Q.2) Answer the following.

(2marks)

1) What is Analog and Digital Signal?

 Analog Signal:
A signal that varies continuously with time and can take infinite values within a range.
👉 Example: Sound waves, microphone signals.

 Digital Signal:
A signal that has discrete values, usually represented in binary form (0 and 1).
👉 Example: Data in computers.

2) Define Frequency and Amplitude of Signal.

 Frequency:
The number of cycles a signal completes in one second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz).
👉 Formula: Frequency = 1 / Time Period

 Amplitude:
The height or strength of the signal wave. It represents the energy or intensity of the signal.

3) Define Routing.

Routing is the process of selecting the best path for data to travel from the source to the destination in a network.
Routers use routing tables and algorithms to make these decisions.

4) What is Hub?

A Hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers in a local area network (LAN).
It simply broadcasts data to all connected devices, without checking who the data is meant for.
👉 Type: Layer 1 device (Physical layer).

5) What is FTP?

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is an Internet protocol used to transfer files between a client and a server over a
network.
👉 Example: Uploading files to a website or downloading software.

6) What is long form of SMTP and TCP?

 SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

👉 Used for sending emails.

 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

👉 Used for reliable communication between devices over a network.

7) What is WWW?
WWW (World Wide Web) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessible through the Internet using a
web browser.
👉 It allows users to access websites, images, videos, and other information.

8) Define Flow Control.

Flow control is a technique used in data communication to control the rate of data transmission between sender and
receiver,
so that the receiver is not overloaded with more data than it can handle.

9) What is long form of RARP?

RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

👉 It is used to find the IP address of a device from its MAC (hardware) address.

10) What is Bit Rate?

Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted per second in a communication channel.
👉 Measured in bits per second (bps).
Higher bit rate means faster data transmission.

Q.3) A) Answer the following. (5marks)

1) What is Switching? Explain Circuit Switching in detail.

Switching:
Switching is a method used to transfer data from one computer (sender) to another (receiver) through a network.
It decides the path (route) that data should follow between two devices.

There are mainly three types of switching:

1. Circuit Switching

2. Packet Switching

3. Message Switching

Circuit Switching:

 In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path (or circuit) is established between the sender and
receiver before data transmission begins.

 This path remains reserved for that communication until the session ends.
 It is similar to a telephone call, where a connection is set up first, then conversation happens, and finally, the
connection is released.

Phases of Circuit Switching:

1. Circuit Establishment: Path between sender and receiver is set up.

2. Data Transfer: Actual data is transmitted over the dedicated path.

3. Circuit Termination: Connection is released after communication ends.

Advantages:
  Reliable and continuous connection.

 Data is received in the same order.

Disadvantages:

 Wastes bandwidth when no data is sent.

 Takes time to establish a connection.

2) What is the use of Computer Network?

A computer network is a group of two or more computers connected together to share resources, data, and
communication.

Uses / Advantages of Computer Networks:

1. Resource Sharing: Share hardware (printers, scanners), software, and files.

2. Data Communication: Allows exchange of information between users.

3. Centralized Data Management: Data can be stored and accessed from a central server.

4. Cost Efficiency: Reduces hardware and software costs.

5. Internet Access: Provides connectivity for global communication and services.

6. Remote Access: Users can access files and applications from different locations.

3) What are the different types of Errors? Explain Error Detection Codes in detail.

Errors:
During data transmission over a network, bits may change due to noise or interference.
Example: A binary 1 may become 0 — this is an error.

Types of Errors:

1. Single-bit error: Only one bit is changed.

2. Burst error: Two or more bits in the data unit are changed.

Error Detection Codes:

These codes help detect whether data has been received correctly or not.
Common error detection methods are:

1. Parity Bit:

o A single extra bit (parity bit) is added to data to make the number of 1s either even (even parity) or
odd (odd parity).

o Receiver checks parity; if it doesn’t match, an error is detected.

2. Checksum:

o Data is divided into equal blocks, and their sum is calculated and sent along with data.

o Receiver also calculates the sum and compares it; mismatch means error.

3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

o A more powerful method.

 o A special code (CRC value) is generated using binary division and sent with data.

o Receiver performs the same division; if remainder ≠ 0 → error detected.

✅ Summary:

 Errors: Mistakes in data transmission.

 Types: Single-bit, Burst.

 Detection Methods: Parity, Checksum, CRC.

B) Answer the following. (6marks)

ARP and RARP Protocol

1) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):

 ARP is used to find the MAC address of a device from its IP address in a local network.

 When a computer wants to send data, it broadcasts an ARP Request:

“Who has this IP address?”

 The device with that IP sends an ARP Reply with its MAC address.

 The sender then uses this MAC address to send data and stores it in its ARP cache.

Example:
If Computer A knows B’s IP ([Link]), ARP helps find B’s MAC address.

→ Converts IP address → MAC address

2) RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):

 RARP does the opposite of ARP.

 It is used to find the IP address of a device when only the MAC address is known.

 The device sends a RARP Request to a RARP Server, which replies with the correct IP address.

Example:
A diskless computer knows only its MAC and uses RARP to get its IP.

→ Converts MAC address → IP address

Difference:

ARP RARP

Finds MAC from IP Finds IP from MAC

Used by sender Used by receiver

No server needed Needs RARP server

✅ In short:

 ARP → IP to MAC

 RARP → MAC to IP
Q.4) A) Answer the following. (4marks)

1) Transmission Modes

Definition:
Transmission modes are the ways in which data is transmitted between two connected devices.

There are three main types of transmission modes:

1. Simplex Mode:

o Data flows only in one direction.

o Example: Keyboard → Monitor.

o Like a one-way road.

2. Half Duplex Mode:

o Data flows in both directions, but one at a time.

o Example: Walkie-talkie.

o Like a one-lane bridge.

3. Full Duplex Mode:

o Data flows in both directions at the same time.

o Example: Telephone.

o Like a two-way road.

2) What is Modulation? Explain Types of Modulation

Definition:
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal (like a radio wave) according to the message signal (data) for
transmission over long distances.

It helps to send data efficiently through communication channels.

Types of Modulation:

There are two main categories:

A. Analog Modulation

Used for analog signals.

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM):

Amplitude (height) of carrier wave changes as per message signal.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM):

Frequency of carrier wave changes as per message signal.
3. Phase Modulation (PM):
Phase of carrier wave changes according to message signal.

B. Digital Modulation

Used for digital data (0s and 1s).

Examples: ASK, FSK, PSK.
3) Concept of ALOHA

Definition:
ALOHA is a random access protocol used in computer networks to share a common communication channel.

It allows multiple users to send data whenever they have data to send.

Types of ALOHA:

1. Pure ALOHA:

o Any station can send data anytime.

o If two messages collide, they are retransmitted after a random time.

2. Slotted ALOHA:

o Time is divided into slots.

o Data can be sent only at the beginning of a time slot, which reduces collisions and improves
efficiency.

Example:
Used in early wireless communication systems and satellite networks.

✅ In short:

 Transmission modes: Simplex, Half duplex, Full duplex.

 Modulation: Changing carrier signal to carry data (AM, FM, PM).

 ALOHA: Protocol for sharing channel; types → Pure & Slotted.

B) Answer the following. (8marks)

Types of Computer Networks

Definition:
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers that communicate and share resources (like files,
printers, and internet).

Computer networks are classified based on their coverage area and purpose.

1) PAN (Personal Area Network):

 Covers a small area around one person (about 10 meters).

 Used for connecting personal devices like mobile phones, laptops, Bluetooth, printers, etc.

 Example: Connecting a smartphone to a Bluetooth headset.

➡ Range: Few meters

➡ Example: Bluetooth, USB connections

2) LAN (Local Area Network):

 Covers a small geographical area like a home, office, or building.

 High-speed and low-cost connection.

 Used for file sharing, printer sharing, and communication among computers.
➡ Range: Up to few kilometers
➡ Example: College or office network using Wi-Fi or Ethernet

3) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

 Covers a city or a group of nearby buildings.

 Connects multiple LANs together within a city.

 Used by ISPs or cable TV networks.

➡ Range: Around 50 km
➡ Example: City-wide Wi-Fi, cable broadband networks

4) WAN (Wide Area Network):

 Covers a large geographical area, like countries or continents.

 Connects multiple LANs and MANs using telecommunication lines, satellites, or fiber cables.

 The Internet is the best example of a WAN.

➡ Range: Worldwide
➡ Example: Internet, bank networks

5) WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network):

 Similar to LAN but uses wireless signals (Wi-Fi) instead of cables.

 Allows devices to connect and communicate without physical wires.

➡ Example: Wi-Fi in schools or offices

6) SAN (Storage Area Network):

 A specialized high-speed network that connects data storage devices (like servers, disk arrays) to computers.

 Used in data centers for fast data access.

➡ Example: Backup servers and cloud storage systems

Comparison Table:

Type Full Form Area Covered Example

PAN Personal Area Network Few meters Bluetooth

LAN Local Area Network Building or campus Office Wi-Fi

MAN Metropolitan Area Network City Cable TV network

WAN Wide Area Network Country/World Internet

WLAN Wireless LAN Office/Home Wi-Fi

SAN Storage Area Network Data centers Cloud storage

✅ In short:

 PAN: Personal use (Bluetooth)

 LAN: Small area (Office/School)

  MAN: City level

 WAN: Country/world level (Internet)

 WLAN: Wireless LAN

 SAN: For data storage

Q.5) Answer the following. (8marks)

a) Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

Full form: Automatic Repeat Request

Definition:
Go-Back-N ARQ is an error control protocol used in data communication to ensure that data frames are received
correctly and in order.

It works on the sliding window concept, where the sender can send multiple frames before needing an
acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.

Working:

1. The sender sends N frames continuously (where N is the window size).

2. The receiver sends an ACK for each correctly received frame.

3. If a frame is lost or damaged, the receiver discards that frame and all frames after it.

4. The sender then goes back and retransmits the lost frame and all following frames.

Example:
If frames 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are sent and frame 3 is lost —
→ The receiver will not accept 4 and 5.
→ Sender retransmits 3, 4, 5 again.

Advantages:

 Efficient use of bandwidth.

 Ensures reliable transmission.

Disadvantages:

 Retransmission of many frames if only one frame is lost.

Diagram:

Sender: 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 5

Error

Receiver: ACK1 → ACK2 (stops) → waits → requests retransmission of 3–5

b) What is Multiplexing? Explain its Types

Definition:
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals and send them over a single communication channel
to save bandwidth and resources.
A multiplexer (MUX) combines signals, and a demultiplexer (DEMUX) separates them at the receiver end.

Types of Multiplexing:

1. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):

o Total bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency bands, each carrying a separate signal.

o Example: Radio or cable TV channels.

2. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing):

o Each signal is given a specific time slot on the same channel.

o Example: Telephone networks.

3. WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing):

o Used in fiber optic communication.

o Different light wavelengths (colors) carry different data streams.

Summary Table:

Type Full Form Division Basis Example

FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing Frequency Radio/TV

TDM Time Division Multiplexing Time Telephony

WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing Light wavelength Fiber optics

c) IP Protocol with Header Block Diagram

Full form: Internet Protocol (IP)

Definition:
IP is a network layer protocol responsible for addressing and routing packets across networks.

It defines the structure of data packets (called IP datagrams) and handles delivery from source to destination.

Functions of IP:

1. Addressing: Assigns unique IP addresses to each device.

2. Routing: Finds the best path to deliver packets.

3. Fragmentation: Splits large packets into smaller ones for transmission.

IP Header Format (Block Diagram):

✅ In short:

 Go-Back-N ARQ: Retransmits lost + following frames.

 Multiplexing: Combines multiple signals (FDM, TDM, WDM).

 IP Protocol: Handles addressing, routing, and delivery using a structured header.

Extras :-

1) OSI Model

Full form: Open Systems Interconnection Model

Definition:
The OSI model is a conceptual framework used to describe how data is transmitted over a network from one device
to another.
It divides the communication process into seven layers, each having a specific function.

7 Layers of OSI Model:

Layer
Layer Name Function (in simple words)
No.

Provides services to end users like email, web browsing, file transfer (HTTP, FTP,
7 Application Layer
SMTP).

Presentation
6 Converts data format for the application (encryption, compression, translation).
Layer

5 Session Layer Manages and controls communication sessions between computers.

4 Transport Layer Ensures reliable data transfer and error checking (TCP, UDP).

3 Network Layer Handles routing and logical addressing (IP addresses).

2 Data Link Layer Provides physical addressing (MAC), error detection, and frame delivery.

1 Physical Layer Deals with physical transmission of bits using cables, signals, and hardware.

Diagram:

+--------------------+

| 7. Application |

| 6. Presentation |

| 5. Session |

| 4. Transport |

| 3. Network |

| 2. Data Link |

| 1. Physical |

+--------------------+
Key Points:

 Developed by ISO (International Standards Organization).

 Helps in standardizing network communication.

 Each layer performs a specific task and interacts with layers directly above and below it.

2) Networking Architecture

Definition:
Network Architecture is the design and structure of a computer network that defines how computers and devices
are connected and how data is transmitted between them.

It acts as a blueprint for building and managing communication networks.

Main Components:

1. Hardware: Computers, routers, switches, cables, etc.

2. Software: Network operating systems and communication protocols.

3. Protocols: Rules that define how data is transmitted (like TCP/IP).

Types of Network Architecture:

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture:

o All computers have equal status.

o Each computer can act as both client and server.

o Used in small networks.

o Example: File sharing between two PCs.

2. Client-Server Architecture:

o One computer (server) provides services, and other computers (clients) use those services.

o Used in large organizations.

o Example: Web servers, email servers.

Diagram (Simple):

Client-Server Model:

[Client 1] [Client 2]

\ /

\ /

[Server]

Advantages:

 Efficient communication.

 Centralized management and control.

 Easy to maintain and expand.

3) Switching.

1) Message Switching:

 In message switching, the entire message is sent as one complete unit from the sender to the receiver.

 The message passes through intermediate nodes, where it is stored temporarily and then forwarded to the
next node — this is called the store-and-forward method.

 No dedicated path is established before transmission.

Example: Email system.

Advantages:

 Efficient use of network resources.

 No need for a fixed connection.

Disadvantages:

 Slower transmission because each node must store the whole message before sending it.

2) Packet Switching:

 In packet switching, the message is divided into smaller packets.

 Each packet is sent independently through the network and may take different routes to reach the
destination.

 At the receiver’s end, all packets are reassembled in the correct order.

Example: Internet data transfer, file downloads.

Advantages:

 Fast and efficient use of bandwidth.

 Easy to resend lost packets.

Disadvantages:

 Packets may arrive out of order.

 Requires extra processing for reassembly.