Mitigation

Definition: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) defines mitigation as: "A human
intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases (GHGs)".

There are a variety of ways in which GHG emissions could be reduced:

• Lower energy use through improved efficiencies and conservation approaches.
• Replace use of fossil fuels with low emission energy sources e.g. renewable energy and nuclear
power. This also includes replacing the use of fossil fuels within the transport sector.
• Decrease emissions from agriculture activity.

Carbon dioxide can also be removed from the atmosphere by a range of methods referred to as geo-
engineering, discussed in the next section.

Reducing energy use

Reducing energy consumption and therefore the amount of fossil fuel used can reduce emissions of
greenhouse gases and other pollutants.

Figure 1. Reducing the temperature on thermostat heating system and wearing an additional layer of clothes
instead can save on energy costs as well as reduce energy use.

Use low emission energy sources

This involves replacing the use of fossil fuels with alternative such as nuclear, solar, wind, geothermal and
hydropower.

Reducing emissions from transport

Good transport is considered important for economic development e.g. effective movement of the workforce
and goods. Road transport is considered to be major source of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.

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Alternatively, some countries are opting to substitute fossil fuels with biofuels such as biodiesel and
bioethanol:

• Biodiesel: Diesel engines can use a variety of different oils (such as rapeseed, palm or sunflower
oil).

• Bioethanol: Many crops can be fermented to produce bioethanol e.g. sugar cane, maize or sorghum.
In Brazil bioethanol from sugar cane is used as a fuel for vehicles. The car industry has developed
flexible fuel engines to use up to 100% ethanol.

Figure 2. Brazilian production of light vehicles by type of fuel - neat ethanol (alcohol), flexible fuel and
gasoline (petrol) vehicles from 1979 to 2014.

However, there are a number of issues with growing biofuels:

• The use of land to grow biofuels instead of crops can reduce the supply of food and increase food
cost.
• Production of biofuels can potentially cause pollution from the use of fertilizers and pesticides and
compete for limited water resources.
• The cultivation of biofuels may require clearance of natural vegetation and the destruction of
ecosystems and loss of biodiversity.

Reduce emissions from agriculture

Best management practices can be used to reduce GHG emissions from farming e.g.:
• Using less fertilizer can reduce nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Fertilizers should only be applied:
o When required and preferably when there is maximum uptake.
o When there is low risk of run-off, for instance during dry conditions.
• Adding nitrification inhibitors to the fertilizer to reduce nitrous oxide production.
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 • Reducing methane generation from livestock by:
o Selective breeding to have cattle that produce less methane.
o Changing the feedstock.
• Collecting and utilising methane emissions from biodegradation of animal waste as a source of
energy.
• Cultivating rice varieties that can be grown in drier conditions with higher yields to reduce methane
emissions.

Figure 3. Rice cultivation in water logged conditions favours bacteria to produce methane.

Geo-engineering involves manipulating the earth’s environmental systems to counteract the impacts of
climate change. Geo-engineering methods do not address the causes of climate change but could be used to
compliment GHG emission reduction strategies. Most have not been tested and little is known about their
effectiveness, cost and environmental impacts.

Two key approaches are:

• Carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere.
• Solar radiation management.

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)

Various methods are used to remove carbon dioxide ranging from biological absorption to chemical
abstraction. These methods are unproven and carbon dioxide removal is likely to be a very slow process
taking decades to stabilise atmospheric levels. Examples discussed below include land use management, use
of biomass, carbon capture and storage and absorption by the oceans.

Land use management

Land management can be used to protect and enhance plants that absorb carbon dioxide thereby reducing
atmospheric levels. Carbon sinks can be protected and enhanced by:
• Afforestation of land.
• Restoration, such as reforestation of degraded land.

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 • Reduced deforestation.
• Use of farming practices which encourages retention of carbon stores within the soil as organic
matter. No tillage is recommended because tillage disturbs the soil, increases soil erosion and loss of
organic matter.

Figure 4. Ploughing encourages loss of carbon from the soil.

UN-REDD

In 2008 the United Nations set up a collaborative programme to reduce emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation referred to as UN-REDD. The project recognises:

• The economic value of forest as carbon sinks.

• Potential of local people to effectively manage the forest.

The UN-REDD supports developing countries to:

• Reduce GHG emissions from forests.
• Invest in low carbon energy sources.

Watch the following video and consider the benefits of REDD programmes:
[Link]

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Use of biomass
When plant organisms die, the biomass degrades releasing carbon dioxide. An alternative is to harvest and
use the biomass to generate fuel (replace use of fossil fuel) or to bury the material.

Figure 5. Rapeseed plants used to produce biofuels.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

This method involves the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere followed by either:
• Chemical process to form carbonates.
• Compression and transport to a site of permanent storage.

Air could be filtered through adsorbent material that removes the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Storage could be in underground sites, such as geological formations previously containing oil or gas
reservoirs.

CCS methods are currently under investigation and are likely to be very expensive.

Absorption by the oceans

Carbon dioxide is absorbed by photosynthetic phytoplankton in the oceans. The carbon moves through the
food web and when organisms die they sink to the lower layers. From here the carbon can
enter storage within the sediments. This absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and its movement
into the deep oceans is referred to as the biological pump. The biological pump could be further enhanced
by:

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 • Fertilising the oceans (with nitrates, phosphates and iron) to encourage photosynthesis by
phytoplankton.

• Increasing upwellings e.g. using mechanical pumps to move cold nutrient rich waters from the lower
layers to the surface, encouraging photosynthesis and enhancing carbon dioxide uptake.

The consequences of using either method are unknown.

Solar radiation management (SRM)

These methods are currently only theoretical. They focus on increasing reflection of sunlight back into space
and therefore reducing the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the earth. For example:

• Increase the reflection from the earth’s surface by:

o Painting roof tops with white reflective paint.
o Growing plants with high reflectivity e.g. genetically engineered crops or grasses with high
albedo.
o Covering areas with reflective material e.g. covering deserts with reflective plastic sheets.
• Use aerosols to increase albedo effect. However the effects of this are unknown including the
potential impacts on stratospheric ozone.

• Enhance reflectivity of clouds by increasing particles that attract water molecules within the cloud.

• Use solar deflectors in space to reduce sunlight reaching the earth.

Figure 6. Artist impression of potential reflectors in space used to deflect solar radiation from the sun.