• If a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by another polynomial 𝐷(𝑥),

➢ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷(𝑥) × 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥) whereby

Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder

And the degree of 𝑅(𝑥) < the degree of 𝐷(𝑥).

4. Remainder Theorem states that if a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by a linear divisor, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, the
𝑏
remainder is 𝑓 (− 𝑎).

5. Factor Theorem states that if a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by a linear divisor, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, and that
𝑏
𝑓 (− 𝑎) = 0, then 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), where the remainder is 0.
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6. Cubic expressions, Equations and Identities

• Cubic expression is in the form of 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
• Cubic equation has exactly 3 roots:
➢ 3 distinct real roots,
➢ 2 equal real roots and 1 distinct real root,
➢ 3 equal real roots,
➢ 1 real root and 2 non-real roots.
• Cubic identities
➢ Sum of cubes (𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 )
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Same sign Use SOAP to

Always factorise both
Opposite sign Positive sum of cubes
and difference
➢ Difference of cubes (𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 ) of cubes.
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Same sign
Always
Opposite sign Positive

• Methods of factorising cubic expressions

➢ Trial and error
➢ Long division
➢ Comparing coefficients

7. Proper and Improper Algebraic Fractions

𝑃(𝑥)
• Algebraic Fractions is the ratio of two polynomials of the form 𝐷(𝑥), where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝐷(𝑥)
are polynomials in 𝑥.
• Proper Fraction: When the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝐷(𝑥).
2𝑥 2
➢ For example, 3𝑥 3 +𝑥+1.
• Improper Fraction: When the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is more than or equal to the degree of 𝐷(𝑥).
𝑥2 2𝑥 3 +𝑥 2
➢ For example, 𝑥 2 +1 , 4𝑥 2 +1
.
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥)
• From an improper fraction 𝐷(𝑥), we can obtain 𝐷(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝐷(𝑥) by using long division,
𝑅(𝑥)
where 𝑄(𝑥) is a polynomial and 𝐷(𝑥) is a proper algebraic fraction.

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8. Converting Algebraic Fractions into Partial Fractions

𝑃(𝑥)
• Step 1: Determine if the algebraic fraction is proper or improper. If 𝐷(𝑥) is improper, perform
long division to express it as a sum of a polynomial and a proper algebraic fraction.
• Step 2: Ensure that the denominator is completely factorised.
• Step 3: Express the proper algebraic fraction in partial fractions according to the cases
below.
Case Denominator of the fraction Proper Algebraic Fraction Partial Fractions
1 Distinct Linear Factors 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
+
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
2 Repeated Linear Factors 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
2 +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2
3 Quadratic factor that cannot 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
+ 2
be factorised (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑥 2 + 𝑐 2 ) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 2
• Step 4: Solve the unknown constants by substituting suitable values of 𝑥 and/or
comparing/equating coefficients of like terms, and/or using the Cover-Up Rule.

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Topic 5: Binomial Theorem and its Applications

1. Binomial Expansion of (𝟏 + 𝒃)𝒏
• In general, (1 + 𝑏)𝑛 = (𝑛0) + (𝑛1)𝑏 + (𝑛2)𝑏2 + ⋯ + (𝑛𝑛)𝑏 𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a non-negative integer.

2. Binomial Expansion of (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒏

• (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = (𝑛0)𝑎𝑛 + (𝑛1)𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + (𝑛2)𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + (𝑛𝑟)𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 + (𝑛−1
𝑛
)𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + (𝑛𝑛)𝑏 𝑛
𝑛
• Formula for (𝑟 ):
𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛−1)…(𝑛−𝑟+1)
➢ (𝑛𝑟) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! = 𝑟!
➢ 𝑛! is read as 𝑛 factorial where 𝑛! = 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 2) × … × 3 × 2 × 1, where 𝑛 is a
positive integer and 𝑟 is an integer such that 0 < 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛.
• Number of terms in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is 𝒏 + 𝟏.

3. General Term
• (𝑟 + 1)th term, 𝑇𝑟+1 = (𝑛𝑟)𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 , where 𝑟 is an integer such that 0 < 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛.

4. Term Independent of 𝒙 is referred to as the constant term, where the power of 𝒙 is zero.

5. Some useful notations:

• (𝑛0) = 1
• (𝑛1) = 𝑛
𝑛(𝑛−1)
One way to remember is to look at the number at the
• (𝑛2) = 2!
bottom. The number at the bottom shows the number of
• (𝑛3) =
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) factors there are in the numerator.
3! The numerator will always start with 𝑛 and multiplied by 1 less
• (𝑛𝑛) = 1 than its preceding number.

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Topic 6: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1. Recap on Indices (Secondary 3 EMaths)
• 𝑥 4 is read as ‘𝑥 to the power 4’ where base is 𝑥 and index/ exponent is 4.
• Laws of Indices
➢ Law 1: 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
➢ Law 2: 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
➢ Law 3: 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑛
𝑎 𝑛
➢ Law 4: 𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑏) , where 𝑏 ≠ 0
➢ Law 5: (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 x 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
➢ Law 6: 𝑎0 =1, where 𝑎 ≠ 0
1
➢ Law 7: 𝑎−𝑚 = 𝑚, where 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑚 is a positive integer
𝑎
1
➢ Law 8: 𝑎 = √𝑎 , where 𝑎 ≥ 0 and 𝑛 is a positive integer
𝑛
𝑛

𝑚
➢ Law 9: 𝑛√𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑛 , where 𝑎 ≥ 0 and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive integers

2. Logarithms
• For 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 (in exponential form) is equivalent to 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 (in logarithmic
form), where 𝑎 is the base and 𝑥 is the index.
• For 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 to be defined, 𝑎 and 𝑦 must be positive and 𝑎 ≠ 1.
• In logarithm form, index is always by itself and base must be subscript.
• Common logarithms are logarithms with a base of 10 where by 𝐥𝐠 𝒙 is used to represent
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙.

Note: Most calculators use 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 to represent 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙.

• Natural logarithm is logarithms with a base of 𝑒, represented by log 𝑒 𝑥. The short form for
log 𝑒 𝑥 is ln 𝑥 (pronounced as lawn 𝑥).

3. Special Properties of Logarithms

• If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, then
➢ log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1, for example lg 10 = 1 and ln 𝑒 = 1
➢ log 𝑎 1 = 0, for example lg 1 = 0 and ln 1 = 0

4. Laws of Logarithms
• Product Law of Logarithms
➢ log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦
• Quotient Law of Logarithms
𝑥
➢ log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦
• Power Law of Logarithms
➢ log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟 log 𝑎 𝑥

5. Change of Base Formula

log 𝑏
• In general, log 𝑎 𝑏 = log𝑐 𝑎, where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 > 0 and 𝑎, 𝑐 ≠ 1
𝑐
log 𝑏 1
• Special Case: log 𝑎 𝑏 = log𝑏 𝑎 = log 𝑎, where 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 1
𝑏 𝑏

6. Equality of Logarithms
• If log 𝑎 𝑝 = log 𝑎 𝑞, then 𝑝 = 𝑞, where 𝑎, 𝑝, 𝑞 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1

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7. Graphs of Exponential Functions

• Graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥
𝑦 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 , 0 < 𝑎 < 1
or
𝑦 = 𝑎−𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1
1
𝑥 𝑥
0 0

The graphs must pass through (0,1) as 𝑎0 = 1.

• Graphs of 𝑦 = −𝑎 𝑥
𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
0
0
𝑦 = −𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1 𝑦 = −𝑎 𝑥 , 0 < 𝑎 < 1
or

The graphs must pass through (0, −1) as −𝑎0 = −1.

8. Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

• Graphs of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑦 𝑦

𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥,
where 𝑎 > 1 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥,
where 0 < 𝑎 < 1

𝑥 𝑥
0 0 1

The graphs must pass through the point (1,0) as log 𝑎 1 = 0.

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Topic 7: Coordinate Geometry

1. Coordinate Geometry of a Straight Line, 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄 𝑦
• Distance between 𝟐 points
𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
➢ Length of 𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 or
√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
• Gradient of Line/ Collinear Points
𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
➢ Gradient of line 𝐴𝐵, 𝑚 = 𝑥1 −𝑥2 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = tan 𝜃 Midpoint, 𝑀
1 2 2 1
➢ If 𝑚 > 0, 0° < 𝜃 < 90°, 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
then the straight-line graph is upward-sloping.
➢ If 𝑚 < 0, 90° < 𝜃 < 180°,
then the straight-line graph is downward-sloping. 𝜃
➢ If 𝑚 = 0, 𝜃 = 0°, 𝑦 = 𝑦 −intercept, 𝑥
then the straight-line graph is a horizontal line. 𝑂
➢ If 𝑚 is undefined, 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑥 = 𝑥 −intercept,
then the straight-line graph is a vertical line.
➢ If points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝑀 are collinear, then gradient of 𝐴𝐵 = gradient of 𝐴𝑀 = gradient of 𝐵𝑀.
• Midpoint of 𝟐 points
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑦 +𝑦
➢ Midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 = ( 1 2 2 , 1 2 2 )
• Parallel and Perpendicular Lines: for line 𝑙1 has gradient 𝑚1 and line 𝑙2 has gradient 𝑚2
➢ 𝑙1 is parallel to 𝑙2 when 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
➢ 𝑙1 is perpendicular to 𝑙2 when 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1
• Equation of a Straight Line
➢ Gradient form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑚 is the gradient and 𝑐 is the 𝑦 −intercept.
➢ When the line passes through point 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), equation of straight line: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

2. Area of Triangle, Quadrilateral and Polygon

• If 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), and 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) are in an anticlockwise direction, then
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥1
➢ Area of Triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = |𝑦 𝑦 𝑦3 𝑦1 |
2 1 2
1
= (𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 )
2
• If 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) and 𝐷(𝑥4 , 𝑦4 ) are in an anticlockwise direction, then
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥1
➢ Area of Quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 2 |𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦3 𝑦4 𝑦1 |
1
1
= 2 (𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑦4 + 𝑥4 𝑦1 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 − 𝑥4 𝑦3 − 𝑥1 𝑦4 )
• If 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) … 𝑁(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) are in an anticlockwise direction that forms a
polygon, then
1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 𝑥1
➢ Area of polygon = 2 |𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦3 … 𝑦𝑛 𝑦1 |
1
1
(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑦1 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 − ⋯ − 𝑥1 𝑦𝑛 )
2
• Vertices must be in cyclic and anticlockwise order. If vertices are in clockwise direction,
the value obtained will be negative.

3. Equation of Circle
• Standard Form: (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 , where (𝑎, 𝑏) is the centre and 𝑟 is the radius.
• General Form: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, where (−𝑔, −𝑓) is the centre and √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
is the radius.
• To determine if point 𝑃 lies on the circumference, inside or outside of the circle with centre 𝐶
and radius of 𝑟 units,
➢ If 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑟, 𝑃 lies on the circumference of the circle
➢ If 𝐶𝑃 < 𝑟, 𝑃 lies inside the circle
➢ If 𝐶𝑃 > 𝑟, 𝑃 lies outside the circle

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Topic 8: Linear Law

1. Linear Law
• Linear relationship between the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are given by the equation
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑚 is the gradient and 𝑐 is the 𝑦-intercept.
➢ The graph of values of 𝑦 is plotted against their respective values of 𝑥, forming a
straight-line graph.
• Linear Law is used to reduce the non-linear functions to the linear form, 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐.
➢ To convert non-linear equations involving 𝑥 and 𝑦 into linear form, express the non-
linear equation in the form of 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐 whereby 𝑌 and 𝑋 are expressions in 𝑥 and/or
𝑦.
➢ The variable 𝑋 and 𝑌 can only contain the original variables of 𝑥 and/or 𝑦. It cannot
contain the original unknown constants such as 𝑎 and 𝑏.
➢ The gradient, 𝑚 and 𝑦-intercept, 𝑐, can only contain original unknown constants such
as 𝑎, and/or 𝑏 and cannot contain the original variables 𝑥 and/or 𝑦.
➢ For example,
𝑎
Non-linear function: 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥
To convert to linear function, express the non-linear function into: 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑎
Linear function: (𝑥 2 𝑦) = 𝑏(𝑥 2 ) + 𝑎, where 𝑌 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 and 𝑋 = 𝑥 2 .

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Topic 9: Trigonometric Functions and Graphs

1. Basic Trigonometric Ratios
opp 𝐵𝐶
• sin 𝜃 = = [SOH] hypotenuse
hyp 𝐴𝐶
adj 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐶
• cos 𝜃 = = [CAH] tan 𝜃 =
hyp 𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃
opp 𝐵𝐶
• tan 𝜃 = = [TOA] opposite
adj 𝐴𝐵
1 𝐴𝐶
• cosec 𝜃 = = 𝜃
sin 𝜃 𝐵𝐶
1 𝐴𝐶
• sec 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
= 𝐴𝐵 𝐴 adjacent 𝐵
1 𝐴𝐵
• cot 𝜃 = tan 𝜃
= 𝐵𝐶
𝑠
2. Radian Measure
𝑠
• 𝜃 (in radians) = 𝜃
𝑟
𝑟
• 𝜋 rad = 180°
𝑟

3. Trigonometric Ratios of Special Angles

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝜃 0° 30° = 6
45° = 60° = 90° = 180° = 𝜋 270° = 360° = 2𝜋
4 3 2 2
1 √2 √3
sin 𝜃 0 2
1 0 −1 0
2 2
√3 √2 1
cos 𝜃 1 2
0 −1 0 1
2 2
√3
tan 𝜃 0 1 √3 Undefined 0 Undefined 0
3

4. Basic Angle/ Reference Angle (𝜶)

• An acute angle between a rotating radius about the origin and the 𝑥-axis.
➢ If 𝜃 is in the 1st quadrant, then 𝜃 = 𝛼.
𝑦
➢ If 𝜃 is in the 2nd quadrant, then 𝜃 = 180° − 𝛼.
➢ If 𝜃 is in the 3rd quadrant, then 𝜃 = 180° + 𝛼.
➢ If 𝜃 is in the 4th quadrant, then 𝜃 = 360° − 𝛼.
Basic angle Basic angle
0°, 90°, 180°, 270° and 360° do not lie in any 𝑥
quadrant and do not have any basic angle. Basic angle Basic angle

5. Signs of Trigonometric Ratios

• Use ASTC to determine the signs All positive
Sine positive
of sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 if
𝜃 ≠ 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° and 360°. 2nd 1st
𝜃 = 180° − 𝛼 𝜃=𝛼
𝛼 𝛼
𝜃 = 180° + 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝜃 = 360° − 𝛼
3rd 4th
Tangent positive Cosine positive

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6. Signs of Trigonometric Ratios in 2nd, 3rd and 4th quadrant

• Second quadrant (𝜃 = 180° − 𝛼)
➢ sin 𝜃 = sin(180° − 𝛼) = sin 𝛼
➢ cos 𝜃 = cos(180° − 𝛼) = −cos 𝛼
➢ tan 𝜃 = tan(180° − 𝛼) = −tan 𝛼
• Third quadrant (𝜃 = 180° + 𝛼)
➢ sin 𝜃 = sin(180° + 𝛼) = −sin 𝛼
➢ cos 𝜃 = cos(180° + 𝛼) = −cos 𝛼
➢ tan 𝜃 = tan(180° + 𝛼) = tan 𝛼
• Fourth quadrant (𝜃 = 360° − 𝛼)
➢ sin 𝜃 = sin(360° − 𝛼) = −sin 𝛼
➢ cos 𝜃 = cos(360° − 𝛼) = cos 𝛼
➢ tan 𝜃 = tan(360° − 𝛼) = −tan 𝛼
𝑦
7. Negative Angle (−𝜽)
• sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃
• cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 𝑥
𝑂 𝛼
• tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃 −𝜃

8. Complementary Angle Formulae

• sin(90° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
• cos(90° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
1
• tan(90° − 𝜃) = = cot 𝜃
tan 𝜃

9. Supplementary Angle Formulae

• sin(180° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
• cos(180° − 𝜃) = −cos 𝜃
• tan(180° − 𝜃) = −tan 𝜃

10. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑎 tan 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑎 tan 𝑏𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

0 𝑥 0 𝑥 𝑥
90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360° 0 45° 90° 180° 270° 360°
−𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 −𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

Amplitude = 𝑎 Amplitude = 𝑎 −
360° 2𝜋 360° 2𝜋 180° 𝜋
Period = 𝑏
or 𝑏
Period = 𝑏
or 𝑏
Period = 𝑏
or 𝑏

𝑐−𝑎 ≤𝑦 ≤𝑐+𝑎 𝑐−𝑎 ≤𝑦 ≤𝑐+𝑎 −

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Topic 10: Trigonometric Equations and Identities

1. Principal Values of 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝒙 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙
𝜋 𝜋
• −90° ≤ sin−1 𝑥 ≤ 90° or − 2 ≤ sin−1 𝑥 ≤ 2 , where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
• 0° ≤ cos−1 𝑥 ≤ 180° or 0 ≤ cos−1 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋, where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝜋 𝜋
• −90° < tan−1 𝑥 < 90° or − < tan−1 𝑥 < , where 𝑥 is any real value.
2 2
• Calculator will always give the principal value of the respective inverse trigonometric
functions.

2. Basic Trigonometric Identities

• sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
• sec 2 𝜃 = 1 + tan2 𝜃
• cosec 2 𝜃 = 1 + cot 2 𝜃

3. Addition Formulae/ Compound Angle Formulae

• sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
• cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
tan 𝐴±tan 𝐵
• tan(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = 1∓tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≠ sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵
4. Double Angle Formulae
• sin 2𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
• sin 2𝐴 ≠ 2 sin 𝐴
• cos 2𝐴 = cos2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴
• cos 2𝐴 ≠ 2 cos 𝐴
= 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴 • tan 2𝐴 ≠ 2 tan 𝐴
2 tan 𝐴
• tan 2𝐴 = 1−tan2 𝐴

𝐴
5. Half Angle Formulae (By replacing 𝐴 with 2
in the Double Angle Formulae)
𝐴 𝐴
• sin 𝐴 = 2 sin cos
2 2
𝐴 𝐴
• cos 𝐴 = cos 2 2 − sin2 2
𝐴
= 2 cos 2 2 − 1
𝐴
= 1 − 2 sin2 2
𝐴
2 tan
• tan 𝐴 = 2
𝐴
1−tan2
2

6. Proving of Identities
• Strategy 1: Always start with simplifying the expression on the side of the identity that is
more complicated as there is more room to manipulate using trigonometric formulae.
• Strategy 2: Observe and think of which definition or known identity that can be applied at
each step.
• Strategy 3: Work from both sides of the equation when stuck halfway, but present the final
solution from one side of the identity to the other side.

7. 𝑹-Formulae
• 𝑎 sin 𝜃 ± 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼) 𝑏
𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2, tan 𝛼 = 𝑎
• 𝑎 cos 𝜃 ± 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos(𝜃 ∓ 𝛼)
• For the expression 𝑅 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼) or 𝑅 cos(𝜃 ∓ 𝛼),
➢ Maximum value = 𝑅, when sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼) = 1 or cos(𝜃 ∓ 𝛼) = 1
➢ Minimum value = 𝑅, when sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼) = −1 or cos(𝜃 ∓ 𝛼) = −1

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Secondary 4 – Amaths

Topic 1: Gradients, Derivatives and Differentiation Techniques

1. Differentiation from first principles is the gradient of a curve at any point.
• Gradient of curve, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at point A 𝑦
= Gradient of tangent to the curve at A Tangent at A
𝑑𝑦
= Value of 𝑑𝑥 at A A
𝑑𝑦
• Gradient function
𝑑𝑥
is also known as:
➢ Derivative of y with respect to 𝒙
➢ Differentiate y with respect to 𝒙 𝑥
0
➢ Can also be written as 𝒇′(𝒙) [f prime x] for the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Differentiation is a more accurate method of finding a gradient of a

curve at any point as compared to gradient of a tangent.
Gradient of a tangent is only an estimate due to the inaccuracy of
plotting the points on a curve and drawing a tangent.

2. Differentiation of Power Functions

𝑑
• 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , where 𝑛 is a real number Bring down the power by multiplying
𝑑 it and subtract 1 from the current
• 𝑑𝑥
(𝑎𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 power to get the new power.
𝑑
• 𝑑𝑥
(𝑘) = 0

3. Five Rules of Differentiation

• Rule 1: Scalar Multiple Rule
𝑑 𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥 [𝑘𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)] You can differentiate each term
• Rule 2: Addition/Subtraction Rule separately, but you cannot
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 differentiate each factor separately.
➢ 𝑑𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑑𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)] ± 𝑑𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)]
• Rule 3: Chain Rule (Derivative of a composite function)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
➢ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥
• Rule 4: Product Rule First function × derivative of second function +
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 second function × derivative of first function
➢ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
• Rule 5: Quotient Rule
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣
𝑑𝑢
−𝑢
𝑑𝑣 Denominator × derivative of numerator –
➢ ( ) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
numerator × derivative of denominator; divided by the
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2
square of denominator
4. Higher Derivatives
𝑑𝑦
• First Derivative (differentiating 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥): 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑²𝑦
• Second Derivative (differentiating 𝑑𝑥 with respect to 𝑥): 𝑑𝑥² or 𝑓′′(𝑥)

5. Increasing/ Decreasing Functions

𝑑𝑦
• If 𝑦 is an increasing function (𝑦 increases as 𝑥 increases), 𝑑𝑥 > 0; gradient is positive.
𝑑𝑦
• If 𝑦 is a decreasing function (𝑦 decreases as 𝑥 increases), 𝑑𝑥 < 0; gradient is negative.

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Topic 2: Application of Differentiation

1. Equations of Tangents and Normals 𝑦
• Equation of curve, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) normal
• Tangent to a Curve
𝑑𝑦
➢ Gradient of Tangent to the curve (at any point 𝑥), 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑥
• Equation of straight line, 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
• Gradient of straight line (tangent) = 𝑚 tangent
𝑑𝑦
• Gradient of curve = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
➢ Equation of Tangent at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
• Normal to a curve is the line perpendicular to the tangent.
1
➢ Gradient of Normal to the curve = − 𝑚
Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐,
1
➢ Equation of Normal at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝑐 = 𝑦1 − 𝑚𝑥1 .

Product of the Gradients of 2 perpendicular lines, 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏

2. Rate of Change
𝑑𝑦
• 𝑑𝑥 is the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
• is the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to time, 𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
• is the rate of change of 𝑥 with respect to time, 𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
• A positive rate of change is an increase in the magnitude of the quantity involved as the
time increases.
• A negative rate of change is a decrease in the magnitude of the quantity involved as the
time increases.
Take note that when the question says that the rate of change is
decreasing, the value of the rate of change must be negative.

3. Connected Rate of Change

• When the function, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), both varies with another variable, time (𝑡), the rate of change
with respect to 𝑡 are related by the Chain Rule.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
➢ = ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝒅𝒙 𝟏
➢ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝒅𝒚 = 𝒅𝒚
( )
𝒅𝒙

When a straight line is parallel to the tangent of a curve, the gradient of straight
line is equal to the gradient of tangent to the curve.

4. Stationary Points
𝑑𝑦
• If a point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is a stationary point of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑑𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .
(i.e. the gradient of the tangent at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is zero.)
• A stationary point can be a maximum point, a minimum point, or a point of inflexion.

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5. Determining the Nature of the Stationary Points

𝑑𝑦
• First Derivative Test: By using 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
➢ Maximum Point: The gradient 𝑑𝑥 changes from a positive value to a negative value as
𝑥 increases through the stationary point.
𝑑𝑦
➢ Minimum Point: The gradient 𝑑𝑥 changes from a negative value to a positive value as
𝑥 increases through the stationary point.
𝑑𝑦
➢ Stationary Point of Inflexion: The gradient 𝑑𝑥 remains positive/ negative as 𝑥
increases through the stationary point.
Maximum Point Minimum Point
𝑥 𝑥− 𝑥0 𝑥+ 𝑥 𝑥− 𝑥0 𝑥+
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
>0 0 <0 𝑑𝑥
<0 0 >0
𝑑𝑥

Sketch of Sketch of
tangent tangent
Stationary Stationary
Point Point

Point of Inflexion Point of Inflexion

− +
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥− 𝑥0 𝑥+
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
>0 0 >0 𝑑𝑥
<0 0 <0

Sketch of Sketch of
tangent tangent
Stationary Stationary
Point Point

𝑑2 𝑦
• Second Derivative Test: By using .
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
➢ If 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , the stationary point at 𝑥1 is a maximum point.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
➢ If 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , the stationary point at 𝑥1 is a minimum point.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
➢ If 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , the stationary point at 𝑥1 can be a maximum point,
minimum point or a point of inflexion. Use the First Derivative Test to determine the
nature of the stationary point. Second Derivative Test cannot determine point of
inflexion.

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Topic 3: Differentiation of Trigonometric, Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

1. Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
• Always ensure that the calculator is in radian mode
• Derivatives of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙:
𝑑
➢ (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥
(cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥
(tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 , where 𝑥 is in radians.
• Derivatives of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒇(𝒙), 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒇(𝒙):
𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥 [sin 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) cos 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥
[cos 𝑓(𝑥)] = −𝑓 ′ (𝑥) sin 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥
[tan 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) sec 2 𝑓(𝑥) , where 𝑥 is in radians.
• Derivatives of 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐧 𝒇(𝒙), 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐧 𝒇(𝒙):
𝑑 𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥 [sinn 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑛 [sinn−1 𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑑𝑥 [sin 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑 𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥
[cosn 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑛 [cosn−1 𝑓( 𝑥)] × 𝑑𝑥 [cos 𝑓(𝑥)] Using Chain Rule
𝑑 𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥
[tann 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑛 [tann−1 𝑓(𝑥)] × 𝑑𝑥 [tan 𝑓(𝑥)]

2. Differentiation of Exponential Functions

• Derivative of 𝒆𝒙 :
𝑑
➢ 𝑑𝑥 [𝑒 𝑥 ] = 𝑒 𝑥
• Derivative of 𝒆𝒂𝒙+𝒃 :
𝑑
➢ [𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 ] = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
• In general, [𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) ] = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

3. Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

• Derivative of 𝐥𝐧 𝒙:
𝑑 1
➢ 𝑑𝑥 (ln 𝑥) = 𝑥
• Derivative of 𝐥𝐧 (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃):
𝑑 𝑎
➢ 𝑑𝑥 [ln(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)] = 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑 𝑓′ (𝑥)
• In general, 𝑑𝑥 [ln 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥)
• Always try to make use of the laws of logarithms to simplify logarithmic expressions before
finding the derivatives.

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Topic 4: Integration
1. Integration as Reverse of Differentiation (Antiderivative)
𝑑𝑦
• Differentiation is the process of obtaining the derivative 𝑑𝑥 from 𝑦.
𝑑𝑦
Integration is the reverse process of obtaining 𝑦 from 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑
➢ If 𝑑𝑥 [𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥), then ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐 , where 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant.
➢ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is called the indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥.

2. Two Rules of Integration

• Rule 1: Scalar Multiple Rule of Integration
➢ ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
• Rule 2: Additional/Subtraction Rule of Integration
➢ ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

3. Integration of power functions

𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1
• ∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝑐, where 𝑛 ≠ −1 and 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant.
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
• ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑛+1)(𝑎)
+ 𝑐, where 𝑛 ≠ −1, 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant.
➢ Note: This formula only applies for linear factor, (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏).

4. Integration of Trigonometric Functions of sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 and sec 2 𝑥

• ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
• ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐
• ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐,
where 𝒙 is in radians and 𝒄 is an arbitrary constant.

5. Integration of Trigonometric Functions of sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) and sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)

1
• ∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
• ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
1
• ∫ sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
where 𝒙 is in radians, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants, and 𝒄 is an arbitrary constant.

6. Methods of Integrating Trigonometric Functions:

• Using trigonometric identities
➢ For example, 1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
• Using double angle formulae
➢ For example, cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1

7. Integration of Exponential Functions

• ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
1
• ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑐
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants, and 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant.
𝟏 𝟏
8. Integration of functions of the form 𝒙 and 𝒂𝒙+𝒃
1
• ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑥 > 0
1 1
• ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ln(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐, where 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 0
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants, and 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant.

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Topic 5: Applications of Integration

1. Definite Integrals
𝑏
• If ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐, then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑏 𝑎
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑏 𝑏
• ∫𝑎 ℎ𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
• ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

2. Area bounded by 𝒙 −axis

𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥
𝑂 𝑎 𝑏

• For region above the 𝑥 −axis, area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥 −axis and
𝑏
lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑦

𝑎 𝑏
𝑥
𝑂

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

• For region below the 𝑥 −axis, area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥 −axis and
𝑏
lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥
𝑂 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

• For region enclosed above and below the 𝑥 −axis, area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and
𝑏 𝑐
the 𝑥 −axis is ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

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3. Area bounded by the 𝒚 −axis

𝑦

𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦)

𝑥
𝑂

• For region on the right of 𝑦 −axis, area bounded by the curve 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), the 𝑦 −axis and
𝑏
lines 𝑦 = 𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑏 is ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦.
𝑦

𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) 𝑏

𝑥
𝑂

• For region on the left of 𝑦 −axis, area bounded by the curve 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), the 𝑦 −axis and the
𝑏
lines 𝑦 = 𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑏 is − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦.

4. Area bounded by a Curve and a Line

𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥
𝑂 𝑎 𝑏

• For region bounded by a curve and a line as shown above, area bounded by the curve 𝑦 =
𝑏
𝑔(𝑥) and the line 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 .

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Topic 6: Kinematics
1. Displacement, 𝒔, is the change of position of a particle with respect to the fixed point 𝑂 at an
instant. It has both magnitude (distance from the initial position to the final position) and
direction (direction from the initial position to the final position). It can be positive, zero or
negative.
• If 𝑠 > 0, the particle is in the positive 𝑠 −axis
• If 𝑠 = 0, the particle is at the fixed point 𝑂
• If 𝑠 < 0, the particle is in the negative 𝑠 −axis
𝑑𝑠
2. Velocity, 𝒗, is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. It is given by 𝑑𝑡 and can
be seen as speed with direction. It can be positive, zero or negative.
• If 𝑣 > 0, the particle is moving in the direction of positive displacement (positive 𝑠 −axis)
• If 𝑣 = 0, the particle is instantaneously at rest
• If 𝑣 < 0, the particle is moving in the direction of negative displacement (negative 𝑠 −axis)
𝑑𝑣
3. Acceleration, 𝒂, is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. It is given by and its
𝑑𝑡
direction is dependent on the velocity of the particle (increases/ decreases) and the direction of
the moving particle (positive/ negative displacement).
• If 𝑎 > 0 , the velocity increases with respect to time, and the particle is accelerating
• If 𝑎 < 0 , the velocity decreases with respect to time, and the particle is decelerating

4. Relationship between Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
differentiate 𝑣= differentiate 𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Displacement, 𝑠 Velocity, 𝑣 Acceleration, 𝑎

𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 integrate 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 integrate

5. Common Terms in Kinematics

• Initial: Time, 𝑡 = 0
• At rest/ stationary: Velocity, 𝑣 = 0
• Particle at fixed point: Displacement, 𝑠 = 0
• Maximum/ minimum displacement: Velocity, 𝑣 = 0
• Maximum/ minimum velocity: Acceleration, 𝑎 = 0

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝

6. Average Speed = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧

7. Distance travelled is different from displacement as it does not have direction.

To find distance travelled in the first 𝑛 seconds,
• Step 1: Find the value(s) of 𝑡 when 𝑣 = 0.
• Step 2: Use each of the value(s) of 𝑡 found in Step 1 to find 𝑠.
• Step 3: Find the value of 𝑠 when 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 𝑛.
• Step 4: Draw the path of the particle to visualise the movements of the particle using the
displacements found to find the total distance travelled by the particle.

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Topic 7: Proof in Plane Geometry

1. Basic Proofs in Plane Geometry (RECAP)
• Adjacent angles on a straight line are supplementary.
• Vertically opposite angles are equal.
• Corresponding angles are equal.
• Alternate angles are equal.
• Interior angles between parallel lines are supplementary.
• Sum of angles in a triangle is 180°.
• Exterior angle of a triangle.
• Base angles of isosceles triangle.
• Angles of equilateral triangle.
• Perpendicular bisector
• Angle bisector

2. Proofs Using Congruent and Similar Triangles

• Tests of Congruent Triangles
➢ SSS
➢ SAS
➢ AAS or ASA
➢ RHS
• Tests of Similar Triangles
➢ AA Similarity test
➢ SSS Similarity test
➢ SAS Similarity test

3. Properties of Circles
• Angle at centre is twice of the angle subtended by the same arc.
• Right angle in a semicircle.
• Angles in the same segment are equal.
• Angles in the opposite segment are supplementary.
• Line drawn from the centre perpendicular to chord bisects the chord.
• Equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle.
• Tangent is perpendicular to radius drawn to the point of contact.
• Tangents from external point are equal. A
4. Midpoint Theorem for Triangles
• If B and C are midpoints of AP and AQ respectively,
1
then 𝐵𝐶//𝑃𝑄 and 𝐵𝐶 = 2 𝑃𝑄 . B C
• 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 is similar to Δ𝐴𝑃𝑄

P Q
5. Tangent-Chord Theorem (Alternate Segment Theorem)
• Angle between a tangent and a chord meeting the tangent Q
at the point of contact is equal to the inscribe angle on the
opposite side of the chord.
➢ ∠𝐵𝑃𝑅 = ∠𝑃𝑄𝑅 R
➢ ∠𝑄𝑃𝐴 = ∠𝑄𝑅𝑃

A P B

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