Regulation – 2022(CBCS Scheme) BEC702-Computer Networks and Protocols

Module-1
COMMUNICATIONS
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire or cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must
be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs).

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery
2. Accuracy
3. Timeliness and
4. Jitter.

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

Components

A data communications system has five components

Five Components of Data Communication Systemzty

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated.

Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.

It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.
Examples of transmission media: Twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves etc.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.
Example: Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating,
just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
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 Regulation – 2022(CBCS Scheme) BEC702-Computer Networks and Protocols

Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as TEXT, NUMBERS, IMAGES, AUDIO, and
VIDEO.

1. Text
In data communications, Text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.

2. Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.

3. Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel
depends on the resolution.

4. Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different
from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional (one-way). Only one of the two devices on
a link can transmit; the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction

Example: The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.

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Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The entire capacity of the channel
can be utilized for each transmission direction.

Example: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios.

Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The capacity of the
channel, however, must be divided between the two directions

Example: Telephone network.

NETWORKS
A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. These devices in a
network are connected using wired or wireless transmission media such as cable or air.

Example: Device can be a host (Computer, desktop, laptop, work station, cellular phone, or security
system) or (Connecting device such as a router, a switch, a modem and so on).

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
Performance, Reliability and Security.

1. Performance
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
the efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.

2. Reliability
Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

3. Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.

Transit time and response time:

Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

Physical Structures
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-
point and multipoint.

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 Regulation – 2022(CBCS Scheme) BEC702-Computer Networks and Protocols

Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but
other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.

Example: When we change television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing a
point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television’s control system.

Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, it is a
timeshared connection.

Physical Topology
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices is connected physically (usually called nodes). There are four basic topologies
possible: MESH, STAR, BUS, and RING.

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.

A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies.

1. First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices.
2. Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
3. Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
Physical boundaries prevent other users from
gaining access to messages.

4. Finally, point-to-point links make fault

identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be
routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This
facility enables the network manager to discover
the precise location of the fault and aids infinding its
cause and solution.
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Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.

Star topology does not allow direct traffic between

devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device.

A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology;

each device needs only one link and one I/O port to
connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less
cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection:
between that device and the hub.

Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain
active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub
is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.

One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single, the
hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star topology
with a central hub.

Bus Topology
A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector to
create a contact with the metallic core.

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, and then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus
uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. There is a limit on the number of
taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

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Advantages
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantage
In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.

This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break. Ring
topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network, Token Ring. Today, the need
for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.

Hybrid: The combination of the above topologies

NETWORK TYPES
Two types of networks, LANs and WANs, we define switching, which is used to connect networks to
form an internetwork (a network of networks).

Local Area Network

➢ A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a single
office, building, or campus.
➢ Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer
in someone’s home office, or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and
video devices.
➢ Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address that uniquely defines the host in the LAN.
➢ A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source host’s and the destination
host’s addresses.
➢ A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus.
➢ A LAN interconnects hosts
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 Regulation – 2022(CBCS Scheme) BEC702-Computer Networks and Protocols

In the past, all hosts in a network were connected through a common cable, which meant that a
packet sent from one host to another was received by all hosts. The intended recipient kept the
packet; the others dropped the packet.

Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to recognize the destinationaddress
of the packet and guide the packet to its destination without sending it to all other hosts. The switch
alleviates the traffic in the LAN and allows more than one pair to communicate with each other at
the same time if there is no common source and destination among them.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of communication.
➢ WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the world.
➢ WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
➢ WAN is normally created and run by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it.

Two distinct examples of WANs today:

➢ Point-to-point WANs and
➢ Switched WANs.

Switched WAN
➢ A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
➢ A switched WAN is used in the backbone of global communication today.
➢ A switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by
switches.

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Point-to-Point WAN
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a
transmission media (cable or air).

Difference between LANs and WANs

LANs WANs
limited in size wider geographical span
A LAN interconnects hosts WAN interconnects connecting devices
privately owned by the organization Created and run by communication companies

A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and three LANs

MAN: Metropolitan Area Network

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 Regulation – 2022(CBCS Scheme) BEC702-Computer Networks and Protocols

Switching
An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links together. A switch
needs to forward data from a network to another network when required.

Types of switched networks

➢ Circuit-switched and
➢ Packet-switched networks.

Circuit-Switched Network
➢ In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available
between the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or inactive.

➢ Figure shows a very simple switched network that connects four telephones to each end,
because circuit switching was very common in telephone networks in the past.
➢ The four telephones at each side are connected to a switch.
➢ The switch connects a telephone set at one side to a telephone set at the other side.
➢ The thick line connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line that can handle
four voice communications at the same time; the capacity can be shared between all pairs of
telephone sets.
➢ The switches used in this example have forwarding tasks but no storing capability.
➢ Circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working at its full capacity.

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Packet-Switched Network
➢ In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks of data
called packets.
➢ This allows us to make the switches function for both storing and forwarding because a
packet is an independent entity that can be stored and sent later.

➢ Figure shows a small packet-switched network that connects four computers at one site to
four computers at the other site.
➢ A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and forward the packet.
➢ Packet-switched network is more efficient than a circuit-switched network, but the packets
may encounter some delays.

1.3.4 The Internet

➢ An internet is two or more networks that can communicate with each other. Internet is
composed of thousands of interconnected networks.

➢ Figure shows a conceptual (not geographical) view of the Internet. The figure shows the
Internet as several backbones, provider networks, and customer networks.

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➢ At the top level, the backbones are large networks owned by some communication
companies such as Sprint, Verizon (MCI), AT&T, and NTT.
➢ The backbone networks are connected through some complex switching systems, called
peering points.
➢ At the second level, there are smaller networks, called provider networks.
➢ The provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other provider
networks. The customer networks are networks at the edge of the Internet that actually use
the services provided by the Internet.
➢ Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The
backbones are often referred to as international ISPs; the provider networks are often
referred to as national or regional ISPs.

Accessing the Internet

The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it. The user, however,
needs to be physically connected to an ISP. The physical connection is normally done through a
point-to-point WAN.

1. Using Telephone Networks

Today option for residences and small businesses to connect to the Internet is to change the voice
line between the residence or business and the telephone center to a point-to-point WAN. This can
be done in two ways.

❑ Dial-up service. The first solution is to add to the telephone line a modem that converts
data to voice. The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and imitates making a
telephone connection. Unfortunately, the dial-up service is very slow, and when the line is
used for Internet connection, it cannot be used for telephone (voice) connection. It is only
useful for small residences.

❑ DSL Service. Since the advent of the Internet, some telephone companies have upgraded
their telephone lines to provide higher speed Internet services to residences or small
businesses. The DSL service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice and data
communication.
2. Using Cable Networks
More and more residents over the last two decades have begun using cable TV services instead of
antennas to receive TV broadcasting. The cable companies have been upgrading their cable
networks and connecting to the Internet. It provides a higher speed connection, but the speed varies
depending on the number of neighbors that use the same cable.
3. Using Wireless Networks
Wireless connectivity has recently become increasingly popular. A household or a small business
can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to access the Internet. With the growing
wireless WAN access, a household or a small business can be connected to the Internet through a
wireless WAN.

4. Direct Connection to the Internet

A large organization or a large corporation can itself become a local ISP and be connected to the
Internet. This can be done if the organization or the corporation leases a high-speed WAN from a
carrier provider and connects itself to a regional ISP.
Example, a large university with several campuses can create an internetwork and then connect the
internetwork to the Internet.

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PROTOCOL LAYERING
We defined the term protocol in Chapter 1. In data communication and networking, a protocol
defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be
able to communicate effectively. When communication is simple, we may need only one simple
protocol; when the communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between different
layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.

Scenarios
Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for protocol layering.

First Scenario
In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer. Assume Maria
and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. Communication between Maria and Ann takes
place in one layer, face to face, in the same language, as shown in Figure below.

A single-layer protocol
Second Scenario

➢ In the second scenario, the communication is happens from a far place, continue their
communication and exchange ideas using regular mail through the post office.
➢ However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters are
intercepted. They agree on an encryption/decryption technique.
➢ The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver of the
letter decrypts it to get the original letter.
➢ Now the communication takes place in three layers, as shown in Figure.
➢ Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler

tasks.

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Principles of Protocol Layering

Two principles of protocol layering.

First Principle
The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, need to make each layer
so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.

Example
➢ The third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other direction).
➢ The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt.
➢ The first layer needs to send and receive mail.

Second Principle
The second principle is need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects under each layer
at both sites should be identical.

Example
➢ The object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plain text letter.
➢ The object under layer 2 at both sites should be a cipher text letter.
➢ The object under layer 1 at both sites should be a piece of mail.

Logical Connections
➢ Logical connection between each layer as shown in Figure. This means that, layer-to-layer
communication.
➢ Logical (imaginary) connection at each layer through which they can send the object
created from that layer.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE: (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

➢ TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers) used in the
Internet today.
➢ It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality.
➢ The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by the services
provided by one or more lower level protocols.
➢ The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware. However, TCP/IP is a five-layer model. Figure shows both configurations.

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Layered Architecture
To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in communication between two
hosts, we assume that we want to use the suite in a small internet made up of three LANs (links),
each with a link-layer switch. We also assume that the links are connected by one router, as shown
in Figure.

Example, if computer A communicates with computer B.

➢ The five communicating devices in this communication: source host (computer A), the link-
layer switch in link 1, the router, the link-layer switch in link 2, and the destination host
(computer B).
➢ Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the device in the internet.
➢ The two hosts are involved in all five layers; the source host needs to create a message in the
application layer and send it down the layers so that it is physically sent to the destination
host.

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➢ The destination host needs to receive the communication at the physical layer and then
deliver it through the other layers to the application layer.
➢ The router is involved in only three layers; network, Data link and Physical layer.
➢ A link-layer switch in a link, however, is involved only in two layers, data-link and physical.

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Figure shows logical connections in our simple internet. Using logical connections makes it easier
for us to think about the duty of each layer.

The duty of the application, transport, and network layers is end-to-end. However, the duty of the
data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop, in which a hop is a host or router.

In other words, the domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet, and the domain of duty
of the two lower layers is the link.

Figure shows the second principle for protocol layering, shows the identical objects below each
layer related to each device. Note that the link between two hops does not change the object.

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Description of Each Layer

i) Physical Layer:
 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to
the next
 Mechanical and electrical specification, the procedures and functions

Physical Layer: Duties

 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 Representation of bits, encoding
 Transmission of Data rate and bit duration
 Synchronization of bits b/n sender & receiver
 Line configuration: Point-to-Point / Multi-Point
 Physical topology of n/w connection
 Transmission mode: simplex, half-duplex / full-duplex, analog/digital, FDM/TDM etc..

ii) Data Link Layer:

 The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next
 Transform the physical layer to a reliable (error-free) link
 Bit patterns at the beginning (Header) and the end (Trailer) of the frame are attached to
the data block

Data Link Layer: Duties

 Framing (manageable data units) and link management
 Physical addressing to identify sender/receiver

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 Flow control mechanism to avoid flooding of the receiver

 Error control mechanism to detect and retransmit the lost frames
 Access control to determine which device has the control over the link

Hop-to-Hop Delivery

iii) Network Layer:

 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the source host to the
destination host

Network Layer: Duties

 Routing of packets from source to final destination
 Congestion control during traffic is high
 Logical address to be attached to specify the sender/receiver

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Source-to-destination delivery

iv) Transport Layer:

 Transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

Transport Layer: Duties

 Service-point (port) addressing: to ensure process-to-process delivery
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection control: connectionless / connection oriented service
 Flow control: control on transaction
 Error control: error free delivery

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Reliable Process-to-Process Delivery of a Message

v) Application Layer:
The Application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Application Layer: Duties

 Network virtual terminal (Remote access)
 File transfer, access and management
 Mail services
 Directory services

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Encapsulation and Decapsulation

One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is encapsulation/decapsulation.
Figure shows this concept for the small internet.

We have not shown the layers for the link-layer switches because no encapsulation/decapsulation
occurs in this device. In Figure 2.8, we show the encapsulation in the source host, decapsulation in
the destination host, and encapsulation and Decapsulation in the router.

Encapsulation at the Source Host

At the source, we have only encapsulation.
1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message. A message normally
does not contain any header or trailer, but if it does, we refer to the whole as the message. The
message is passed to the transport layer.
2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the transport layer should
take care of. It adds the transport layer header to the payload, which contains the identifiers of the
source and destination application programs that want to communicate plus some more
information that is needed for the end-toend delivery of the message, such as information needed
for flow, error control, or congestion control. The result is the transport-layer packet, which is called
the segment (in TCP) and the user datagram (in UDP). The transport layer then passes the packet to
the network layer.
3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own header
to the payload. The header contains the addresses of the source and destination hosts and some
more information used for error checking of the header, fragmentation information, and so on. The
result is the network-layer packet, called a datagram. The network layer then passes the packet to
the data-link layer.
4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own header,
which contains the link-layer addresses of the host or the next hop (the router). The result is the
link-layer packet, which is called a frame. The frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission.

Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router

At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation because the router is connected to
two or more links.
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer decapsulates the datagram
from the frame and passes it to the network layer.

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2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in the datagram header
and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to which the datagram is to be delivered. The
contents of the datagram should not be changed by the network layer in the router unless there is a
need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to be passed through the next link. The datagram is
then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.
3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and passes it to the
physical layer for transmission.

Decapsulation at the Destination Host

At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received, removes the payload, and
delivers the payload to the next-higher layer protocol until the message reaches the application
layer. It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the host involves error checking.

Addressing:
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP Protocols:
a) Physical addresses
b) Logical addresses
c) Port addresses
d) Specific addresses

Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCP/IP architecture, as shown in the above fig.

a) Physical Address:
A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two
nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical
address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

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b) Logical (IP) Address

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses usually remain
the same

c) Port Address
The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical and port addresses usually
remain the same

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d) Specific Address

 Some application have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address
 Example 1: e-mail address: kchung@[Link]
 Defines the recipient of an e-mail
 Example 2: URL (Universal Resource Locator) : [Link]
 Used to find a document on the WWW

Difference between port address, a logical address and physical address

 Physical Address: Specifies the name of the Address of Source & Destination
 Logical Address: Specifies the Identification of the Device or Machine
 Port Address: Specifies the name of the File or Data

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some layers, it has multiplexing at the
source and demultiplexing at the destination.
➢ Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from
several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time); demultiplexing means that a protocol can
decapsulate and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
➢ Figure shows the concept of multiplexing and demultiplexing at the three upper layers.
➢ To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a field in its header to
identify to which protocol the encapsulated packets belong.
➢ At the transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several application-
layer protocols.

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➢ At the network layer, IP can accept a segment from TCP or a user datagram from UDP. IP
can also accept a packet from other protocols such as ICMP, IGMP, and so on.
➢ At the data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or other protocols
such as ARP.

THE OSI MODEL

The OSI model shown in fig is based on the proposal developed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) as a first step towards international standardization of the protocols used in the
various layers. The model is called the OSI (Open System Interconnection) reference model because
it deals with connecting open systems, i.e., systems that are open for communication with other
systems. The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.

The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable. The OSI model is a layered framework for the
design of network systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems. It
consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving
information across a network.
The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:
 A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.

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 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy.

Layered Architecture:

The OSI model is composed of seven layers: Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application layers. Below figure shows the layers involved when a message travels
from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes involve only
the first 3 layers of the OSI model.

Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it, layer 3 for ex.
Uses the services provided by layer 2 & provides services for layer 4. Between machines, layer X
on one machine communicates with layer X on another machine. This communication is governed
by an agreed upon series of rules & Conventions called protocols. The processes on each machine
that communicate at a given layer are called peer – to – peer processes. Communication between
machines is therefore a peer – to –peer process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.

Fig: Interaction between layers in the OSI model

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OSI versus TCP/IP

When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are missing
from the TCP/IP protocol suite. The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the
combination of three layers in the OSI model, as shown in Figure.

Two reasons were mentioned for this decision.

➢ First, TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol. Some of the functionalities of the
session layer are available in some of the transport-layer protocols.
➢ Second, the application layer is not only one piece of software. Many applications can be
developed at this layer. If some of the functionalities mentioned in the session and
presentation layers are needed for a particular application, they can be included in the
development of that piece of software.

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Lack of OSI Model’s Success

The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite. Most experts were at first excited and
thought that the TCP/IP protocol would be fully replaced by the OSI model.
➢ First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money had
been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot. (Economic Loss)
➢ Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined. (Protocols not defined for
Presentation and Session Layers)
➢ Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, high enough
level of performance was not achieved to entice the Internet authority to switch from the
TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model. (Expected Efficiency is low).

Introduction to Data-Link Layer

INTRODUCTION
The Internet is a combination of networks glued together by connecting devices (routers or
switches). If a packet is to travel from a host to another host, it needs to pass through these
networks. Figure shows the same scenario, Communication at the data-link layer is made up of five
separate logical connections between the data-link layers in the path.

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The data-link layer at Alice’s computer communicates with the data-link layer at router R2. The
data-link layer at router R2 communicates with the data-link layer at router R4, and so on. Finally,
the data-link layer at router R7 communicates with the data-link layer at Bob’s computer. Only one
data-link layer is involved at the source or the destination, but two data-link layers are involved at
each router. The reason is that Alice’s and Bob’s computers are each connected to a single network,
but each router takes input from one network and sends output to another network. Note that
although switches are also involved in the data-link-layer communication, for simplicity we have
not shown them in the figure.

Nodes and Links

Communication at the data-link layer is node-to-node. A data unit from one point in the Internet
needs to pass through many networks (LANs and WANs) to reach another point. Theses LANs and
WANs are connected by routers. It is customary to refer to the two end hosts and the routers as
nodes and the networks in between as links. Figure below is a simple representation of links and
nodes when the path of the data unit is only six nodes.

The first node is the source host; the last node is the destination host. The other four nodes are four
routers. The first, the third, and the fifth links represent the three LANs; the second and the fourth
links represent the two WANs.

Services
➢ The datalink layer provides services to the network layer; it receives services from the
physical layer.
➢ The duty scope of the data-link layer is node-to-node.
➢ It is responsible for delivering a datagram to the next node in the path, sending node needs
to encapsulate the datagram received from the network in a frame, and the receiving node
needs to decapsulate the datagram from the frame.

Framing
A packet at the data-link layer is normally called a frame.

Flow Control
The sending data-link layer at the end of a link is a producer of frames; the receiving data-link layer
at the other end of a link is a consumer. If the rate of produced frames is higher than the rate of
consumed frames, frames at the receiving end need to be buffered while waiting to be consumed
(processed). Definitely, we cannot have an unlimited buffer size at the receiving side.

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Different data-link-layer protocols use different strategies for flow control. Since flow control also
occurs at the transport layer, with a higher degree of importance.

Error Control
Frame in a data-link layer needs to be changed to bits, transformed to electromagnetic signals, and
transmitted through the transmission media. Frame is susceptible to error. The error needs first to
be detected. After detection, it needs to be either corrected at the receiver node or discarded and
retransmitted by the sending node. Since error detection and correction is an issue in every layer
(node-to-node or host-to-host).

Congestion Control
Congestion control is considered an issue in the network layer or the transport layer because of its
end-to-end nature.

Two Categories of Links

➢ Point-to-point link
➢ Broadcast link.

In a point-to-point link, the link is dedicated to the two devices; in a broadcast link, the link is
shared between several pairs of devices.

Two Sublayers
Data-link layer is divided into two sub-layers: data link control (DLC) and media access control
(MAC). The media access control sublayer deals only with issues specific to broadcast links.

LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING
⚫ A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two
nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with
physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

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Three Types of addresses

Some link-layer protocols define three types of addresses: unicast, multicast, and broadcast.

Unicast Address
Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address. Unicasting means one-to-one
communication. A frame with a unicast address destination is destined only for one entity in the
link.

Example:1
The unicast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN, Ethernet, are 48 bits (six bytes) that are
presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons; for example, the following is a link- layer
address of a computer.

Multicast Address
Some link-layer protocols define multicast addresses. Multicasting means one-to-many
communication. However, the jurisdiction is local (inside the link).

Example: 2
The multicast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN, Ethernet, are 48 bits (six bytes) that
are presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons.
The second digit, however, needs to be an even number in hexadecimal. The following shows a
multicast address:
A2:34:45:11:92:F1
Broadcast Address

Some link-layer protocols define a broadcast address. Broadcasting means one-to-all

communication. A frame with a destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in the link.

Example: 3
The broadcast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN, Ethernet, are 48 bits, all 1s, that are
presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons. The following shows a broadcast address:
FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

The ARP protocol is one of the auxiliary protocols defined in the network layer, as shown in Figure
9.6. It belongs to the network layer, because it maps an IP address to a logical-link address. ARP
accepts an IP address from the IP protocol, maps the address to the corresponding link-layer
address, and passes it to the data-link layer.

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ARP operation

The system (A) has a packet that needs to be delivered to another system (B) with IP address N2.
System A needs to pass the packet to its data-link layer for the actual delivery, but it does not know
the physical address of the recipient. It uses the services of ARP by asking the ARP protocol to send
a broadcast ARP request packet to ask for the physical address of a system with an IP address of N2.
This packet is received by every system on the physical network, but only system B will answer it,
as shown in Figure b. System B sends an ARP reply packet that includes its physical address. Now
system A can send all the packets it has for this destination using the physical address it received.

Packet Format
Figure shows the format of an ARP packet. The names of the fields are self explanatory. The
hardware type field defines the type of the link-layer protocol; Ethernet is given the type 1. The
protocol type field defines the network-layer
protocol: IPv4 protocol is (0800)16. The source
hardware and source protocol addresses are
variable-length fields defining the link-layer and
network-layer addresses of the sender. The
destination hardware address and destination
protocol address fields define the receiver link-
layer and network-layer addresses. An ARP
packet is encapsulated directly into a data-link
frame. The frame needs to have a field to show
that the payload belongs to the ARP and not to
the network-layer datagram.

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