Understanding Engineering Mathematics

Why is knowledge of mathematics important in engineering?

A career in any engineering or scientific field will principles and theory of nuclear science to problems
require both basic and advanced mathematics. Without concerned with release, control and utilisation of nuclear
mathematics to determine principles, calculate dimen- energy and nuclear waste disposal.
sions and limits, explore variations, prove concepts, and
Petroleum engineers require mathematics to devise
so on, there would be no mobile telephones, televisions,
methods to improve oil and gas well production and
stereo systems, video games, microwave ovens, comput-
determine the need for new or modified tool designs;
ers, or virtually anything electronic. There would be no
they oversee drilling and offer technical advice to
bridges, tunnels, roads, skyscrapers, automobiles, ships,
achieve economical and satisfactory progress.
planes, rockets or most things mechanical. There would
be no metals beyond the common ones, such as iron Industrial engineers require mathematics to design,
and copper, no plastics, no synthetics. In fact, society develop, test and evaluate integrated systems for man-
would most certainly be less advanced without the use aging industrial production processes, including human
of mathematics throughout the centuries and into the work factors, quality control, inventory control, logis-
future. tics and material flow, cost analysis and production
coordination.
Electrical engineers require mathematics to design,
develop, test or supervise the manufacturing and instal- Environmental engineers require mathematics to
lation of electrical equipment, components, or systems design, plan or perform engineering duties in the preven-
for commercial, industrial, military or scientific use. tion, control and remediation of environmental health
hazards, using various engineering disciplines; their
Mechanical engineers require mathematics to perform
work may include waste treatment, site remediation or
engineering duties in planning and designing tools,
pollution control technology.
engines, machines and other mechanically functioning
equipment; they oversee installation, operation, mainte- Civil engineers require mathematics in all levels in
nance and repair of such equipment as centralised heat, civil engineering – structural engineering, hydraulics
gas, water and steam systems. and geotechnical engineering are all fields that employ
mathematical tools such as differential equations, tensor
Aerospace engineers require mathematics to perform a
analysis, field theory, numerical methods and operations
variety of engineering work in designing, constructing
research.
and testing aircraft, missiles and spacecraft; they con-
duct basic and applied research to evaluate adaptability Knowledge of mathematics is therefore needed by each
of materials and equipment to aircraft design and of the engineering disciplines listed above.
manufacture and recommend improvements in testing It is intended that this text – Understanding Engineer-
equipment and techniques. ing Mathematics – will provide a step-by-step approach
Nuclear engineers require mathematics to conduct to learning all the fundamental mathematics needed for
research on nuclear engineering problems or apply your engineering studies.
To Sue
Understanding Engineering Mathematics

John Bird, BSc (Hons), CEng, CMath, CSci, FIMA, FIET, FCollT
First edition published 2014
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2014 John Bird

The right of John Bird to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.

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ISBN: 978-0-415-66284-0 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-88976-4 (ebk)

Typeset in Times by
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Contents

Why is knowledge of mathematics important 6 Ratio and proportion 46

in engineering? i 6.1 Introduction 46
Preface xvii 6.2 Ratios 47
6.3 Direct proportion 49
Section A Number and Algebra 1 6.4 Inverse proportion 52

1 Basic arithmetic 3 7 Powers, roots and laws of indices 54

1.1 Introduction 3 7.1 Introduction 54
1.2 Revision of addition and subtraction 4 7.2 Powers and roots 54
1.3 Revision of multiplication and division 5 7.3 Laws of indices 56
1.4 Highest common factors and lowest 8 Units, prefixes and engineering notation 61
common multiples 7
8.1 Introduction 61
1.5 Order of operation and brackets 9
8.2 SI units 61
2 Fractions 11 8.3 Common prefixes 62
2.1 Introduction 11 8.4 Standard form 64
2.2 Adding and subtracting fractions 12 8.5 Engineering notation 65
2.3 Multiplication and division of fractions 14
2.4 Order of operation with fractions 16 Revision Test 3 Ratio, proportion, powers,
roots, indices and units 68
Revision Test 1 Basic arithmetic and fractions 18
9 Basic algebra 69
3 Decimals 19 9.1 Introduction 69
3.1 Introduction 19 9.2 Basic operations 70
3.2 Converting decimals to fractions and 9.3 Laws of indices 73
vice-versa 19
3.3 Significant figures and decimal places 21 10 Further algebra 77
3.4 Adding and subtracting decimal numbers 22 10.1 Introduction 77
3.5 Multiplying and dividing decimal numbers 23 10.2 Brackets 77
10.3 Factorisation 79
4 Using a calculator 25
4.1 Introduction 25 10.4 Laws of precedence 80
4.2 Adding, subtracting, multiplying and
dividing 25 Multiple choice questions Test 1 83
4.3 Further calculator functions 27
4.4 Errors and approximations 32 11 Solving simple equations 85
4.5 Rational and irrational numbers 33 11.1 Introduction 85
4.6 Evaluation of formulae 33 11.2 Solving equations 85
5 Percentages 38 11.3 Practical problems involving simple
5.1 Introduction 38 equations 89
5.2 Percentage calculations 39
5.3 Further percentage calculations 40 Revision Test 4 Algebra and simple equations 94
5.4 More percentage calculations 42

12 Transposing formulae 95
Revision Test 2 Decimals, calculations 12.1 Introduction 95
and percentages 45
12.2 Transposing formulae 95
vi Contents

12.3 Further transposing of formulae 97 Revision Test 6 Quadratics, logarithms,

12.4 More difficult transposing of formulae 100 exponentials and inequalities 154

13 Solving simultaneous equations 103

Formulae/revision hints for Section A 155
13.1 Introduction 103
13.2 Solving simultaneous equations in two
unknowns 104 Section B Further number and
13.3 Further solving of simultaneous equations 105 algebra 157
13.4 Solving more difficult simultaneous
equations 107
18 Polynomial division and the factor and
13.5 Practical problems involving simultaneous
remainder theorems 159
equations 109
18.1 Polynomial division 159
13.6 Solving simultaneous equations in three
18.2 The factor theorem 161
unknowns 113
18.3 The remainder theorem 163
Revision Test 5 Transposition and simultaneous
equations 115 19 Number sequences 166
19.1 Simple sequences 166
19.2 The nth term of a series 167
14 Solving quadratic equations 116 19.3 Arithmetic progressions 168
14.1 Introduction 116 19.4 Geometric progressions 171
14.2 Solution of quadratic equations by 19.5 Combinations and permutations 174
factorisation 116
14.3 Solution of quadratic equations by 20 Binary, octal and hexadecimal numbers 176
‘completing the square’ 119 20.1 Introduction 176
14.4 Solution of quadratic equations by formula 121 20.2 Binary numbers 177
14.5 Practical problems involving quadratic 20.3 Octal numbers 180
equations 122 20.4 Hexadecimal numbers 182
14.6 Solution of linear and quadratic equations
simultaneously 124 Revision Test 7 Further algebra, number
sequences and numbering
Multiple choice questions Test 2 126
systems 186

15 Logarithms 128 21 Partial fractions 187

15.1 Introduction to logarithms 128 21.1 Introduction to partial fractions 187
15.2 Laws of logarithms 130 21.2 Worked problems on partial fractions with
15.3 Indicial equations 133 linear factors 188
15.4 Graphs of logarithmic functions 134 21.3 Worked problems on partial fractions with
repeated linear factors 190
16 Exponential functions 135 21.4 Worked problems on partial fractions with
16.1 Introduction to exponential functions 135 quadratic factors 192
16.2 The power series for e x 136
16.3 Graphs of exponential functions 138 22 The binomial series 194
16.4 Napierian logarithms 140 22.1 Pascal’s triangle 194
16.5 Laws of growth and decay 142 22.2 The binomial series 195
22.3 Worked problems on the binomial series 196
22.4 Further worked problems on the binomial
17 Inequalities 147
series 198
17.1 Introduction to inequalities 147
22.5 Practical problems involving the binomial
17.2 Simple inequalities 148
theorem 200
17.3 Inequalities involving a modulus 148
17.4 Inequalities involving quotients 149
Revision Test 8 Partial fractions and the binomial
17.5 Inequalities involving square functions 150
series 203
17.6 Quadratic inequalities 151
 Contents vii

23 Maclaurin’s series 204 28 The circle and its properties 275

23.1 Introduction 204 28.1 Introduction 275
23.2 Derivation of Maclaurin’s theorem 205 28.2 Properties of circles 275
23.3 Conditions of Maclaurin’s series 205 28.3 Radians and degrees 277
23.4 Worked problems on Maclaurin’s series 206 28.4 Arc length and area of circles and sectors 278
23.5 Numerical integration using Maclaurin’s 28.5 The equation of a circle 282
series 209 28.6 Linear and angular velocity 283
23.6 Limiting values 210 28.7 Centripetal force 285

24 Hyperbolic functions 213 Revision Test 11 Areas of common shapes

24.1 Introduction to hyperbolic functions 213 and the circle 287
24.2 Graphs of hyperbolic functions 215
24.3 Hyperbolic identities 217
24.4 Solving equations involving hyperbolic 29 Volumes and surface areas of common solids 289
functions 219 29.1 Introduction 289
24.5 Series expansions for cosh x and sinh x 221 29.2 Volumes and surface areas of common
shapes 290
29.3 Summary of volumes and surface areas of
Revision Test 9 Maclaurin’s series and
common solids 296
hyperbolic functions 223
29.4 More complex volumes and surface areas 297
29.5 Volumes and surface areas of frusta of
25 Solving equations by iterative methods 224 pyramids and cones 302
25.1 Introduction to iterative methods 224 29.6 The frustum and zone of a sphere 305
25.2 The bisection method 225 29.7 Prismoidal rule 308
25.3 An algebraic method of successive 29.8 Volumes of similar shapes 310
approximations 229
25.4 The Newton–Raphson method 232 30 Irregular areas and volumes, and mean values 311
30.1 Areas of irregular figures 311
26 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 235 30.2 Volumes of irregular solids 314
26.1 Boolean algebra and switching circuits 236 30.3 Mean or average values of waveforms 314
26.2 Simplifying Boolean expressions 240
26.3 Laws and rules of Boolean algebra 240 Revision Test 12 Volumes, irregular areas
26.4 De Morgan’s laws 242 and volumes, and mean values 319
26.5 Karnaugh maps 244
26.6 Logic circuits 248
Formulae/revision hints for Section C 321
26.7 Universal logic gates 251
Section D Graphs 325
Revision Test 10 Iterative methods, Boolean
algebra and logic circuits 255
31 Straight line graphs 327
Multiple choice questions Test 3 256 31.1 Introduction to graphs 327
31.2 Axes, scales and co-ordinates 327
31.3 Straight line graphs 329
Formulae/revision hints for Section B 258 31.4 Gradients, intercepts and equations of
graphs 332
Section C Areas and volumes 261 31.5 Practical problems involving straight line
graphs 338

27 Areas of common shapes 263 32 Graphs reducing non-linear laws to linear form 345
27.1 Introduction 263 32.1 Introduction 345
27.2 Common shapes 263 32.2 Determination of law 345
27.3 Areas of common shapes 266 32.3 Revision of laws of logarithms 348
27.4 Areas of similar shapes 274 32.4 Determination of laws involving logarithms 349
viii Contents

33 Graphs with logarithmic scales 354 38.3 Sines, cosines and tangents 428
33.1 Logarithmic scales and logarithmic graph 38.4 Evaluating trigonometric ratios of acute
paper 354 angles 430
33.2 Graphs of the form y = ax n 355 38.5 Reciprocal ratios 433
33.3 Graphs of the form y = ab x 358 38.6 Fractional and surd forms of trigonometric
33.4 Graphs of the form y = ae kx 359 ratios 435
38.7 Solving right-angled triangles 436
Revision Test 13 Graphs 362 38.8 Angles of elevation and depression 439
38.9 Trigonometric approximations for small
34 Polar curves 364 angles 441
34.1 Introduction to polar curves 364
34.2 Worked problems on polar curves 364 Revision Test 15 Angles, triangles
35 Graphical solution of equations 368 and trigonometry 442
35.1 Graphical solution of simultaneous
equations 368 39 Trigonometric waveforms 445
35.2 Graphical solution of quadratic equations 370 39.1 Graphs of trigonometric functions 445
35.3 Graphical solution of linear and quadratic 39.2 Angles of any magnitude 446
equations simultaneously 374 39.3 The production of sine and cosine waves 449
35.4 Graphical solution of cubic equations 374 39.4 Terminology involved with sine and
36 Functions and their curves 377 cosine waves 449
36.1 Definition of a function 377 39.5 Sinusoidal form: A sin(ωt ± α) 452
36.2 Standard curves 377 39.6 Complex waveforms 454
36.3 Simple transformations 380
40 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 460
36.4 Periodic functions 385
40.1 Introduction 460
36.5 Continuous and discontinuous functions 386
40.2 Changing from Cartesian to polar
36.6 Even and odd functions 386 co-ordinates 460
36.7 Inverse functions 388 40.3 Changing from polar to Cartesian
36.8 Asymptotes 390 co-ordinates 462
36.9 Brief guide to curve sketching 396 40.4 Use of Pol/Rec functions on calculators 463
36.10 Worked problems on curve sketching 396
41 Non-right-angled triangles and some practical
Revision Test 14 Polar curves, graphical applications 465
solution of equations and 41.1 The sine and cosine rules 465
functions and their curves 400 41.2 Area of any triangle 466
41.3 Worked problems on the solution of
triangles and their areas 466
Multiple choice questions Test 4 401 41.4 Further worked problems on the solution
of triangles and their areas 468
41.5 Practical situations involving trigonometry 469
Formulae/revision hints for Section D 405
41.6 Further practical situations involving
trigonometry 471
Section E Geometry and trigonometry 407
Revision Test 16 Trigonometric waveforms,
37 Angles and triangles 409 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates
37.1 Introduction 409 and non-right-angled triangles 474
37.2 Angular measurement 409
37.3 Triangles 415
42 Trigonometric identities and equations 475
37.4 Congruent triangles 419
42.1 Trigonometric identities 475
37.5 Similar triangles 421
42.2 Worked problems on trigonometric
37.6 Construction of triangles 423
identities 476
38 Introduction to trigonometry 425 42.3 Trigonometric equations 477
38.1 Introduction 425 42.4 Worked problems (i) on trigonometric
38.2 The theorem of Pythagoras 426 equations 478
 Contents ix

42.5 Worked problems (ii) on trigonometric 46.4 The exponential form of a complex number 524
equations 479 46.5 Introduction to locus problems 526
42.6 Worked problems (iii) on trigonometric
equations 480 Revision Test 18 Complex numbers
42.7 Worked problems (iv) on trigonometric and De Moivre’s theorem 529
equations 480
Formulae/revision hints for Section F 530
43 The relationship between trigonometric
and hyperbolic functions 482 Section G Matrices and determinants 531
43.1 The relationship between trigonometric
and hyperbolic functions 482
47 The theory of matrices and determinants 533
43.2 Hyperbolic identities 483
47.1 Matrix notation 533
47.2 Addition, subtraction and multiplication
44 Compound angles 486 of matrices 534
44.1 Compound angle formulae 486
47.3 The unit matrix 537
44.2 Conversion of a sin ωt + b cos ωt into
47.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix 537
R sin(ωt + α) 488
47.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a 2 by 2 matrix 538
44.3 Double angles 492
47.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix 539
44.4 Changing products of sines and cosines
47.7 The inverse or reciprocal of a 3 by 3 matrix 540
into sums or differences 494
44.5 Changing sums or differences of sines and 48 Applications of matrices and determinants 543
cosines into products 495 48.1 Solution of simultaneous equations by
44.6 Power waveforms in a.c. circuits 496 matrices 543
48.2 Solution of simultaneous equations by
Revision Test 17 Trigonometric identities determinants 546
and equations and compound 48.3 Solution of simultaneous equations using
angles 500 Cramer’s rule 549
48.4 Solution of simultaneous equations using
the Gaussian elimination method 550
Multiple choice questions Test 5 501 48.5 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 552

Revision Test 19 Matrices and determinants 557

Formulae/revision hints for Section E 505
Formulae/revision hints for Section G 558
Section F Complex numbers 507
Section H Vector geometry 559
45 Complex numbers 509
49 Vectors 561
45.1 Cartesian complex numbers 509
49.1 Introduction 561
45.2 The Argand diagram 511
49.2 Scalars and vectors 561
45.3 Addition and subtraction of complex
49.3 Drawing a vector 562
numbers 511
49.4 Addition of vectors by drawing 562
45.4 Multiplication and division of complex
numbers 512 49.5 Resolving vectors into horizontal and
vertical components 565
45.5 Complex equations 514
49.6 Addition of vectors by calculation 566
45.6 The polar form of a complex number 514
49.7 Vector subtraction 570
45.7 Multiplication and division in polar form 516
49.8 Relative velocity 572
45.8 Applications of complex numbers 517
49.9 i, j and k notation 573

46 De Moivre’s theorem 521 50 Methods of adding alternating waveforms 575

46.1 Introduction 521 50.1 Combination of two periodic functions 575
46.2 Powers of complex numbers 521 50.2 Plotting periodic functions 576
46.3 Roots of complex numbers 522 50.3 Determining resultant phasors by drawing 577
x Contents

50.4 Determining resultant phasors by the sine 55.2 Some common parametric equations 643
and cosine rules 579 55.3 Differentiation in parameters 643
50.5 Determining resultant phasors by 55.4 Further worked problems on
horizontal and vertical components 580 differentiation of parametric equations 645
50.6 Determining resultant phasors by complex
numbers 582 56 Differentiation of implicit functions 648
56.1 Implicit functions 648
51 Scalar and vector products 586
56.2 Differentiating implicit functions 648
51.1 The unit triad 586
56.3 Differentiating implicit functions
51.2 The scalar product of two vectors 587
containing products and quotients 649
51.3 Vector products 591
56.4 Further implicit differentiation 650
51.4 Vector equation of a line 594
57 Logarithmic differentiation 653
Revision Test 20 Vectors 597 57.1 Introduction to logarithmic differentiation 653
57.2 Laws of logarithms 653
57.3 Differentiation of logarithmic functions 654
Multiple choice questions Test 6 598 57.4 Differentiation of further logarithmic
functions 654
Formulae/revision hints for Section H 601 57.5 Differentiation of [ f (x)] x 656

Section I Differential calculus 603 Revision Test 22 Parametric, implicit and

logarithmic differentiation 658
52 Introduction to differentiation 605
52.1 Introduction to calculus 605
58 Differentiation of hyperbolic functions 659
52.2 Functional notation 605
58.1 Standard differential coefficients of
52.3 The gradient of a curve 606 hyperbolic functions 659
52.4 Differentiation from first principles 607 58.2 Further worked problems on
52.5 Differentiation of y = ax n by the general differentiation of hyperbolic functions 660
rule 610
52.6 Differentiation of sine and cosine functions 611 59 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric
52.7 Differentiation of eax and ln ax 613 and hyperbolic functions 662
59.1 Inverse functions 662
53 Methods of differentiation 615
59.2 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric
53.1 Differentiation of common functions 615
functions 664
53.2 Differentiation of a product 617
59.3 Logarithmic forms of inverse hyperbolic
53.3 Differentiation of a quotient 619
functions 667
53.4 Function of a function 620
59.4 Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic
53.5 Successive differentiation 621 functions 669
54 Some applications of differentiation 624
54.1 Rates of change 624 60 Partial differentiation 673
54.2 Velocity and acceleration 626 60.1 Introduction to partial derivatives 673
54.3 Turning points 628 60.2 First-order partial derivatives 673
54.4 Practical problems involving maximum 60.3 Second order partial derivatives 676
and minimum values 632
61 Total differential, rates of change and small
54.5 Points of inflexion 635
changes 679
54.6 Tangents and normals 637 61.1 Total differential 679
54.7 Small changes 639 61.2 Rates of change 680
61.3 Small changes 682
Revision Test 21 Methods of differentiation
and some applications 641 62 Maxima, minima and saddle points for
functions of two variables 685
55 Differentiation of parametric equations 642 62.1 Functions of two independent variables 685
55.1 Introduction to parametric equations 642 62.2 Maxima, minima and saddle points 686
 Contents xi

62.3 Procedure to determine maxima, minima Revision Test 24 Standard integration and some
and saddle points for functions of two substitution methods 726
variables 687
62.4 Worked problems on maxima, minima and
saddle points for functions of two variables 687 66 Integration using partial fractions 727
66.1 Introduction 727
62.5 Further worked problems on maxima,
minima and saddle points for functions of 66.2 Worked problems on integration using
two variables 690 partial fractions with linear factors 727
66.3 Worked problems on integration using
partial fractions with repeated linear factors 729
Revision Test 23 Further differentiation
66.4 Worked problems on integration using
and applications 695
partial fractions with quadratic factors 730
67 The t = tan θ/2 substitution 732
Multiple choice questions Test 7 696 67.1 Introduction 732
θ
67.2 Worked problems on the t = tan
2
substitution 733
Formulae/revision hints for Section I 698 67.3 Further worked problems on the
θ
t = tan substitution 734
Section J Integral calculus 701 2
68 Integration by parts 737
63 Standard integration 703 68.1 Introduction 737
63.1 The process of integration 703 68.2 Worked problems on integration by parts 737
63.2 The general solution of integrals of the 68.3 Further worked problems on integration
form ax n 704 by parts 739
63.3 Standard integrals 704
63.4 Definite integrals 707 Revision Test 25 Integration using partial
fractions, tan θ/2 and ‘by parts’ 743
64 Integration using algebraic substitutions 710
64.1 Introduction 710 69 Reduction formulae 744
64.2 Algebraic substitutions 710 69.1 Introduction 744
64.3 Worked problems on integration using 69.2 Using reduction
 formulae for integrals of
algebraic substitutions 711 the form x n e x dx 744
64.4 Further worked problems on integration 69.3 Using reduction
 formulae for
 integrals of
using algebraic substitutions 712 the form x n cos x dx and x n sin x dx 745
64.5 Change of limits 713 69.4 Using reduction
 formulae for integrals of
the form sinn x dx and cosn x dx 748
69.5 Further reduction formulae 751
65 Integration using trigonometric and hyperbolic
substitutions 715 70 Double and triple integrals 753
65.1 Introduction 715 70.1 Double integrals 753
65.2 Worked problems on integration of sin2 x, 70.2 Triple integrals 755
cos2 x, tan2 x and cot2 x 715
65.3 Worked problems on integration of powers 71 Numerical integration 757
of sines and cosines 717 71.1 Introduction 757
65.4 Worked problems on integration of 71.2 The trapezoidal rule 757
products of sines and cosines 719 71.3 The mid-ordinate rule 760
65.5 Worked problems on integration using the 71.4 Simpson’s rule 761
sin θ substitution 720
65.6 Worked problems on integration using the Revision Test 26 Reduction formulae, double
tan θ substitution 721 and triple integrals,
65.7 Worked problems on integration using the and numerical integration 766
sinh θ substitution 722
65.8 Worked problems on integration using the 72 Areas under and between curves 767
cosh θ substitution 723 72.1 Area under a curve 767
xii Contents

72.2 Worked problems on the area under a curve 768 77.4 The solution of equations of the form
72.3 Further worked problems on the area dy
= f (y) 816
under a curve 771 dx
77.5 The solution of equations of the form
72.4 The area between curves 774 dy
= f (x) · f (y) 818
73 Mean and root mean square values 776 dx
73.1 Mean or average values 776 78 Homogeneous first-order differential equations 821
73.2 Root mean square values 778 78.1 Introduction 821
74 Volumes of solids of revolution 781 78.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
dy
74.1 Introduction 781 of the form P =Q 821
dx
74.2 Worked problems on volumes of solids of 78.3 Worked problems on homogeneous
revolution 782 first-order differential equations 822
74.3 Further worked problems on volumes of 78.4 Further worked problems on homogeneous
solids of revolution 784 first-order differential equations 823
75 Centroids of simple shapes 786 79 Linear first-order differential equations 825
75.1 Centroids 786 79.1 Introduction 825
75.2 The first moment of area 786 79.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
75.3 Centroid of area between a curve and the dy
of the form + Py = Q 826
x-axis 787 dx
79.3 Worked problems on linear first-order
75.4 Centroid of area between a curve and the
y-axis 787 differential equations 826
79.4 Further worked problems on linear
75.5 Worked problems on centroids of simple
first-order differential equations 827
shapes 787
75.6 Further worked problems on centroids of 80 Numerical methods for first-order differential
simple shapes 789 equations 830
75.7 Theorem of Pappus 791 80.1 Introduction 830
80.2 Euler’s method 830
76 Second moments of area 795
80.3 Worked problems on Euler’s method 831
76.1 Second moments of area and radius of
80.4 The Euler–Cauchy method 835
gyration 795
80.5 The Runge–Kutta method 839
76.2 Second moment of area of regular sections 795
76.3 Parallel axis theorem 796
Revision Test 28 First-order differential
76.4 Perpendicular axis theorem 796
equations 844
76.5 Summary of derived results 797
76.6 Worked problems on second moments of 81 Second-order differential equations of the form
area of regular sections 797 d2 y dy
76.7 Worked problems on second moments of a 2 + b + cy= 0 845
dx dx
area of composite areas 801 81.1 Introduction 845
81.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
Revision Test 27 Applications of integration 803 d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = 0 846
dx dx
81.3 Worked problems on differential equations
Multiple choice questions Test 8 804 d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = 0 846
dx dx
81.4 Further worked problems on practical
Formulae/revision hints for Section J 806
differential equations of the form
d2 y dy
Section K Differential equations 811 a 2 +b + cy = 0 848
dx dx
82 Second-order differential equations of the form
77 Solution of first-order differential equations d2 y dy
by separation of variables 813 a 2 + b + cy= f (x) 852
dx dx
77.1 Family of curves 813 82.1 Complementary function and particular
77.2 Differential equations 814 integral 852
77.3 The solution of equations of the form 82.2 Procedure to solve differential equations
dy
= f (x) 815 d2 y dy
dx of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x) 853
dx dx
 Contents xiii

82.3 Worked problems on differential equations 86 Mean, median, mode and standard deviation 917
d2 y dy 86.1 Measures of central tendency 917
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x)
dx dx 86.2 Mean, median and mode for discrete data 918
where f (x) is a constant or polynomial 853 86.3 Mean, median and mode for grouped data 919
82.4 Worked problems on differential equations 86.4 Standard deviation 920
d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x) 86.5 Quartiles, deciles and percentiles 922
dx dx
where f (x) is an exponential function 855 87 Probability 924
82.5 Worked problems on differential equations 87.1 Introduction to probability 925
d2 y dy 87.2 Laws of probability 926
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x)
dx dx 87.3 Permutations and combinations 930
where f (x) is a sine or cosine function 857
82.6 Worked problems on differential equations
Revision Test 30 Presentation of statistical data,
d2 y dy
of the form a 2 + b + cy = f (x) mean, median, mode, standard
dx dx deviation and probability 932
where f (x) is a sum or a product 859
83 Power series methods of solving ordinary
88 The binomial and Poisson distributions 934
differential equations 862
88.1 The binomial distribution 934
83.1 Introduction 863
88.2 The Poisson distribution 938
83.2 Higher-order differential coefficients as
series 863 89 The normal distribution 941
83.3 Leibniz’s theorem 865 89.1 Introduction to the normal distribution 941
83.4 Power series solution by the 89.2 Testing for a normal distribution 946
Leibniz–Maclaurin method 866
90 Linear correlation 949
83.5 Power series solution by the Frobenius
90.1 Introduction to linear correlation 949
method 869
90.2 The product-moment formula for
83.6 Bessel’s equation and Bessel’s functions 875
determining the linear correlation
83.7 Legendre’s equation and Legendre coefficient 949
polynomials 880
90.3 The significance of a coefficient of
84 An introduction to partial differential equations 884 correlation 950
84.1 Introduction 885 90.4 Worked problems on linear correlation 950
84.2 Partial integration 885
91 Linear regression 954
84.3 Solution of partial differential equations
91.1 Introduction to linear regression 954
by direct partial integration 885
91.2 The least-squares regression lines 954
84.4 Some important engineering partial
differential equations 887 91.3 Worked problems on linear regression 955
84.5 Separating the variables 888
84.6 The wave equation 888 Revision Test 31 Binomial, Poisson and normal
84.7 The heat conduction equation 892 distributions, correlation and
regression 960
84.8 Laplace’s equation 894

92 Sampling and estimation theories 961

Revision Test 29 Second-order differential
92.1 Introduction 961
equations, power series
92.2 Sampling distributions 961
methods and partial
differential equations 898 92.3 The sampling distribution of the means 962
92.4 The estimation of population parameters
based on a large sample size 965
Formulae/revision hints for Section K 899
92.5 Estimating the mean of a population based
on a small sample size 970
Section L Statistics and probability 903
93 Significance testing 974
85 Presentation of statistical data 905 93.1 Hypotheses 974
85.1 Some statistical terminology 906 93.2 Type I and type II errors 975
85.2 Presentation of ungrouped data 907 93.3 Significance tests for population means 981
85.3 Presentation of grouped data 910 93.4 Comparing two sample means 986
xiv Contents

94 Chi-square and distribution-free tests 991 99.3 Worked problems on solving differential
94.1 Chi-square values 991 equations using Laplace transforms 1047
94.2 Fitting data to theoretical distributions 993
100 The solution of simultaneous differential
94.3 Introduction to distribution-free tests 1000
equations using Laplace transforms 1051
94.4 The sign test 1000
100.1 Introduction 1051
94.5 Wilcoxon signed-rank test 1003
100.2 Procedure to solve simultaneous
94.6 The Mann–Whitney test 1006 differential equations using Laplace
transforms 1051
Revision Test 32 Sampling and estimation 100.3 Worked problems on solving simultaneous
theories, significance testing, differential equations by using Laplace
chi-square and distribution-free transforms 1052
tests 1013
Revision Test 33 Laplace transforms 1057

Multiple choice questions Test 9 1015 Formulae/revision hints for Section M 1058

Formulae/revision hints for Section L 1017 Section N Fourier series 1059

Section M Laplace transforms 1019 101 Fourier series for periodic functions
of period 2π 1061
95 Introduction to Laplace transforms 1021 101.1 Introduction 1061
95.1 Introduction 1021 101.2 Periodic functions 1061
95.2 Definition of a Laplace transform 1021 101.3 Fourier series 1062
95.3 Linearity property of the Laplace 101.4 Worked problems on Fourier series of
transform 1022 periodic functions of period 2π 1063
95.4 Laplace transforms of elementary
functions 1022 102 Fourier series for a non-periodic function over
95.5 Worked problems on standard Laplace range 2π 1067
transforms 1023 102.1 Expansion of non-periodic functions 1067
102.2 Worked problems on Fourier series of
96 Properties of Laplace transforms 1026
non-periodic functions over a range of 2π 1068
96.1 The Laplace transform of eat f (t) 1026
96.2 Laplace transforms of the form eat f (t) 1026 103 Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier
96.3 The Laplace transforms of derivatives 1028 series 1073
96.4 The initial and final value theorems 1030 103.1 Even and odd functions 1073
103.2 Fourier cosine and Fourier sine series 1073
97 Inverse Laplace transforms 1032
103.3 Half-range Fourier series 1077
97.1 Definition of the inverse Laplace transform 1032
97.2 Inverse Laplace transforms of simple 104 Fourier series over any range 1080
functions 1032 104.1 Expansion of a periodic function of
97.3 Inverse Laplace transforms using partial period L 1080
fractions 1035 104.2 Half-range Fourier series for functions
97.4 Poles and zeros 1037 defined over range L 1084
98 The Laplace transform of the Heaviside function 1039 105 A numerical method of harmonic analysis 1086
98.1 Heaviside unit step function 1039 105.1 Introduction 1086
98.2 Laplace transform of H (t − c) 1043 105.2 Harmonic analysis on data given in tabular
98.3 Laplace transform of H (t − c). f (t − c) 1043 or graphical form 1086
98.4 Inverse Laplace transforms of Heaviside 105.3 Complex waveform considerations 1090
functions 1044
106 The complex or exponential form of a Fourier
99 The solution of differential equations using series 1093
Laplace transforms 1046 106.1 Introduction 1093
99.1 Introduction 1046 106.2 Exponential or complex notation 1093
99.2 Procedure to solve differential equations 106.3 The complex coefficients 1094
by using Laplace transforms 1046
 Contents xv

106.4 Symmetry relationships 1098 Formulae/revision hints for Section N 1107

106.5 The frequency spectrum 1101 Answers to practice exercises 1108
106.6 Phasors 1102
Answers to multiple choice questions 1158
Revision Test 34 Fourier series 1106 Index 1159
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

Studying engineering, whether it is mechanical, elec- that readers will gain real understanding through see-
trical, aeronautical, communications, civil, construction ing problems solved and then through solving similar
or systems engineering, relies heavily on an understand- problems themselves.
ing of mathematics. In fact, it is not possible to study The material has been ordered into the following four-
any engineering discipline without a sound knowledge teen convenient categories: number and algebra, fur-
of mathematics. What happens, then, when a student ther number and algebra, areas and volumes, graphs,
realises he/she is very weak at mathematics – an increas- geometry and trigonometry, complex numbers, matrices
ingly common scenario? The answer may hopefully and determinants, vector geometry, differential calcu-
be found in this textbook Understanding Engineering lus, integral calculus, differential equations, statistics
Mathematics which explains as simply as possible the and probability, Laplace transforms and Fourier series.
steps needed to become better at mathematics and hence Each topic considered in the text is presented in a
gain real confidence and understanding in their chosen way that assumes in the reader very little previous
engineering subject. knowledge.
Understanding Engineering Mathematics is an amal- With a plethora of engineering courses worldwide it is
gam of three books – Basic Engineering Mathemat- not possible to have a definitive ordering of material; it
ics, Engineering Mathematics and Higher Engineering is assumed that both students and instructors/lecturers
Mathematics, all currently published by Routledge. The alike will ‘dip in’ to the text according to their particular
point about Understanding Engineering Mathematics course structure.
is that it is all-encompassing. We do not have to think
The text contains some 1500 worked problems, 2750
‘what course does this book apply to?’. The answer
further problems (with answers), arranged within 370
is that it encompasses all courses that include some
Exercises, 255 multiple choice questions arranged
engineering content in their syllabus, from beginning
into 9 tests, 34 Revision Tests, 750 line diagrams and
courses up to degree level.
14 lists of formulae/revision hints.
The primary aim of the material in this text is to provide Worked solutions to all 2750 further problems have
the fundamental analytical and underpinning knowl- been prepared and can be accessed free via the pub-
edge and techniques needed to successfully complete lisher’s website (see below).
scientific and engineering principles modules covering
a wide range of programmes. The material has been At intervals throughout the text are some 34 Revision
designed to enable students to use techniques learned Tests to check understanding. For example, Revision
for the analysis, modelling and solution of realistic engi- Test 1 covers the material in Chapters 1 and 2, Revision
neering problems. It also aims to provide some of the Test 2 covers the material in Chapters 3 to 5, Revi-
more advanced knowledge required for those wishing to sion Test 3 covers the material in Chapters 6 to 8, and
pursue careers in a range of engineering disciplines. In so on.
addition, the text will be suitable as a valuable reference ‘Learning by example’ is at the heart of Understand-
aid to practising engineers. ing Engineering Mathematics.
In Understanding Engineering Mathematics, theory is JOHN BIRD
introduced in each chapter by a full outline of essential Defence School of Marine Engineering
definitions, formulae, laws, procedures, etc. The theory HMS Sultan, formerly
is kept to a minimum, for problem solving is extensively University of Portsmouth and Highbury
used to establish and exemplify the theory. It is intended College, Portsmouth
xviii Preface

Free web downloads via Mathematicians/Engineers involved are: Argand,

[Link] Bessel, Boole, Boyle, Cauchy, Celsius, Charles,
Worked Solutions to Exercises Cramer, de Moivre, de Morgan, Descartes,
Within the text are some 2750 further problems Euler, Fourier, Frobenius, Gauss, Hooke, Kar-
arranged within 370 Exercises. Worked solutions naugh, Kirchhoff, Kutta, Laplace, Legendre,
have been prepared and can be accessed free by Leibniz, L’Hopital, Maclaurin, Napier, New-
students and staff. ton, Ohm, Pappus, Pascal, Poisson, Pythagoras,
Raphson, Rodrigues, Runge, Simpson, Taylor,
Instructor’s manual Wallis and Young.
This provides full worked solutions and mark
scheme for all 34 Revision Tests in this book.
The material is available to lecturers/instructors John Bird is the former Head of Applied Electron-
only. ics in the Faculty of Technology at Highbury College,
Portsmouth, UK. More recently, he has combined free-
Illustrations lance lecturing at the University of Portsmouth with
Lecturers can download electronic files for all 750 Examiner responsibilities for Advanced Mathematics
illustrations within the text. with City and Guilds, and examining for the Interna-
tional Baccalaureate Organisation. He is the author of
Famous Mathematicians/Engineers over 120 textbooks on engineering and mathematical
From time to time in the text, some 38 famous subjects, with worldwide sales of one million copies. He
mathematicians/engineers are referred to and is currently a Senior Training Provider at the Defence
emphasised with an asterisk*. Background infor- School of Marine Engineering in the Defence College of
mation on each of these is available via the website. Technical Training at HMS Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire,
UK.
 Section A
Number and Algebra
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Basic arithmetic
Why it is important to understand: Basic arithmetic
Being numerate, i.e. having an ability to add, subtract, multiply and divide whole numbers with some
confidence, goes a long way towards helping you become competent at mathematics. Of course electronic
calculators are a marvellous aid to the quite complicated calculations often required in engineering;
however, having a feel for numbers ‘in our head’ can be invaluable when estimating. Do not spend too
much time on this chapter because we deal with the calculator later; however, try to have some idea
how to do quick calculations in the absence of a calculator. You will feel more confident in dealing with
numbers and calculations if you can do this.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• understand positive and negative integers

• add and subtract whole numbers
• multiply and divide two integers
• multiply numbers up to 12 × 12 by rote
• determine the highest common factor from a set of numbers
• determine the lowest common multiple from a set of numbers
• appreciate the order of precedence when evaluating expressions
• understand the use of brackets in expressions
• evaluate expressions containing +, −, ×, ÷ and brackets

is needed then some worked problems are included in

1.1 Introduction the following sections.
When unlike signs occur together in a calculation, the
Whole numbers are simply the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
overall sign is negative. For example,
5 . . . (and so on). Integers are like whole numbers,
but they also include negative numbers. +3, +5 and 5 + (−2) = 5 + −2 = 5 − 2 = 3
+72 are examples of positive integers; −13, −6 and 3 + (−4) = 3 + −4 = 3 − 4 = −1
−51 are examples of negative integers. Between pos- and
itive and negative integers is the number 0, which is (+5) × (−2) = −10
neither positive nor negative.
The four basic arithmetic operators are add (+), subtract Like signs together give an overall positive sign. For
(−), multiply (×) and divide (÷). example,
It is assumed that adding, subtracting, multiplying and 3 − (−4) = 3 − −4 = 3 + 4 = 7
dividing reasonably small numbers can be achieved and
without a calculator. However, if revision of this area (−6) × (−4) = +24

Understanding Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66284-0, © 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 4 Understanding Engineering Mathematics

This problem is written as 27 − 74 + 81 − 19

1.2 Revision of addition and
Section A

Adding the positive integers: 27

subtraction 81

You can probably already add two or more numbers Sum of positive integers is 108
together and subtract one number from another. How-
ever, if you need a revision then the following worked Adding the negative integers: 74
problems should be helpful. 19
Sum of negative integers is 93
Problem 1. Determine 735 + 167

HTU 108 + −93 = 108 − 93 and taking the sum

7 3 5 of the negative integers from the sum of
+1 6 7 the positive integers gives 108
−93
9 02
15
1 1
Thus, 27 − 74 + 81 − 19 = 15
(i) 5 + 7 = 12. Place 2 in units (U) column. Carry 1
in the tens (T) column. Problem 4. Subtract −74 from 377
(ii) 3 + 6 + 1 (carried) = 10. Place the 0 in the tens
column. Carry the 1 in the hundreds (H) column. This problem is written as 377 − −74. Like signs
together give an overall positive sign, hence
(iii) 7 + 1 + 1 (carried) = 9. Place the 9 in the hun-
dreds column. 377 − −74 = 377 + 74 377
+ 74
Hence, 735 + 167 = 902
451

Problem 2. Determine 632 − 369 Thus, 377 − −74 = 451

HTU Problem 5. Subtract 243 from 126

6 32
−3 6 9 The problem is 126 − 243. When the second number is
larger than the first, take the smaller number from the
2 6 3
larger and make the result negative. Thus,

(i) 2 − 9 is not possible; therefore change one ten 126 − 243 = −(243 − 126) 243
into ten units (leaving 2 in the tens column). In −126
the units column, this gives us 12 − 9 = 3 117
(ii) Place 3 in the units column.
Thus, 126 − 243 = −117
(iii) 2 − 6 is not possible; therefore change one hun-
dred into ten tens (leaving 5 in the hundreds Problem 6. Subtract 318 from −269
column). In the tens column, this gives us
12 − 6 = 6 The problem is −269 − 318. The sum of the negative
(iv) Place the 6 in the tens column. integers is
(v) 5 − 3 = 2 269
+318
(vi) Place the 2 in the hundreds column.
Hence, 632 − 369 = 263 587

Problem 3. Add 27, −74, 81 and −19 Thus, −269 − 318 = −587
 Basic arithmetic 5

Now try the following Practice Exercise

Section A
16. Figure 1.1 shows the dimensions of a tem-
plate in millimetres. Calculate the diameter
Practice Exercise 1 Further problems on d and dimensions A and B for the template.
addition and subtraction (answers on
page 1108)
In Problems 1 to 15, determine the values of the
expressions given, without using a calculator.
1. 67 kg − 82 kg + 34 kg 1.3 Revision of multiplication and
2. 73 m − 57 m division
3. 851 mm − 372 mm You can probably already multiply two numbers
4. 124 − 273 + 481 − 398 together and divide one number by another. However, if
you need a revision then the following worked problems
5. £927 − £114 + £182 − £183 − £247 should be helpful.
6. 647 − 872
Problem 7. Determine 86 × 7
7. 2417 − 487 + 2424 − 1778 − 4712
HTU
8. −38419 − 2177 + 2440− 799 + 2834 8 6
9. £2715 − £18250 + £11471 − £1509 + × 7
£113274 6 0 2
10. 47 + (−74) − (−23) 4
11. 813 − (−674) (i) 7 × 6 = 42. Place the 2 in the units (U) column
12. 3151 − (−2763) and ‘carry’ the 4 into the tens (T) column.

13. 4872 g − 4683 g (ii) 7 × 8 = 56; 56 + 4 (carried) = 60. Place the 0 in

the tens column and the 6 in the hundreds (H)
14. −23148 − 47724 column.
15. $53774 − $38441 Hence, 86 × 7 = 602
A good grasp of multiplication tables is needed when
110 multiplying such numbers; a reminder of the multiplica-
B
tion table up to 12 × 12 is shown on page 6. Confidence
with handling numbers will be greatly improved if this
table is memorised.
12
Problem 8. Determine 764 × 38
d
764
A × 38
6 112
60
2 2 920
2 9 032

(i) 8 × 4 = 32. Place the 2 in the units column and

50 38 carry 3 into the tens column.
120 (ii) 8 × 6 = 48; 48 + 3 (carried) = 51. Place the 1 in
Figure 1.1 the tens column and carry the 5 into the hundreds
column.
 6 Understanding Engineering Mathematics
Multiplication table
Section A

× 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144

(iii) 8 × 7 = 56; 56 + 5 (carried) = 61. Place 1 in the be solved by multiplying 178 by 46.) Following the
hundreds column and 6 in the thousands column. procedure of Problem 8 gives

(iv) Place 0 in the units column under the 2. This is 178

done because we are multiplying by tens. × 46
(v) 3 × 4 = 12. Place the 2 in the tens column and 1068
carry 1 into the hundreds column. 7120
(vi) 3 × 6 = 18; 18 + 1 (carried) = 19. Place the 9 in 8188
the hundreds column and carry the 1 into the
thousands column.
Thus, 178 × 46 = 8188 and 178 × (−46) = −8188
(vii) 3 × 7 = 21; 21 + 1 (carried) = 22. Place 2 in the
thousands column and 2 in the ten thousands Problem 10. Determine 1834 ÷ 7
column.
(viii) 6112 + 22920 = 29032  262
7 1834
Hence, 764 × 38 = 29032 (i) 7 into 18 goes 2, remainder 4. Place the 2 above
Again, knowing multiplication tables is rather important the 8 of 1834 and carry the 4 remainder to the
when multiplying such numbers. next digit on the right, making it 43.
It is appreciated, of course, that such a multiplication
can, and probably will, be performed using a calculator. (ii) 7 into 43 goes 6, remainder 1. Place the 6 above
However, there are times when a calculator may not be the 3 of 1834 and carry the 1 remainder to the
available and it is then useful to be able to calculate the next digit on the right, making it 14.
‘long way’. (iii)7 into 14 goes 2, remainder 0. Place 2 above the
4 of 1834.
Problem 9. Multiply 178 by −46
1834
Hence, 1834 ÷ 7 = 1834/7 = = 262
7
When the numbers have different signs, the result will The method shown is called short division.
be negative. (With this in mind, the problem can now
 Basic arithmetic 7

Problem 11. Determine 5796 ÷ 12

Section A
6. (a) 288 m ÷ 6 (b) 979 m ÷ 11
1813 896
 483 7. (a) (b)
12 5796 7 16
48 21424
99 8. (a) (b) 15900 ÷ − 15
13
−96
36 88737
9. (a) (b) 46858 ÷ 14
−36 11
00 10. A screw has a mass of 15 grams. Calculate,
(i) 12 into 5 won’t go. 12 into 57 goes 4; place 4 in kilograms, the mass of 1200 such screws
above the 7 of 5796 (1 kg = 1000 g).

(ii) 4 × 12 = 48; place the 48 below the 57 of 5796 11. Holes are drilled 35.7 mm apart in a metal
plate. If a row of 26 holes is drilled, deter-
(iii) 57 − 48 = 9 mine the distance, in centimetres, between
(iv) Bring down the 9 of 5796 to give 99 the centres of the first and last holes.

(v) 12 into 99 goes 8; place 8 above the 9 of 5796 12. A builder needs to clear a site of bricks and
top soil. The total weight to be removed is 696
(vi) 8 × 12 = 96; place 96 below the 99 tonnes. Trucks can carry a maximum load of
(vii) 99 − 96 = 3 24 tonnes. Determine the number of truck
loads needed to clear the site.
(viii) Bring down the 6 of 5796 to give 36
(ix) 12 into 36 goes 3 exactly
(x) Place the 3 above the final 6
(xi) 3 × 12 = 36; Place the 36 below the 36
1.4 Highest common factors and
(xii) 36 − 36 = 0 lowest common multiples
5796
Hence, 5796 ÷ 12 = 5796/12 = = 483
12 When two or more numbers are multiplied together,
The method shown is called long division. the individual numbers are called factors. Thus, a fac-
tor is a number which divides into another number
Now try the following Practice Exercise exactly. The highest common factor (HCF) is the
largest number which divides into two or more numbers
exactly.
Practice Exercise 2 Further problems on For example, consider the numbers 12 and 15.
multiplication and division (answers on The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 (i.e. all the
page 1108) numbers that divide into 12).
Determine the values of the expressions given in The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5 and 15 (i.e. all the numbers
Problems 1 to 9, without using a calculator. that divide into 15).
1 and 3 are the only common factors; i.e. numbers
1. (a) 78 × 6 (b) 124 × 7 which are factors of both 12 and 15.
Hence, the HCF of 12 and 15 is 3 since 3 is the highest
2. (a) £261 × 7 (b) £462 × 9
number which divides into both 12 and 15.
3. (a) 783 kg × 11 (b) 73 kg × 8 A multiple is a number which contains another num-
ber an exact number of times. The smallest num-
4. (a) 27 mm × 13 (b) 77 mm × 12
ber which is exactly divisible by each of two or
5. (a) 448 × 23 (b) 143 × (−31) more numbers is called the lowest common multiple
(LCM).
 8 Understanding Engineering Mathematics

For example, the multiples of 12 are 12, 24, 36, 48, above, and then selecting the largest group of any of the
Section A

60, 72, . . . and the multiples of 15 are 15, 30, 45, factors present. Thus,
60, 75, . . .
60 is a common multiple (i.e. a multiple of both 12 and 12 = 2 × 2 × 3
15) and there are no lower common multiples.
Hence, the LCM of 12 and 15 is 60 since 60 is the 42 = 2 × 3 ×7
lowest number that both 12 and 15 divide into.
Here are some further problems involving the determi- 90 = 2 × 3×3 × 5
nation of HCFs and LCMs.
The largest group of any of the factors present is shown
Problem 12. Determine the HCF of the numbers by the broken lines and are 2 × 2 in 12, 3 × 3 in 90, 5 in
12, 30 and 42 90 and 7 in 42.
Hence, the LCM is 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 1260 and
Probably the simplest way of determining an HCF is to is the smallest number which 12, 42 and 90 will all
express each number in terms of its lowest factors. This divide into exactly.
is achieved by repeatedly dividing by the prime numbers
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, … (where possible) in turn. Thus,
Problem 15. Determine the LCM of the numbers
12 = 2 × 2 × 3 150, 210, 735 and 1365

30 = 2 ×3×5
Using the method shown in Problem 14 above:
42 = 2 ×3×7

The factors which are common to each of the numbers 150 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 5

are 2 in column 1 and 3 in column 3, shown by the
broken lines. Hence, the HCF is 2 × 3; i.e. 6. That is, 210 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7
6 is the largest number which will divide into 12, 30
735 = 3 ×5 × 7×7
and 42.
1365 = 3 ×5 × 7 × 13
Problem 13. Determine the HCF of the numbers
30, 105, 210 and 1155 Hence, the LCM is 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 7 × 7 × 13 =
95550.
Using the method shown in Problem 12:

30 = 2 × 3 × 5 Now try the following Practice Exercise

105 = 3×5×7
Practice Exercise 3 Further problems on
210 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 highest common factors and lowest common
1155 = 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 multiples (answers on page 1108)

The factors which are common to each of the numbers Find (a) the HCF and (b) the LCM of the following
are 3 in column 2 and 5 in column 3. Hence, the HCF groups of numbers.
is 3 × 5 = 15. 1. 8, 12 2. 60, 72
3. 50, 70 4. 270, 900
Problem 14. Determine the LCM of the numbers
12, 42 and 90 5. 6, 10, 14 6. 12, 30, 45
7. 10, 15, 70, 105 8. 90, 105, 300
The LCM is obtained by finding the lowest factors of
each of the numbers, as shown in Problems 12 and 13 9. 196, 210, 462, 910 10. 196, 350, 770
 Basic arithmetic 9

(a) 2 + 3 = 3 + 2; i.e. the order of numbers when

Section A
1.5 Order of operation and brackets adding does not matter.
1.5.1 Order of operation (b) 2 × 3 = 3 × 2; i.e. the order of numbers when
multiplying does not matter.
Sometimes addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi-
sion, powers and brackets may all be involved in a (c) 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4; i.e. the use of brackets
calculation. For example, when adding does not affect the result.
(d) 2 × (3 × 4) = (2 × 3) × 4; i.e. the use of brackets
5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ (3 + 5) − 32
when multiplying does not affect the result.
This is an extreme example but will demonstrate the (e) 2 × (3 + 4) = 2(3 + 4) = 2 × 3 + 2 × 4; i.e. a
order that is necessary when evaluating. number placed outside of a bracket indicates
When we read, we read from left to right. However, that the whole contents of the bracket must be
with mathematics there is a definite order of precedence multiplied by that number.
which we need to adhere to. The order is as follows:
(f ) (2 + 3)(4 + 5) = (5)(9) = 5 × 9 = 45; i.e. adja-
Brackets cent brackets indicate multiplication.
Order (or pOwer) (g) 2[3 + (4 × 5)] = 2[3 + 20] = 2 × 23 = 46; i.e.
Division when an expression contains inner and outer
Multiplication brackets, the inner brackets are removed
Addition first.
Subtraction
Here are some further problems in which BODMAS
Notice that the first letters of each word spell BOD- needs to be used.
MAS, a handy aide-mémoire. Order means pOwer. For
example, 42 = 4 × 4 = 16.
5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ (3 + 5) − 32 is evaluated as Problem 16. Find the value of 6 + 4 ÷ (5 − 3)
follows:
The order of precedence of operations is remembered
5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ (3 + 5) − 32 by the word BODMAS. Thus,
= 5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ 8 − 32 (Bracket is removed and
6 + 4 ÷ (5 − 3) = 6 + 4 ÷ 2 (Brackets)
3 + 5 replaced with 8)
=6+2 (Division)
= 5 − 3 × 4 + 24 ÷ 8 − 9 (Order means pOwer; in
=8 (Addition)
this case, 32 = 3 × 3 = 9)
= 5−3×4+3−9 (Division: 24 ÷ 8 = 3)
= 5 − 12 + 3 − 9 (Multiplication: − 3 × 4 = −12) Problem 17. Determine the value of
= 8 − 12 − 9 (Addition: 5 + 3 = 8) 13 − 2 × 3 + 14 ÷ (2 + 5)

= −13 (Subtraction: 8 − 12 − 9 = −13)

In practice, it does not matter if multiplication is per- 13 − 2 × 3 + 14 ÷ (2 + 5) = 13 − 2 × 3 + 14 ÷ 7 (B)

formed before division or if subtraction is performed = 13 − 2 × 3 + 2 (D)
before addition. What is important is that the pro-
cess of multiplication and division must be completed = 13 − 6 + 2 (M)
before addition and subtraction. = 15 − 6 (A)
=9 (S)
1.5.2 Brackets and operators
Problem 18. Evaluate
The basic laws governing the use of brackets and
16 ÷(2 + 6) + 18[3 + (4 × 6) − 21]
operators are shown by the following examples.
 10 Understanding Engineering Mathematics

16 ÷ (2 + 6) + 18[3 + (4 × 6) − 21] 15 5 + 14 − 1
= +
Section A

3 6+8−9+1
= 16 ÷ (2 + 6) + 18[3 + 24 − 21] (B: inner bracket
is determined first) 18
=5+
= 16 ÷ 8 + 18 × 6 (B) 6
= 2 + 18 × 6 (D) =5+3=8
= 2 + 108 (M)
= 110 (A) Now try the following Practice Exercise

Note that a number outside of a bracket multiplies all Practice Exercise 4 Further problems on
that is inside the brackets. In this case, order of precedence and brackets (answers
on page 1108)
18[3 + 24 − 21] = 18[6], which means 18 × 6 = 108
Evaluate the following expressions.
1. 14 + 3 × 15
Problem 19. Find the value of
(144 ÷ 4) 2. 17 − 12 ÷ 4
23 − 4(2 × 7) +
(14 − 8) 3. 86 + 24 ÷ (14 − 2)
4. 7(23 − 18) ÷ (12 − 5)
(144 ÷ 4) 36
23 − 4(2 × 7) + = 23 − 4 × 14 + (B) 5. 63 − 8(14 ÷ 2) + 26
(14 − 8) 6
36 40
= 23 − 56 + (M) 6. − 42 ÷ 6 + (3 × 7)
6 5
= 23 − 56 + 6 (50 − 14)
(D) 7. + 7(16 − 7) − 7
3
= 29 − 56 (A) (7 − 3)(1 − 6)
8.
= −27 (S) 4(11 − 6) ÷ (3 − 8)
(3 + 9 × 6) ÷ 3 − 2 ÷ 2
9.
Problem 20. Evaluate 3 × 6 + (4 − 9) − 32 + 5
   
3 + 52 − 32 + 23 15 ÷ 3 + 2 × 7 − 1 4 × 32 + 24 ÷ 5 + 9 × 3
+ √ 10. +
1 + (4 × 6) ÷ (3 × 4) 3 × 4 + 8 − 32 + 1 2 × 32 − 15 ÷ 3

2 + 27 ÷ 3 + 12 ÷ 2 − 32
  5 + (13 − 2 × 5) − 4
3+ 52 − 32 + 23 15 ÷ 3 + 2 × 7 − 1
+ √ √
1 + (4 × 6) ÷ (3 × 4) 3 × 4 + 8 − 32 + 1 1+ 25 + 3 × 2 − 8 ÷ 2
11.   −
3+4+8 15 ÷ 3 + 2 × 7 − 1 3 × 4 − 32 + 42 + 1
= +
1 + 24 ÷ 12 3×2+8−9+1
(4 × 2 + 7 × 2) ÷ 11
3+4+8 5+2×7−1 √
= + 9 + 12 ÷ 2 − 23
1+2 3×2+8−9+1

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 1 to 4 in this chapter,
go to the website:
[Link]/cw/bird