Cliffnotes summary

notes
Done by; Zain Zaro
 Structure of matter
Atoms Big idea 1
-atom: the smallest unit of matter that retains the elements
identity through physical and chemical processes
-elements:retain the elemental identity through physical and
chemical processes. Subatomic Rejites
-isotopes: atoms of the same element with electrons -

different neutrons. neutrons

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protons

D+ n

average weight in amy

Issome value as Mr)

-pure substances:matter that cannot be broken down into

simpler substances by any physical means eg. elements &
compounds.
-compounds: is a pure substance composed of two or more
different elements in a fixed ratio, can be broken down by
chemical means
-molecule: simplest group of bonded atoms making up a pure
substance
—————————————-
-hydrate: contain a fixed number of associated water
molecules =nH2O
-anhydrous: substance not associated with water
-methods for separating: filtration, evaporation, distillation,
Laws
-law of definite proportions: a particular compound always
contains the same mass percentages of elements known as
percent composition
-law of multiple proportions: which states that when two
elements form more than one compound with fixed amount of
the first element is always a small whole number ratio

Daltons atomic theory:

1. All matter is composed of atoms
2. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed
3. The atoms of a given element are identical in mass
4. Atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form
compounds
5. Atoms are reorganized in chemical reactions

Counting Particles: the mole

-mole: number of carbon atoms found in exactly 12 grams of
carbon 12, contains particles equal to avogadros constant
-formula weight for ionic formula (u)

Formulas
-molecular formula: compounds actual number of atoms of each
element
-empirical formula: lowest whole number ratio of atoms in a
compound
-combustion analysis: method for determining percent
composition or empirical formula of a compound
-hydrocarbon: compound containing carbon and hydrogen
Scientific models
-cathode ray tubes: by studying how cathode ray tubes were
defected in a magnetic field Thomson deducted that the beam
compromised of electrons which helped him to determine the
mass to charge ratio

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This model is not necessarily static; it continues evolving to
incorporate additional data
-electronic orbitals: can be visualized as three dimensional
regions they’re understood to be spheres, petals, and donuts.
-speed of light:

Wavelength of electromagnetic radiation

(N)principal quantum number: describes main energy level that

an electron occupies

Electron configuration & periodicity

-orbital notation: electrons are depicted by arrows
-hunds rule: in ground state electrons occupy each orbital in
sub shell singly before pairing up
-Pauli exclusion principle: single orbital cannot hold two spin up
or two spin down electrons
*an exception to those rules is the excited state
Periodic table
-periodic law: this regular repetition of properties
-periodic table was arranged according to atomic weight then
it was reorganized by atomic number
-periodicity: regular repetition of properties
-groups (vertical): are Similar in chemical properties. Also called
families
-main groups: groups 1, 2, 13 through 18
-valence electrons: are electrons of the outermost shell of an
atom, which are
-transition metals: make up the d block of the periodic table ,
generally lose electrons to form cations

Periodic Trends
-Coulomb’s law: the energy required to remove an electron from
an atom is proportional to the product of the charge of the
electron and the effective nuclear charge, inversely
proportional to the distance from nucleus to electron
~electrons farther from the nucleus are easier to remove.

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-Effective nuclear charge Z eff: the apparent nuclear charge
experienced by an electron after inner shell electron repulsion
have been accounted for.
Z eff= Z(atomic no.)-number of core electrons
-Ionization energy (binding energy): energy required to
remove the highest energy outermost electron from an atom
in gas phase to form a +1 cation
~after atom loses one electrons subsequent ionizations
become increasingly difficult because of decreased electronic
repulsion and increased attraction of remaining electrons
-electron affinity: is the energy released upon the addition of
an electron in a atom in gas phase
~the more negative the more energy released
-Atomic radius: defined as one half the distance between the
nuclei of two atoms of the same element bound by a single
covenant bond or metallic bond
-electronegativity: measure of how strongly an atoms draws
electrons toward itself in covalent bond
~ cl N O F highest
~exceptions: beryllium has higher ionization energy than
boron.
Nitrogen has a higher ionization energy than oxygen

Photoelectron spectroscopy (PES)

-photoelectric effect: the ability of photons of certain
minimum energy to cause
-mass spectrometry: experimental technique that allows
chemists to determine atomic masses, molecular masses,
isotope patterns in atoms & molecules
 Bonding & intermolecular forces
Big idea 2 POLYATOMIC IONS
Ion nomenclature (naming system)
1. Cation 2. Anion + ide
eg. K S
Binary covalent nomenclature
1. Less e.n nonmetal, all prefixes
2. except mono
3. More e.n nonmetal + ide
Organic nomenclature (dependent
on no. Of C atoms)

OXIDATION STATES
e lost or gained during a reaction

•Bond Polarity
(due to difference in e.n in covalent)

Bond Length;

PREFIXES

Most
stable

~bond energy; energy required to break

the bond =458
•Lewis dot st.
~trying to achieve octet rule; tendency
to achieve noble Gas configuration.
•Formal charge: number of ve-number of bonds -number of
unshared electrons.
•Resonance st.

~describes the hybrid structure.

-Limitations of octet rule;
Be 4e
B & Al 6e
P block elements in period 3 and higher form compounds that
have an expanded octet rule.
•VSEPR (valence shell electron pair repulsion); determines
molecular shape and polarity—->predicts molecular geometry
~oriented as far as possible to minimize repulsion’s
•Dipole moment; measure of the inequality of charge
distribution in a molecule, indicated by the vector.
~the sum of the overall dipole moment is
the vector sum of individual bond dipoles.
~in symmetric molecules the bond polarity
Cancels so the total is zero
~in asymetric the overall dipole is nonzero
•Orbital Hybridization; when bonding occurs atomic orbitals
are thought to combine to form molecular hybrid orbitals.
•Sigma & pi bonds;
~first is sigma
~second is pi + sigma
~third pi + pi + sigma
Pi
is weaker the sigma
resulting from side overlap of p orbitals
Can’t rotate without breaking —->causing geometric isomers
•Bond enthalpy; measure of bond strength, energy required to
break a bond
The higher bond enthalpy
the shorter the bond
length
•Ionic Bonding; electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions, attracted by Coulomb’s law of attraction.
~energy released is called lattice energy
~the crystal structure is formed in a way to maximize
attractive forces and minimize repulsiveness.

•Metallic bonding; metal cations surrounded freely by moving

v.e.

•Intermolecular forces (IMF); weak attraction between

covenant molecules of discrete atoms (they’re not the same
~Stronger intermolecular forces lead to
-higher bp
-higher melting
-higher viscosities
-higher surface tension
-lower vapor pressure
•London dispersion forces; weakest intermolecular force
~result of instantaneous dipoles; momentary temporary
accumulation of electron density in one region on the expense
of another, causes surrounding atoms to be attracted to
temporary partial positive charge.
-Polarizability; how easily electrons can be displaced within a
molecule
The more polarizable the denser
The greater surface area the more polarizable
•Dipole dipole attractions
-intermolecular forces between polar molecules of partial
positive & partial negative charge.
-the more polar the stronger the attraction
•Dipole induced dipole attraction; interaction between polar
and nonpolar molecules.
*non polar oxygen is capable of dissolving in polar water
molecules due to dipole induced interactions
•Hydrogen Bonds(not actual bonds); subset of dipole dipole
interactions occur in molecules that have hydrogen and NOF.
~STRONGEST IMF but weaker than covenant and ionic
•Solids; amorphous
—->glass which are disordered
or
—->crystalline; regular three dimensional arrangements of
atoms, ions, or molecules
[Link] solids; three dimensional arrays of alternating cations
and anions held together by coulombic attractions
->strong
->high m.p & b.p
->hard & brittle
->molten or at conducts electricity
2. Network covalent solid; arrays of atoms held together by
covalent bonds
->high m.p
DIAMOND (not conductive) & GRAPHITE ARE ALLOTROPES of
carbon; diff bonding forms of the same element in the same
phase.

~Silicon is a semiconductor
3. Metallic solids; have a electron sea model of metallic bonding, in
which crystal of cations is surrounded loosely held delocalized
electrons
->high malleability
->high ductility
~alloy: mixture of metal atoms and other metallic or nonmetallic
elements
ºsubsitutional; metal is mixed with a metal of similar radii
Eg. Brass=cu+zn
interstitial; result when smaller atoms usually nonmetals mixed
with metals
4. Molecular solids; composed of discrete covalent molecules

•Liquids; in the liquid state molecules shape is not fixed and

volume is relatively constant.
~they shape themselves in a way to minimize the surface area
of a liquid
—>surface tension; tendency of a liquid to resist an increase
in surface area.
—>Intermolecular forces are cohesive forces
—>Viscosity; resistance of liquid to flow, the stronger the
intermolecular forces the more viscous they are
—>Vapor pressure; pressure is a gas in equilibrium above its
liquid phase at a given temperature. (Depends on
intermolecular strength)
•Solutions: homogenous mixture that may be solid liquid or
gas
~major:solvent
~minor:solute
—>Aqueous solutions; solutes dissolved in water
~soluble: capable of being dissolved in a solvent (miscible)
~insoluble: incapable of being dissolved in a solvent
(immiscible)
*strength of attractive interactions and temperature play
a factor
-like dissolves like
Polar +polar
Nonpolar+nonpolar
-solutes in aq solutions can be classified as
strong electrolytes: salvation of ions in water (ion dipole
interaction)
non-electrolytes: molecular compounds that do not
dissociate into ions
Weak electrolytes: undergo incomplete dissociation
•Spectrophotometry: instrument used to determine the
absorbance of a solution
~some solutions have color because they can absorb certain
wavelength of visible light
•Chromatography: solution separated based on strength of
intermolecular interactions with stationery phase (solid) and
mobile phase (liquid or gas)

•Distillation: depends on differences in vapor pressure and

boiling points among components of solution
-a nonvolatile (not vaporizing readily) solute can be recovered
from a solution by evaporation
-liquid=distillation

•Measuring concentration using titration; titration is a

technique
by which an unknown concentration of an analyte is
determined
by reaction with an accurately known amount of standard or
titration.
~endpoint: some indication usually a color change or sharp PH
change that the reaction is complete.
~indicator: substance that changes color or near the
equivalence
Point of the reaction
~equivalence point: point where stoichometeric amounts have
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
BIG IDEA 3
~Physical change—>breaking of intermolecular interactions
~chemical change—>breaking of intramolecular interactions

•Evidence for chemical change;

1. Production of heat or light
2. Formation or consumption of gas=change in pressure or
volume
3. Color change
4. Formation of a precipitate or insoluble solid

•Classification of chemical reactions

1. Synthesis: reactants combine to form a single product
2. Decomposition reactions: reactants form two products
3. Combustion reaction: reaction with oxygen (redox
reaction)
4. Single replacement: one element is replaced by another
(redox reaction )
5. Double displacement: two elements are replaced

•Solubility Rules
•Acids and Bases
-Strong acids and bases dissociate completely into ions in
water & theyre strong electrolytes.
-Weak acids and bases are weak electrolytes
~Bronsted Lowry acid: a proton donor the anion produced is
the conjugate base of the acid.

~Bronsted Lowry base: a proton acceptor the cation the

cation produced is the conjugate acid of the base.

•Redox Reactions; transfer of electrons from a specie that is

oxidized to a specie that is reduces
OIL RIG—> oxidation is the the loss of electrons and
reduction is the gain of electrons.
~Oxidation Numbers
-a free element =0
-monoatomic ion=charge of the ion
-hydrogen with nonmetals +1 and with metals -1
-oxygen has the oxidation number of -2 except in peroxides -2
-polyatomic ion=charge
-sum in neutral compounds=0
~Balancing Redox Equations—> through half reaction
1. Using oxidation numbers form 2 reactions one oxidation
and the other reduction
2. Balance both of them in respect to the other
3. Add them together
4. Cross out spectator ions

•Reaction Stoichiometry; relationship between the quantities

of the reactants and products in chemical reactions.
•Redox Titrations; relies on redox reaction between analyte
and amount of titrant.
-Titration: technique for the determination of an unknown
concentration of an analyte by reaction with an accurately
known amount is a standard or titrant.
~Redox titration by permanganate MnO- 4 (used as titrant
and indicator)
used for determining the concentration of hydrogen
peroxide in a solution

•Limiting reactant; substance that runs out first in chemical

reaction.
—>determines theoretical yield of a reaction
1. Balance
2. Write stoichometery to convert moles
3. The smallest no of moles the reactant is the limiting

•Heat of Reaction—> enthalpy

Negative change ~ release energy ~exothermic
Positive change~gain energy ~endothermic
~endothermic and exothermic are often decimated in
potential energy diagrams.
~reaction coordinate; can be interpreted as progression of
reaction or as time.

•Percent Yield; measure of efficiency of a reaction

•electrochemistry; study of electron movement and
energetics of redox processes
-types of redox processes
[Link] favored ; don’t require and external
source of energy
[Link] unfavored ; need external source of
energy
-oxidation occurs at anode
-reduction occurs at cathode
•standard cell potential E
~the more positive the more favorable
Ecell=Ereduction-Eoxidation
•galvanic/ voltaic; don’t need an external energy source
therefore thermodynamically favored reaction proceeds.
It has a positive E
-Salt bridge allows charge movement

•electrochemical cell; thermodynamically disfavored reddoc

processes, requiring an external energy source
•Faradays law
I=q/t
 Kinetics
Big idea 5
•Rate of reactions; change in a qt per unit of time.
~at equilibrium, the rate forward and reverse are no longer
changing.
•Measuring rates
*Volume of a gas produced, can be set in an Erlenmeyer flask
with a stopper and empty syringe, the plunger of the syringe
is pushed out by the pressure of the gas produced, and the
volume of gas in syringe is recorded at regular time intervals
during the reaction.

•Factors affecting rate of reactions

~changes in pressure
~change in mass of a reaction
~temp—>KE—>frequency of collision
~activation energy: minimum energy to reach transition state
~concentration (beer law meter analysis by calibration curve)
ONLY IMPACT NONZERO
~ph change
~SA (powder faster)
~partial pressure
~physical state
~catalyst
Calibration curve
Determine the maximum visible wavelength absorbance of the
pigment, a calibration curve should be constructed using
known concentrations of the pigment, pigment exposed to UV
several times to determine concentration changes with time
of exposure
•Rate law
-K rate constant (the larger the rate the faster the
reaction)
-exponents are orders
-overall order: sum of exponents
*the orders are unrelated to the coefficients in the overall
balanced equation since the reaction mechanism on may not
occur in a single step
•Integrated rate laws; how much reactant remains after
specific time elapsed

•Nuclear decay/Radioactive decay—> always first order

Unaffected by temp, pressure, catalyst.
~half life of first order is concentration independent
•Collision theory
1. Collision of particles must have energy greater than or
equal to the activation energy ->bond breaking and forming
2. Collision with effective orientation (higher temp , higher KE,
more collisions)

•Reaction mechanism; step by step bind breaking bond

formation that results in the overall reaction
-made of elementary
~slowest step is the rate determining step
~intermediates: produced and consumed
~catalyst: shows in reactants and products
~equilibrium shows the rate of reverse reaction
And its order is considered
•Transition state/activated complex; highest
energy configuration that a group must achieve
in order to break or form bonds
•Arrhenius equation: relates the rate constant k to temp
•Catalyst: inc the rate of a reaction by providing an
alternative transition state with a lower activation energy
—>homogenous catalyst: same phase as reactants
—>heterogenous catalyst: diff phase than reactants.
Eg. catalytic converters in cars
 Thermodynamics
BIG IDEA 5
•Energy; ability to transfer heat or do work
•thermodynamics; study of energy changes in physical and chemical processes
•first law of thermodynamics; energy is conserved

•temperature; measures average kinetic energy of particles

•shown in Maxwell Boltzmann distribution T

•heat; transfer of thermal energy from a warmer to a cooler substance.

-thermal equilibrium; particles of both samples have the same avg KE
-heat transfer (q)
-enthalpy change ∆H; transfer of heat in a. System
Endothermic. Exothermic
PE P> PE R. PE P< PE R

•work; product of force acting an a obj or system over a distance.

W=-p∆v

•system & surroundings

—>system; sample or region under investigation
—> surroundings; everything else
Q system =-Q surrounding

•heat capacity; heat required to raise the temperature of a quantity by 1K

—>Specific heat capacity q=mc∆t
—>molar heat capacity

•calorimetry; technique for measuring amount of heat transfer to or from system.

•heating & cooling curves
-enthalpy of fusion; energy transferred during the conversion of one mole of a
substance from its solid to liquid q=n∆h
-enthalpy of vaporization; energy required to convert liquid to gas q=n∆h

•exothermic & endothermic reactions

-> exothermic; reactants have higher PE than products
->endothermic; products have higher PE than reactants
•bond breaking is endothermic and bond formation is exothermic
-bond enthalpy/ bond energy; energy required to break a particular type of bond

•Hess law; enthalpy change of a process is equal to sum of enthalpy changes for
reaction steps that add up, regardless those steps were involved in a chemical
reaction mechanism
*may be manipulated or multiplied by a coefficient

•standard molar heat of formation ∆hºf; substance enthalpy change in standard

state

•Thermodynamics
~a thermodynamically favored reaction proceeds in the forward direction
•entropy (S); range of positional states experienced by the particles in a system or
the dispersal of energy in a system
~favored when s>0

•Gibbs free energy ∆g= associated with thermodynamic favorability

•Electrochemistry and Gibbs free energy

∆g=-nFE
Ecell=Ereduction-Eoxidation
•kinetic control; activation energy determines its rate at a particular temperature
 Chemical equilibrium
Big idea 6
Reversible reactions; chemical reactions that don’t go into completion
Represented by

•chemical equilibrium: reaction has not stopped but continuous with equal rates

•Equilibrium constant

Only a change in temperature can change the equilibrium constant

K>1 products are favored at equilibrium
K< 1 reactants are favored at equilibrium
Equation Equilibrium constant
Reversed rxn. Reciprocal
Multiplied by a Raised to a power
factor
Two equations. Product
added

•ICE Table; used to determine equilibrium concentration

•reaction quotient Q; measure of how different mass action ratio of reactants and
products are from the equilibrium value at a given temperature
Q>K reaction shifts towards reactants
Q<K reaction shifts towards products
Q=K the reaction is at equilibrium
•le chateliers principle; when a change is made to a system at equilibrium the system
responds in a way that re-establishes the equilibrium

•temperature changes—>change the value of

equilibrium constant
Because heat acts like a reactant
Adding heat, endothermic, increases constant
Removing heat, exothermic, decreases constant
•Auto ionization of water; because water is amphoteric
(behaving as either an acid or base)
Kw= 1x10^-14 at 25c
[H3O]=[OH]
•pH and pOH
PH; to determine acidity of solution -log[H]
POH; -log[H3O]
•Dissociation; proton is released completely from the acid to form hydronium in aq
solution.
-> weak acids (HA) :don’t dissociate completely in aqueous solution
->weak base; weakly ionize in aq solution
•pKa and pKb show the acidity or basicity of a substance
Pka =-logKa
PKb=-logKb
-the higher ka the lower pKa, the stronger the acid
-the higher kb the lower pKb, the stronger the base
•Buffer solution;resist a change in pH upon addition of small quantities of acids or
bases.
-composed of weak acid & conjugate base
-or weak base & conjugate acid
•Henderson Hasselbach equation; derivation of the acid dissociation equilibrium
expression

-most effective buffer when [HA]=[A]—> pH=pKa

•Buffer capacity; the amount of strong acid/base that can be
added to buffer system before pH of the system changes
•Acid base titration
-plotted pH versus amount of titrant added
•weak acid/strong base
->has a large buffering region

A; depends on concentration of weak

acid and ka
B & D; Henderson hasselbach
C; half equivalence
E; [oH]=[HA]
F; excess OH determines pOH

•strong acid/weak base

A; depends on concentration of weak

base and kb
B & D; Henderson hasselbach
C; half equivalence
E; [H]=[B]
F; excess H3O determines PH

•Common ion effect; decreased dissociation of an ionic compound in solution due to

the presence of of one of the ions produced
•precipitation rxn; the Ksp for an ionic compound can be used to determine solubility
•Thermodynamics of equilibrium; if K>.1 then ∆G<0 and the rxn is favored
~at equilibrium k=1 and G=0
∆g=-rTlnK
K;8.314 J/mol K
•equilibrium and electrochemistry
∆g=-nFE
Ecell=Ereduction-Eoxidation
 Laboratory review
Big idea 7
•Glassware equipment
-beaker; might contain solids or liquids
-Erlenmeyer flask;liquid
-graduated cylinder;measure volumes
-buret:deliver volumes of titrant to titration
-volumetric flask; make solutions of known molarity

•Measurment

Experiments T

1. Gravimetric analysis; insoluble solid is filtered and dried

2. Spectrophotometry
3. Alloy composition
4. Acid base titration
5. Paper chromatography
6. Ionic covenant and metallic bonding
7. Decomposition stoichiometry
8. Redox titration
9. Liquid liquid extraction
10. Rate of chemical rxn
11. Rate law determination
12. Calorimetry
13. Le chateliers
14. Polyprotic titration
15. Buffer
16. Acid base titration