Lecture 5: POINT

POSITIONING
CCB 313/Lec/01
Time: Monday, 11:00 AM-1:00 PM
Classroom: BLDG 247 ROOM 011

Instructor: Dr B. Nkwae
Office: 248/152

1
 Contents
• Position:
– Horizontal control
– Introduction to coordinate systems
– Geodetic Coordinates
– Cartesian and Plane Coordinates
– Coordinate Calculations
– Join and Polar Calculations
– Rectangular/Polar Conversions

2
• Point Positioning Equipment
1. Conventional Instruments
2. Satellite Positioning System (i.e., GPS)
• Point Fixing Methods
1. Trilateration
2. Triangulation
a) Intersection
b) Resection
3. Traversing
4. GPS – consists of measuring distances from point of
unknown location to satellites whose positions are
known (distance resection).

3
 Position
• Point positioning form the cornerstone of land
surveying, it can be defined as determining
coordinates of a point on a given frame of
spatial referencing.
• It can be determined as Plane Rectangular (X or
Easting, Y or Northing) Coordinates and/or
Geodetic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)
• Once several or network points are determined
and accurately adjusted on the frame of
reference, they are collectively referred to as
Horizontal Control.
4
 Horizontal control
• Horizontal control is a Network of points of known
coordinates (E, N). Surveyors usually base their survey on
horizontal control for an independent check, “working from
the whole to the part”, and Consistency.
• Horizontal control is required for
– Initial survey work (detail survey) and
– Setting out of engineering structures and works
– To ensure that features positions are correctly determined or
correctly placed in position
– Works are carried out smoothly
• In most cases control will not be available at the area of
interest hence it will have to be extended/densified from
existing control

5
 Coordinates
• Two main types
• Geodetic Coordinates (sometimes called
geographic coordinates) are angular
coordinates (longitude and latitude),
closely related to spherical polar
coordinates, and are defined relative to a
particular Earth geodetic datum (ϕ or
Latitude, λ or Longitude)
• Cartesian Coordinates
– Plane rectangular Cartesian
• Position of a point given by orthogonal axis
• Position given by x and y in surveying Eastings
and Northings
• Usually referred to as Absolute coordinates
– Polar
• location of a point P in the plane by its
distance r from the origin and the angle 
made between the line segment from the
origin to P and the reference direction. (r, )
• The reference direction is usually the
meridian passing through the origin.
• Relative coordinates 6
Plane rectangular Cartesian
Y

abscissa (x)
+P(x, y)

ordinate (y)

7
 Polar
Y

+P(E,N)

D

In surveying we use Eastings and Northings instead of x and y

and polar system uses azimuth or whole circle bearing.
8
 Partial coordinates (∆E, ∆N)
• Latitudes and Departures
• Any polar coordinate has two rectangular components
(projections on the vertical and horizontal axis)
– ∆N – difference in N is the north/south rectangular
component of a line. NORTH is (+) and SOUTH is (-)
– ∆E difference in S is the east/west rectangular component
of a line. EAST is (+) and WEST is (-)

N = distance(H) x cos
E = distance(H) x sin
Where  is WCB/azimuth

9
LOCATION OF A POINT.
A) POLAR TIES
B) RECTANGULAR TIES

LATITUDE = NORTH(+) SOUTH (-)=distance(H) x cos

DEPARTURE = EAST(+) WEST (-)= distance(H) x sin

11
 “Join” calculation or Rectangular to polar (R → P)

Given the co-ordinates of two points, calculate the distance between them and the
bearing of the line joining them. Q N

Point Easting (mE) Northing (mN)

P 1341.50 937.77
Q 850.04 1127.37
P
For line PQ  PQ
The order of the points is very important:

We begin at P and move to Q

P is the NEAR POINT, with co-ordinates NearE, NearN

And Q is the FAR POINT, with co-ordinates FarE, FarN

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 Point Easting (mE) Northing (mN)
P 1341.50 937.77
Q 850.04 1127.37

Your calculator requires two pieces of information in order to

calculate the polar co-ordinates :-
1. Difference in Northings: (N) FarN - NearN
2. Difference in Eastings: (E) FarE - NearE

Your calculator gives two answers :-

1. Distance P to Q (in metres), use Pythogoras
2. Bearing P to Q (if this is negative, add 360o)
(Depending on your calculator, you may have to convert the
bearing to degrees, minutes and seconds)
 =Tan-1(E/ N)
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• For distance use Pythagoras
• Calculating azimuth/WCB from rectangular
coordinates
– Calculate  =Tan-1(E/ N) and add 0, 180 or 360
depending on the signs of the partial coordinates.

Add 0˚
Add 360˚

Add 180˚ Add 180˚

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E = EFAR – EFAR = 850.04 – 13141.50 = -12291.46m

N = NFAR – NFAR = 1127.37 – 937.77 = 189.60m

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∆𝐸 2 + 𝑁 2 = −12291.462 + 189.602

= 12292.92𝑚

 = tan−1 −12291.46ൗ189.60 = −89°06′ 59"

Since  is in fourth quadrant add 360˚

WCB =  + 360˚ = 270˚53’01”

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“Polar” calculation or polar to Rectangular (P → R)

Given coordinates of P, distance PQ and Azimuth of

PQ find coordinates of Q.

1. Calculate departure and latitude using

∆𝐸𝑃𝑄 = 𝐻𝐷 sin 𝐴𝑧𝑃𝑄
∆𝑁𝑃𝑄 = 𝐻𝐷 cos 𝐴𝑧𝑃𝑄

2. Calculate coordinates of Q
𝐸𝑃𝑄 = 𝐸𝑃 + ∆𝐸𝑃𝑄
𝑁𝑃𝑄 = 𝑁𝑃 + ∆𝑁𝑃𝑄

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 Content
• Point Positioning Equipment
1. Conventional Instruments
2. Satellite Positioning System (ie GPS)
• Point Fixing Methods
1. Trilateration
2. Triangulation
a) Intersection
b) Resection
3. Traversing

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 POINT POSITIONING EQUIPMENT
Definition: The process of determining the precise geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude,
and elevation) of a specific point on the ground using survey measuring instruments
1. Conventional Instruments 2.0 Satellite Positioning System
✓ Positions on the globe, determined in terms ✓ Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
of angles relative to the center of the Earth, – GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Bidou
the equator, and the prime meridian through systems
measuring celestial bodies (stars, sun) using
✓ Receiving signals from multiple satellites
Theodolite
and determining its position on a known
✓ It involves measuring of distances, angles, and datum (e.g., WGS84)
elevations of points on the Earth's surface
using ground-based instruments like
theodolites, total stations, and levels then
determining positions on defined datum

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 Point Fixing Methods
• There are a number of methods that can be used
in point positioning in order to establish a
horizontal control (Control Network) on a
determined spatial reference
1. Trilateration
2. Triangulation
a) Intersection
b) Resection
3. Traversing
4. Satellite Positioning System (i.e., GPS)

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 TRILATERATION
– Is a survey process where lengths of three sides of a triangle are
used to determine the location of a new point.
– It's often used when surveying points that are far away from a
known point.
– On a survey map, draw arcs centered on each control point with
radii equal to the measured distances
– The intersection of the drawn arcs represents the location of the
unknown point from any two points.
– Fourth point can be used as a check

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 TRIANGULATION
• Triangulation
– Is a point position fixing method consisting of a series of
connected triangles which adjoin or overlap each other,
angles being measured from determined fixed stations.
– Essentially, it's a surveying technique that uses angle
measurements to pinpoint a location by creating a triangle
with two known points and calculating the third unknown
For known coordinates:
Determine location of the landmark:
Solution

Scenario 1: How to triangulate a point by

observing from two known locations 21
(Intersection)
 For known coordinates:
Determine location of the landmark:
Solution

Scenario 2: How to triangulate your location at

unknown point from two known Points (Resection).

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 INTERSECTION
• Intersection
– This is a method of locating a point without actually
occupying it. It is done by observing angles from
multiple known control points to an unknown point.

Control Point 

Unknown/new Point

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Solution by triangles
In triangle ABC baseline AB’s length and Azimuth are given by

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴 2− 𝑁𝐵 − 𝑁𝐴 2 Coordinates of point

A and B are known
𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 = tan−1
𝑁𝐵 − 𝑁𝐴

Using sine rule

sin 𝛽
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝐴𝐶 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝐴𝐵
sin 𝛾
sin ∝
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝐵𝐶 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝐴𝐵
sin 𝛾

Azimuth in the triangle are given by

𝐴𝑧𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝑧𝐴𝐵 +∝
𝐴𝑧𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝑧𝐵𝐴 − 𝛽

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Solution by triangles
Partial coordinates

∆𝐸𝐴𝐶 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑐 sin 𝐴𝑍𝐴𝐶 Coordinates of point

∆𝑁𝐴𝐶 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐴𝑧𝐴𝐶 A and B are known

The calculated azimuth and distance are then used to calculate the
coordinates of C

𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝐴 + ∆𝐸𝐴𝐶
𝑁𝐶 = 𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑁𝐴𝐶

The computations can be checked with

𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝐵 + ∆𝐸𝐵𝐶
𝑁𝐶 = 𝑁𝐵 + ∆𝑁𝐵𝐶

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 Solution by angles
Coordinates of point A and B are known

𝑁𝐵 − 𝑁𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽 + 𝐸𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼
𝐸𝑐 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽

𝐸𝐴 − 𝐸𝐵 + 𝑁𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽 + 𝑁𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼
𝑁𝑐 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛽

For these equations to give correct

values, C is should always be to the
right of line A → B

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 RESECTION
• Resection
– Position is determined by observing horizontal angles
to at least three known points from an unknown point.
– It is ideal for placing points around a survey area in a
position eminently suitable for detailing or setting out.

Conditions of resection
• Known points should not be on a
straight line
• The four points should not fall in the
circumference of the same circle 27
• Resection Solution
 is the clockwise angle between directions
PB and PC.
 is the clockwise angle between directions
PC and PA.
 is the clockwise angle between directions Tienstra’s formulae
PA and PB.
𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴
𝑎 = tan−1 − tan−1
𝑁𝐶 − 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 − 𝑁𝐴

𝐸𝐴 − 𝐸𝐵 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐵
𝑏 = tan−1 − tan−1
𝑁𝐴 − 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐶 − 𝑁𝐵

𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑐= tan−1 − tan −1
𝑁𝐵 − 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐴 − 𝑁𝐶

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• Resection
 is the clockwise angle between
directions PB and PC.
 is the clockwise angle Position Determination by Tienstra’s formulae
between directions PC and PA. 1
𝑘1 =
 is the clockwise angle between cot 𝑎 − cot 𝛼
directions PA and PB.
1
𝑘2 =
cot 𝑏 − cot 𝛽

1
𝑘3 =
cot 𝑐 − cot 𝛾

𝑘1 𝐸𝐴 + 𝑘2 𝐸𝐵 + 𝑘3 𝐸𝐶
𝐸𝑝 =
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3

𝑘1 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑘2 𝑁𝐵 + 𝑘3 𝑁𝐶
𝑁𝑝 =
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 29
 TRIANGULATION VS. TRILATERATION
• Both triangulation and trilateration are methods of surveying based
on trigonometry principles.
• Main Differences between triangulation and trilateration in surveying
are:
a) Triangulation relies on the measurement of angles.
b) Trilateration relies on the measurement of sides.
c) The measuring stations should be mutually visible for the triangulation
method.
d) In trilateration, the distances can be measured without the intervisibility of
the stations.
e) Triangulation utilized in conventional instruments (Theodolites)
f) Trilateration used with GPS to determine of location
• Some common applications of the triangulation method are:
a) In large-scale land surveying to determine the accurate position of locations.
b) In civil engineering projects to accurately locate center line of long bridges
and tunnels, etc.
c) Land and sea navigation.
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 TRAVERSE
• Uses both angular measurements and distances for fix control points
• Consist a series of stations that are linked together by angle and
distance between adjacent points.
• Traverses are usually control surveys and is employed in all forms of
legal, mapping and engineering surveys.

WHAT is a TRAVERSE?
Traverses are a series of established stations, where the
distances between them can be measured using
measurement tapes or electronic measurement
systems (EDMs) and angles measured with the help of
theodolite.
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 General Background
Traverses are used in engineering for:
1. Locating topographic details for the preparation of
plans
2. To lay out or locate engineering works and structures
3. Processing and ordering of earthwork and other
engineering quantities.
4. Facilitating Control for cadastral surveying processes

The types of traverses are as follows:

1. Open traverses
2. Closed traverses (closed loop and closed link traverse)

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 OPEN TRAVERSES
What are OPEN TRAVERSES?
Open traverses are a series of measured straight lines and angles that DO
NOT geometrically close.

Open traverse

Open traverses are tied together angularly by deflections angles and

distances.
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 CLOSED TRAVERSES
What are CLOSED TRAVERSES?
a closed traverse is one that either begins and ends at the same point or
ends at points whose positions have been determined (points with known
coordinates).

Closed traverse Link traverse

A closed traverse that A closed traverse that begins
begins and ends at the and ends at different known
same point is called a points is called a LINK
LOOP TRAVERSE TRAVERSE
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 CONSIDER A POLYGON TRAVERSE
A
F
The Angles to right are also the INTERNAL ANGLES

Using a theodolite we can measure all the internal

B angles.

C Σ (Internal Angles) = ( 2 N - 4 ) * 900

D

The difference between Σ Measured Angles and Σ Internal Angles is the Angular
Misclosure

Maximum Angular Misclosure = Thedolite Accuracy* Sqrt(No. of Angles)

(Rule of thumb)

35
 Standing at A looking towards F - looking BACK
ΘAF Hence ΘAF is known as a BACK BEARING
A
F
ΘBA
ΘAB Angle FAB
B (angle to right)
ΘBC

C Standing at A looking towards B - looking FORWARD

Angle to right ABC Hence ΘAB is known as a FORWARD BEARING

BACK BEARING (ΘAF ) + ANGLE TO RIGHT (<FAB) = NEXT FORWARD BEARING (ΘAB)

Reminder: every line has two bearings

BACK BEARING ( ΘBA ) = FORWARD BEARING ( ΘAB )  1800

36
 Traverse Example
Observations, using a Zeiss O15B, 6” Theodolite, were taken in the field for an
anti - clockwise polygon traverse, A, B, C, D.
Allowable = 3 * 6” * N= 36”
C N
Traverse Line Distance Observed Correcti Corrected
Station Clockwise on Angle
B Horizontal Angle “
0 ‘ “
0 ‘ “

A
A AB 638.57 132 15 30 -3 132 15 27
D B BC 1576.20 126 12 54 -3 126 12 51
C CD 3824.10 69 41 18 -3 69 41 15
D DA 3133.72 31 50 30 -3 31 50 27

Observed Σ (Internal Angles) = 360 00 12

Theoretical Σ (Internal Angles) should be (2N-4)*90 = 360 00 00
Error = 12” / 4 = 3”
We test the sum of the observed angles against the sum of the internal angles of the
polygon, and if within an allowable error value we distribute the misclosure.
The bearing of line AB is to be assumed to be 00 and the co-ordinates of station A are
37
(3000.00 mE ; 4000.00 mN)
Use Distance and Bearing to go from POLAR to RECTANGULAR to get Delta E and Delta N values.
LINE BACK BEARING WHOLE
HORIZONTAL
CIRCLE
ADJUSTED DISTANCE
STATION
INTERNAL ANGLE BEARING
LINE FORWARD  D
BEARING
AD 227 44 33
A 132 15 27
AB 00 00 00 00 00 00 638.57
BA 180 00 00
B 126 12 51
BC 306 12 51 306 12 51 1576.20
CB 126 12 51
C 69 41 15
CD 195 54 06 195 54 06 3824.10
DC 15 54 06
D 31 50 27
DA 47 44 33 47 44 33 3133.72
AD 227 44 33

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 Traverse Computation

N = distance(H) x cos
E = distance(H) x sin
Whole Line Horizontal Observed Clockwise Departures Latitude
Circle Distance Horizontal Angle () ()
Bearing
 0 ‘ “

A AB 638.57 00 00 00 0.00 +638.570

B BC 1576.20 306 12 51 -1271.701 +931.227
C CD 3824.10 195 54 06 -1047.754 -3677.764
D DA 3133.72 47 44 33 +2319.361 +2108.313
Misclosure -0.094 -0.654
Misclosure is summing distances for departures and Latitude. From the
Departure and Latitude misclosure The Linear Misclosure is determined

Theoretically, the algebraic sum of these changes should be (0,0). 39

 EBC
C

NBC =+931.227m
B
=+638.570m
NAB
NCD
=-3677.764m A

NDA =+2107.313m

ECD

EDA 40
 e is the LINEAR MISCLOSURE
C
e =  (eE2 + eN2 )

eE
A
eN e
A’

D
41
 WHOLE CO-ORDINATE DIFFERENCES
HORIZONTAL
CIRCLE
DISTANCE CALCULATED
BEARING

 D E N

00 00 00 638.57 0.000 +638.570

306 12 51 1576.10 -1271.701 +931.227

195 54 06 3824.10 -1047.754 -3677.764

47 44 33 3133.72 +2319.361 +2107.313

9172.59 -0.094 -0.654
eE eN

Linear Misclosure (e) =  (eE2 + eN2) =  (0.0942 + 0.6542) = 0.661m

Fractional Linear Misclosure (FLM) = 1 in Sum Distance/Linear Misclosure (Σ D/e)
= 1 in (9172.59 / 0.661) = 1 in 13500
[To the nearest 500 lower value] 42
 Traverse Misclosure and Adjustments
Acceptable FLM values :-
•1 in 5000 for most engineering surveys
•1 in 10000 for control for large projects
•1 in 20000 for major works and monitoring for structural
deformation etc

Traverse acceptability:-
• If a miscloure is more than the specified FLM, then the traverse is
not acceptable, which might imply presence of unacceptable
errors in fieldwork.
• If the misclosure is acceptable, then you go ahead and perform
error distribution following specific methods

If the misclosure is acceptable then distribute it by: -

a) Bowditch Method (Compass Rule) - proportional to line distances
b) Transit Method – Proportional to    values
c) Numerous other methods including Least Squares Adjustments
43
 The Bowditch Method Adjustment

• The method recognises and utilise of error proportionality to

line distances
• The eE and the eN have to be distributed to each line
• For any line IJ the adjustments are E IJ and N IJ

Therefore:
E IJ = [ eE / SD ] x D IJ Applied with the opposite sign to eE

 IJ = [ eN / SD ] x D IJ Applied with the opposite sign to eN

44
 WHOLE CO-ORDINATE DIFFERENCES
HORIZONTAL
CIRCLE
DISTANCE CALCULATED
BEARING

 D E N

00 00 00 638.57 0.000 +638.570

306 12 51 1576.20 -1271.701 +931.227

195 54 06 3824.10 -1047.754 -3677.764

47 44 33 3133.72 +2319.361 +2107.313

3 9172.59 3 -0.094 -0.654
eE eN

e =  (eE2 + eN2) =  (0.0942 + 0.6542) = 0.661m

Fractional Linear Misclosure (FLM) = 1 in SD / e
= 1 in 9172.59 / 0.661 = 1 in 13500
45
 E IJ = [ eE / SD ] x D IJ Applied with the opposite
sign to eE

-
eE = 0.094m SD = 9172.59 m

E IJ = [+0.094 / 9172.59 ] x D IJ = +0.0000102479…... x D IJ

For line AB

E AB = +0.0000102479…x D AB = +0.0000102479…x 638.57 E AB = +0.007m

For line BC

E BC = +0.0000102479…x D BC = +0.0000102479…x 1576.20 E BC = +0.016m

For line CD
E CD = +0.039m

For line DA

E DA = +0.032m
46
 CO-ORDINATE DIFFERENCES S
T
CO-ORDINATES A
CALCULATED ADJUSTMENTS ADJUSTED T
I
O
N
E N E N E N E N

0.000 +638.570 +0.007

-1271.701 +931.227 +0.016

-1047.754 -3677.764 +0.039

+2319.361 +2107.313 +0.032

-0.094 -0.654
eE eN

47
 N IJ = [ eN / SD ] x D IJ Applied with the opposite
sign to eN

-
eN = 0.654m

N IJ = [+0.654 / 9172.59 ] x D IJ = +0.000071299…... x D IJ

For line AB
N AB = + 0.000071299… x D AB = + 0.000071299…x 638.57 N AB = +0.046m

For line BC
N BC = +0.112m

For line CD
N CD = +0.273m

For line DA

N DA = +0.223m

48
 CO-ORDINATE DIFFERENCES S
T
CO-ORDINATES A
CALCULATED ADJUSTMENTS ADJUSTED T
I
O
N
E N E N E N E N

3000.00 4000.00 A
0.000 +638.570 +0.007 +0.046 +0.007 +638.616 3000.01 4638.62 B

1728.32 5569.96 C
-1271.701 +931.227 +0.016 +0.112 -1271.685 +931.339

-1047.754 -3677.764 +0.039 +0.273 -1047.715 -3677.491 680.61 1892.46 D

+2319.361 +2107.313 +0.032 +0.223 +2319.393 +2107.536 3000.00 4000.00 A

-0.094 -0.654 S= 0 S= 0 Check 3

eE eN

49
 Summary of traverse computations
1. Compute the angular error and adjust the angles
2. Compute course bearings or azimuths
3. Compute course latitudes and departures
4. Determine the error of closure and accuracy
5. Adjust course latitudes and departures
6. Compute station coordinates

50