TOPIC 1.

0: AN INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING-

DURATION 6 HOURS
1.1 Topic Objectives
By the end of the topic you will be expected to;
1. Define guidance.
2. Define counselling.
3. Differentiate between guidance and counselling.
4. Explain the historical development of guidance and counselling.
Read the following section which contains PDF lecture notes on the topic of introduction
to guidance and counselling.
1.2: AN INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
The terms guidance and counselling are mostly used interchangeably, whereby most people
assume they mean the same thing, but as per the definitions given by different authors as
psychologists, we should be in a position to differentiate them.
1.2.1 Definitions of Terms: Guidance and Counselling
The term counselling has been defined differently by different people, some of the definitions
given by different authors are given below.
A way of relating and responding to another person, so that the person is helped to explore
her/his thoughts, feelings and behaviors to reach a clearer self understanding and then is
helped to find and use her/his strengths so that he/she copes more effectively with life by
making appropriate decisions or taking relevant action. (Inskipp and John 1984).
It is helping process that uses the safety engendered by a special kind of relationship to help
individuals to get access to a greater part of their personal resources as a mean of responding
to the challenges of life. It uses specific skills and techniques in that relationship to help
people become more competent, more contented and more creative. It does not deal primarily
with the mentally ill but with normal individuals facing all the difficulties involved in
domestic, work oriented and social life. It is about helping people grow in emotional fitness
and healthy. (McGuiness, 1998).
Therefore, counseling is the process of establishing a relationship to identify people’s needs,
design, strategies and services to satisfy these needs, and actively assist in carrying out plans
to help people make decisions, solve problems, develop self awareness, and lead healthier
lives. Thus counseling refers to a wide selection of services and activities that counselors
choose to help people prevent disabling events focus on and develop human potential and
remedy difficult situations.
Guidance is a process developmental in nature by which an individual is assisted to
understand, accept and utilize his/her abilities, aptitudes, interests’ and attitudinal patterns in
relation to his/her aspirations.

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Guidance is a process that consists of a group of services to individuals to assist them in
securing knowledge and skills needed in making adequate choices, plans, and interpretations
essential to satisfactory adjustment in a variety of areas. These services are designed to result
to efficiency in areas which require the individual to make adjustments in order to be an
effective member of society.

Shertzer and Stone (1976) define guidance as “a process of helping individuals to understand
themselves and their world”. When a person understands who he or she is and his or her
environment, positive adjustment will take place. Thus, guidance is seen and used as a
generic label, an umbrella that covers all the means whereby an institution identifies and
responds to the individuals needs no matter is source to help the client develop his or her
maximum potentials and be able to face life challenges.

Bulus (1990) defined guidance as assistance made available to an individual by personally

qualified and adequately trained men/or women to an individual of any age to help him
manage his own life, activities, develop his own points of view, make his own decisions and
carry his own burdens.

Durojaiye (1972) in Bulus (1990) defines guidance as a complex process which

emcompasses the total needs of the individual student to be directed or guided. This guide
is also applicable to the individuals educational, social, moral, emotional, health and
leisure time needs, and for the individuals preparation for a suitable career in future.

Guidance and counseling is therefore an important service in educational institutions because

it contributes to the self knowledge, determination, realization, acceptance and self
development of the individual by identifying his/her abilities, interests, attitudes, values,
potentialities and developing item to the fullest.
1.2.2: Differences between Guidance and Counselling
Writers in most cases find it difficult to distinguish between the two words. According
to Shertzer and stone(1976), the attempt to differentiate between guidance and
counseling has not met with any measure of success because it is difficult to make
distinctions between the two terms. On the basis of similarities, the terms could be
interpreted to mean the same thing because in terms of peoples’ welfare the two words are
out to achieve the same goals. Although they are both educational services but
contextually, they can be differentiated. The table below shows some differences
between the two terms.

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Table 1: Comparison between Guidance and Counselling
S/N COUNSELLING GUIDANCE
1. Student (client) directed. Counsellor directed. Locus of
Locus of control moves toward control remains with the Tutor
student (client). This (Counsellor).
means the client is more involved
at every stage in counselling.
2. The Tutor (Counsellor) is a The Tutor (Counsellor) is
facilitator /enabler. He is not information/advice giver.

3. Client and Counsellor jointly Counsellor determines

negotiate a contract about objectives and methods.
agenda and methodology.
4. Client participates in assessing Assessment/diagnosis and
needs and evaluating progress. evaluation is in the domain of
the counsellor.

5. Concern is with the process of Concern is with decision

decision-making. (decision seen as product).
Understanding how decision is The way it is reached is not
reached is as important as the regarded as especially significant.
6. Learning is seen as Learning is seen as specific to
transferable. What is learnt in the problem in question.
one context is seen utilizable in
another e.g. the learning of
a skill such as breaking down
7. problem intois its seen
Learning component
as parts.
an Feelings are not regarded as
emotional as well as a important in learning.
cognitive process. This means
the behaviour and the thinking
8. Learning about a subject is Learning about a subject is not
seen as involving a process of seen as involving self
learning about self. discovery.

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1.2.3: Historical Development of Guidance and Counseling
The counseling profession entered the U.S. schoolhouse in the early twentieth century. Up to
that time, classroom teachers provided whatever social, personal or career assistance students
needed.
The school counseling profession began as a vocational guidance movement that emerged
from the industrial Revolution at the beginning of the twentieth century. Some negative by-
products of the tremendous industrial growth of the period were city slums, ethnic ghettos
and apparent neglect of individual rights and integrity. In response to these conditions,
proponents of the Progressive Movement, a reaction to the negative effects of industrial
growth, advocated for social reform. Vocational guidance was one aspect of this response.
Generally, the guidance movement of this period instructed school children, adolescents, and
young adults about their moral development, interpersonal relationships, and the world of
work. Jesse B. Davis is thought to be the first person to implement a systematic guidance
program in the public schools (Gladding, 2000). From 1898 to 1907, he was a class counselor
at Central High School in Detroit, Michigan, and was responsible for educational and
vocational counseling with eleventh-grade boys and girls. Davis became Principal of a high
school in Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1907 and at that time began a school wide guidance
program. He encouraged his English teachers to include guidance lessons in their
composition classes to help students develop character, avoid problem behaviors, and relate
vocational interests to curriculum subjects.

Frank Parsons is often mentioned as the ‘’Father of Guidance’’ and is credited by most
historians as the person who began the guidance movement in the United States. In 1908,
Parsons organized the Boston Vocational Bureau to provide assistance for young people. The
bureau was based on Parson’s ideas and plans for vocational guidance, which stressed a
scientific approach to selecting a career (Gysbers and Henderson, 2000).
Parsons’ attention to vocational development was framed by his concern about society’s
failure to develop resources and services for human growth and development. At the same
time, he was concerned about helping young men make the transition from their school years
into the world of work. In
his book “Choosing a Vocation”, which was published after his death, Parsons (1909)
highlighted three essential factors for choosing an appropriate vocation: (1) clear self-
understanding of one’s aptitudes, abilities, interest, resources and limitations; (2) knowledge
of the requirements, advantages, disadvantages and compensation for different types of
employment; and (3) an understanding of the relationship between these two groups of facts.
This conceptualization of successful career development still holds credence today. Self-
understanding and knowledge of one’s career interests go hand in hand for a person to be
successful in life.

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Parson’s plan also includes training counselors to help young students with vocational
development. Nine months after establishing the vocational bureau, he began a program
designed to train young men to become vocational counselors and managers of vocational
bureaus for YMCAs, schools, colleges, and businesses throughout the country (Miller, 1968).
A few years later, the School Committee of Boston created the first counselor certification
program. Requirements for this school counselor’s certificate included study of educational
and experience in a vocational school or a vocational service. This certification program was
eventually adopted by Harvard University as the first college-based counselor education
[Link] Parsons’s work had a significant impact on the vocational guidance
movement. In Boston, the superintendent of schools designated over 100 elementary and
secondary teachers to become vocational counselors (Nugent, 2000). Emergence of Guidance
and Counseling in Schools

The work of Jesse Davis, Anna Reed, Eli Weaver, Frank Parsons, and a host of other
pioneers created the momentum for the development of a school counseling profession.
Coincidentally, many of these developments, with their roots founded in the vocational
guidance movement, raised questions about the profession’s narrow focus on vocational
development. Eventually, some leaders of the counseling movement began to encourage a
broader focus that included issues of personality and human development beyond vocational
guidance. This broader view laid the groundwork for many of the counseling theories and
approaches that were created in the years that followed.

Before World War II

After the vocational guidance movement of the early 1900s, World War I was the next major
event that had an impact on the developing counseling profession. During the First World
War, the United States military began using group-training procedures to screen and classify
draftees. Intelligence testing, developed in the beginning of the decade, was the catalyst for
his movement. In particular, work begun by French psychologist Alfred Binet, and later
expanded by Lewis Terman and Arthur Otis, was adapted by the military. Arthur Otis
developed an intelligence test that could be given to large groups and administered by
unskilled examiners.
Nevertheless, the military’s interest in using group measurement techniques was embraced by
schools and the education profession when the war ended. The potential for applying testing
and other measurement techniques to pupil assessment helped catapult the development and
expansion of standardized testing in United States schools.
The 1920s also saw the rise of progressive education in the schools. This movement,
introduced by John Dewey, emphasized the school’s role in guiding students in their
personal, social, and moral development (Nugent 2000). As a result schools began in co-
operating guidance activities in to the curriculum for the purpose of developing skills for
living (Brewer, 1932). This movement was short-lived and was criticized by parents, teachers
and others for been too permissive and anti-educational.

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The late 1930s saw the first theory of guidance and counseling called Trait and Factor theory,
developed by Williamson at the University of Minnesota. Using Parson’s vocational program
as a spring board, Williamson and his colleagues became reading advocates for what became
known as the directive or counselor centered approach to school counseling. In this book
“How to Counsel Students” Williamson (1939) note that counselors should state their point
of view with definiteness attempting through exposition to enlighten the student. In this direct
approach counselors were expected to dispense the information and gather data to influence
and motivate student.
Later Williamson softened this view to some degree. In 1958 he wrote that the counselor is
responsible for helping the student become more sophisticated, more matured in
understanding the value option that he faces and to identify clearly those that he refers. At the
same time the directive approach maintained that counselors could not give complete
freedom of choice to students who were not capable of making the best decisions for
themselves. According to this view counselors were obliged to protect the interest of society,
the school as an institution, and the student. Williamson believed that the development of
individuality on the part of student must be balanced with concern for self destructive and
anti-social behaviors.
Counselors and psychologists alike echoed this concern and stressed that vocational choice is
simply one of many developmental issues with which counselors should assist students.
These views began to broaden the goals of guidance and counseling in education. As a result,
resurgence in school counseling began.

World War II to the Space Age

The 1940s saw major changes in the counseling profession, and these developments had
significant impact on the practice of counseling in schools. Among the influences during this
period, three major events seem to have shaped these developments: (1) the popularity of the
client-centered approach to counseling developed by Carl Rogers: (2) the onset and impact of
World War II on U.S. society; and (3) government involvement in the counseling and
education professions after the war. In addition, organizational changes within the profession
and emerging theoretical models of counseling were significant and direction of the
counseling profession.
The Rogerian influence. Roger’s gave new direction to the profession by focusing on the
helping relationships established between counselors and their clients and by recognizing the
importance of personal development in these relationships. This focus moved the profession
away from the counselor-centered perspectives of earlier items and emphasized a growth-
oriented counseling relationship as opposed to an informational and problem solving one.
Opinions about Roger’s influence on the school counseling profession are not uniformly
favorable. Wittmer (2000b) noted that inordinate attention placed on the individual by the
client-centered approach ‘’somehow took us off-track in school counselor preparation and
may h ave contributed to the inappropriate training of many school counselors’’. In
particular, the emphasis on individual counseling processes tended to neglect preventive and
developmental interventions needed in school environments. Nevertheless, the impact of
Roger’s work on counseling practices both in and out of schools was remarkable.

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World War II and Government Influence
Two other events that influenced the counseling profession during this period were World
War II and increased government involvement in the counseling and psychology professions.
As the United States entered the war, the government requested assistance from counselors
and psychologists to help in screening, selecting and training military and industrial
specialists. After the war, the Veterans Administration (VA) provided funds for graduate
students to become trained as counselors and psychologists. About this time, the term
counseling psychologist emerged in VA specifications, further distinguishing psychology
from vocational guidance (Gladding, 2000).
Another example of governmental influence in the counseling profession was the George-
Barden Act of 1946. This legislation provided funds to develop and support guidance and
counseling activities in schools and other settings. For the first time in history, school
counselors and state and local supervisors received resource, leadership, and financial support
from the government. This action fueled the start of a period of rapid growth for guidance
and counseling services in schools.

The Twenty-First Century: A Search for Professional Identity

In recent years, many authors have stressed the importance of counselors’ creating a clear
identity and purpose for the role in schools (Gladding, 2000; Myrick, 1997; Vacc and Loesch,
2000). Despite this encouragement, uncertainty about the school counselor’s role continues as
a major professional issue and obstacle. In some respects, this is due to the continued
confusion regarding the term guidance and its use in describing guidance counselors,
guidance services, guidance programs, and guidance personnel. The failure of school
counselors to choose and use a consistent language in describing who they are and what they
do has contributed to a lack of consistent focus on their role and functions.
Another factor that has contributed to the identity dilemma of school counselors is reluctance
within the counseling profession itself to recognize school counselors as trained professionals
on equal footing with counselors in other work settings. School counselors often fail to
embrace the self- perception that they are highly trained, capable, ‘’real counselors.’’
The historical perspective in this chapter is intended to enhance your understanding and
appreciation of contemporary school counseling practices and trends. The future of school
counseling as a profession depends on the ability of counselors to become an integral part of
the school setting while maintaining their unique role and contribution to student welfare and
development. To accomplish this goal, effective counselors identify their role; select
appropriate functions; plan programs of services for students, parents, and teachers;
strengthen their professional development; and evaluate their effectiveness in schools.

Development of Guidance and Counselling Services in Kenya

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The need for Guidance and Counselling Services in Kenya became more important in the
early 1960s when the country was anticipating independence. There was need to train human-
power and vocational guidance was part and parcel of this preparation.
At the end of 1962, the Ministry of Labour in collaboration with the Ministry of Education
came up with a plan to offer vocational guidance with the help of career masters in schools.
In 1964 and again in 1970 it was recommended by the FORD Foundation report that all
career masters and school libraries should be supplied with a comprehensive career
guidebook. In 1965, the Ministry of Labour produced a booklet called ‘’Choosing Careers.’’
The book gave information on career selection to secondary school students.
In 1967, Guidance and Counseling Services was introduced in Kenya under the Ministry of
Education. It was to be coordinated and supervised from the head office. Its main objective
was to come up with definite recommendations on how guidance and counseling could
support all learning activities of students.
In 1967, the ministry of labour produced another booklet entitled ‘helping you to choose a
career’. The booklet aimed at finding out what careers were available in government and
private sector. It was also to help school leavers to get started on careers they could succeed
in. In 1970, a career guidance hand book was launched ‘’careers guidance for Kenya’’. This
book was revised in 1971. In July 1971 the guidance and counseling section was moved to
inspectorate section. Since its inception, the Guidance and Counselling unit has been
responsible for organizing in service courses, seminars, conferences and workshops for both
teachers (career masters) and heads of schools. At the same time the head office carries out
regular routine supervisory and advisory visits to all schools.
The unit also prepares and disseminate guidance resource materials for teacher counselors
e.g. a hand book for guidance and counseling which covers aspects of guidance and
counseling such as classification and description of career and training opportunities open to
school leavers. The book gives information on career selection for secondary school students.
Guidance and counseling has been the concern of some of the education commissions. In
1976 for instance, the Gachathi Report recommended that the Ministry of Education expand
its services to include guidance and counseling services. The head-teacher of each school was
to assign a member of staff to be responsible for providing information on guidance and
counseling to all stakeholders’, teachers and parents inclusive. It was recommended that each
school was to build and use cumulative record of students’ academic performance, home
background, aptitudes and interests
and special problems to facilitate guidance and counseling. The report also recommended the
establishment of courses at the university for training professional workers in guidance and
counseling.
The Kamunge report (1988) further recommended that schools should establish guidance and
counseling services with senior teachers being responsible for them. This policy still stands as
noted below:
It is the responsibility of the head-teacher to ensure that Guidance and Counseling Services
are offered to the pupils. Each school should establish a guidance and counseling committee

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headed by a teacher appointed by the head teacher (Ministry of Education, Human Resource
Development, (MEHRD), 1999).
The Presidential Committee on students’ unrest and indiscipline in Kenya Secondary School,
(September 2001) in its report shows that the above directive has not been implemented in
most schools. At the same time, the Ministry does not have a strong guidance and counseling
division to coordinate all the activities of guidance and counseling in the country. The
division needs to be equipped with relevant personnel and resources to facilitate its function.

1.3 ASSIGNMENT
 Differentiate between guidance and counselling.
 Briefly describe the contribution of different commissions in the
establishment of guidance and counselling program in Kenyan schools.

TOPIC 2.0 PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING-DURATION 3

HOURS
2.1 Topic Objectives
By the end of the topic you will be expected to;
1. Describe principles of guidance and counselling.
2. Explain how the proper application of the principles on indiviuals with needs
would impact on adjustment and proper development.
3. Discuss the goals of guidance and counselling.
Read the following section which contains PDF lecture notes on the topic of principles of
guidance and counselling
2.2: Principles of Guidance and Counselling
This topic will shed light on the basic principles of guidance and counselling which a
counsellor should strive to uphold to ensure well adjustment of counselee. It will further held
in understanding the goals the process is supposed to help clients/counselees achieve.

2.2.1: Basic Principles of Guidance and Counselling

The basic principles of guidance and counseling as accepted by most authorities in the field
of guidance and counseling are described as follows:

(1) Guidance and Counseling is for everyone. The service is not only for those with
special handicaps but it is also meant for all “normal”, developing children and adults.

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(2) Guidance and Counseling activities should therefore be based on the need and total
development of every person. It is the duty of all personnel in a setting to identify the
needs of individuals so that programme activities can be designed to meet such needs;

(3) Guidance and Counseling must be provided in a way that ensures human dignity
and worth. The full and adequate development of the individual must be given preference.
It should be seen as encouraging individuals to attain maximum satisfaction, to
realize their potentials and to be aware to self. No one who has gone through counseling
should feel inadequate;

(4) Guidance and Counseling is a sequential, continuous and developmental

process, which starts from birth to death. This means that guidance and counseling
runs from the nursery school through primary, secondary to the tertiary institutions. It is
not a once- and-for-all event but a process which is an integral part of the total educational
programme throughout the school life of an individual;

(5) There is a close relationship between counseling activities and the instructional
process, each contributing to the other. Counseling can help make the instructional
activities to be more relevant and meaningful to the needs of students, while the
instructional activities can help to give necessary information and directives to a student in
planning his/her life goals;

(6) All guidance activities must emphasize the will for each student to learn more about
himself in an accurate and systematic manner. Through the use of well-planned
instructional strategies and appraisal techniques, individuals can become more
knowledgeable about themselves and about the world around them. Without such
knowledge, an individual cannot exercise intelligently the rights to free choice in
educational, vocational and personal-social fields.

(7) Every member of staff in a school and non-school setting should assume
responsibility for guidance activities. The principal, teachers and counselors are all
members of the guidance team and each member has prescribed functions and roles.

(8) Effective leadership is the watchword for any effective guidance and counseling
programme. Guidance counselors who are qualified, well- trained and competent are
expected to function in schools and other settings. Such professionals would be able to enlist
the support of staff members in effecting guidance activities.

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(9) The practitioners should practice within ethical and moral limits. The ethical and
moral guidelines should be such that clients would feel secure and confident in using the
services provided. This also guarantees that counselors will not use techniques and/or
approaches for which they do not have competence; and

(10) The objectives of counseling should be based on clients’ needs and not on the needs of
the counselors. In pursuing such needs of the client, the counselors must present a positive
image.

2.2.2: Goals of Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counselling services must be goal driven and purposeful. The goals include:

1. Development goals.

These are the goals wherein the client is assisted in meeting his anticipated human
growth and development (emotional, cognitive and physical wellness)
e.g. menarche in girls and spermache in boys and challenges in these transitions.

2. Preventive goals.

Prevention is a goal in which the counselor helps the students to avoid some
undesired outcome. There are three levels of prevention, that is, primary
intervention before problem sets it, secondary intervention, after problem has set
in but it has not become chronic or severe and tertiary when the problem is there
already and intervention may be to rehabilitate, that is, to make the problem less
incapacitating.

3. Enhancement goals.

If the student possesses special skills and abilities, enhancement mean they can be
identified and further developed through the assistance of a counselor.

4. Remedial goals.

This involves assisting a counselee to overcome and treat an undesirable

development.

5. Exploratory goals.

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 Exploration presents goals appropriate to the examining of options, testing of skills
and trying new and different activities, environment, relationship etc.

6. Reinforcement goals.

This is used in the instance where students need help in recognizing that what they are
doing, thinking and feeling is ok.

7. Cognitive goals.

Cognition involves acquiring the basic foundations of learning and cognitive skills.

8. Physiological goals.

It involves acquiring the basic understandings and habits for good health.

9. Psychological goals.

Aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning, emotional control, developing a
positive self concept etc.

2.3 ASSIGNMENT
 Identify a situation in a school situation that may require your expertise as a
counsellor and state the goal or goals the situation would help the situation
achieve.

TOPIC 3.0 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER COUNSELLOR-

DURATION 3 HOURS
3.1 Topic Objectives
By the end of the topic you will be expected to;
1. Discuss the qualities of an effective counsellor.
2. Explain how these counsellor’s qualities impact on the counselling process.
Read the following section which contains PDF lecture notes on the topic of qualities of
an effective teacher counsellor.

TOPIC 3.2 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER COUNSELLOR

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A counsellor is involved in a helping process and in some cases the clients share very
important and confidential information. The counsellors should therefore portray some
characteristics which will make clients comfortable to share their concerns with them. These
characteristics include:
 Sincere and genuine interest in each student’s development as a person. It is
this interest which will lead the students to confide in him/her.
 Commitment to a program providing conditions for that development. An
effective teacher counselor should be willing and committed to serve others.
 Warm outgoing person who can inspire the confidence of students and the
support of fellow staff member. He/she should be friendly warm and
approachable. One should be willing to help students even at odd hours.
 Good public relations that is, able to relate with parents, students, staff and
community.
 Initiative so as to be able to develop new areas of services as needed.
 Organizational ability to establish priorities for there will be many demands
on his time. An effective teacher counselor needs to demonstrate leadership
and organizational ability to communicate with people of all levels.
 A person of mature judgment. He/she need to be mature, emotionally stable
in character, responsible and tolerable.

 Creativity. Since every individual is unique in ones own way, the counselor
has to use his/her creative ability to understand and meet the client’s needs.
 Flexible and non-judgmental. An effective counselor needs to have an
ability and willingness to change, to modify and to amend according to
what the situation calls for. This is because there is no fixed way or
approach of dealing with various students in need of guidance and
counseling. An effective counselor assesses the situation of the client and
take appropriate approach to meet his/her needs.
 Self knowledge. An effective counselor should understand the self. He/she
must know what and who he/she is, the personal biases, commitments,
vulnerable spots, weaknesses, strengths, fears, defenses, and ones impact on
others. Only in as much as one is aware of the dimensions of oneself will
he/she be able to use “self” to benefit others.
 Growth oriented. An effective counselor must be committed to the
continued search for knowledge and self awareness. One should be

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 interested in reading new theories and applying them in counseling. One
should be involved in continuous personal and professional development.
The counselor must be knowledgeable as clients respect counselors who
have something to offer them.
 Objectivity. Effective counselor should be objective and not subjective in
evaluating problems of the client. He/she should show respect for the
decisions made by the client without imposing his/her decisions to the
student.
 Honesty - A counselor should be honest, conveying both positive and negative
honesty.
 Strength - Should be strong to say difficult things, make unpopular choices and
remain separate from the client.
 Confidentiality; a counsellor should know that information shared during
counselling should not be shared unless in conditions given when confidentiality
rule should be broken.
 unconditional positive regard-: counsellor should love and appreciate their clients
unconditionally.

3.3 ASSIGNMENT

 Discuss the key qualities of a counsellor that would make you open up and share
your personal problems with him/her.

MAJOR COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES-DURATION 3 HOURS

4.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

5. Describe different techniques used in counselling.

6. Apply different techniques in counselling.

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Read the following section which contains PDF lecture notes on the topic of major
counselling techniques.

4.2: MAJOR COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES

Technique can be defined as methods or ways of doing something or performing an act

efficiently. Another word which carries similar meaning with technique is strategy that
the Counsellor uses in a counselling encounter. Techniques are usefully acquired
through training by the professional Counsellor to assist their clients understand and solve
their daily problems. It is therefore basic that the acquisition and use of techniques in
counselling helps to distinguish a professional Counsellor from someone who is not trained
but who tries to practice counselling. There are as many examples of Counselling technique
as there are approaches or theories in Counselling. Examples of some of the approaches or
theories are psychoanalysis, Behavioura therapy, Rational Emotive Therapy,
Transactional Analysis, Gestalt, Logo therapy, Client-cantered, Adlerian and Trait
and Factor. While each approach is unique and distinguishable from the others, there still
exists relationship among them because they are all tended towards helping the clients to
understand himself and lead a well adjusted life. It is therefore the technique in each of the
approaches that often shows which of the approaches is being employed in practice.
However, there are some techniques that cut across some counselling approaches while
some may be closely connect to some approaches.

Listening: Listening is a very crucial technique in the counselling relationship. It involves

every part of the body i.e. eyes, voice, ears and hears. Listening is often regarded as the
foundation stone upon which other lards of helping service are built. Active listening
conveys to clients that they are valued by the counsellor. If the counsellors do not listen
attentively, they may not be able to hear and understand what their client’s problems are and
observe the exact nature of both the verbal and non- verbal responses by their client.
Adedipe (1997) states that listening is far from the passive state which some people think it to
be. Active listening is a skill of great sophistication, which is available to all counsellors.

The use of listening as a technique means being able to communicate understanding of the
client’s problems, meaning of content. Similarly, it means being able to show to the
client that you understand how he feels particularly to show the client that you have an
idea of the impact of the existing problems on his psychological well - being.

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Responding: This is a technique of counselling that involves the counsellor’s verbal
and non-verbal reactions to the problems presented by the client. Responding is very
crucial in the helping relationship. It is important to mention that adequate response
depends on the counsellor’s attentive and understanding skills. It is important for the
counsellor to respond promptly and adequately to the client’s verbal and non-verbal
communications. With appropriate and useful response, it is likely that the client would be
able to get help in understanding his problems and be able to take positive actions towards the
solution of his problems. It is essential that counsellors should be able to respond to the
contents feeling and the meaning of the client’s expression if he, the counsellor would
provide effective assistance to the client.

Questioning: This technique helps the Counsellor in probing and thereby explores the
problem being presented by the client. It helps to bring to fore, some important fact that
will assist in promoting an effective discussion in the interpersonal relationship between the
client and the counsellor. Questioning readily helps the client in identifying and having
clearer understanding of his problem. Open ended questions are preferred to close ended
questions as they text to elicit more information as compared to close ended ones.

Restatement: This involves a process in which the Counsellor having heard and understood
what the client said, he (the Counsellor) repeats what was said for the sake of clarification.
Specifically, restatement assists the counsellor and the client to reach a lard of mutual
understanding of true nature of the problem as it represents the mind of the client. It
also accords the client the opportunity of explaining further if what he said was not
properly heard or understood by the counsellor.

When the counsellor restates the client’s problem, the client is thereby reassured of the
counsellor’s attentiveness and ability to follow with the client’s explanation.
According to Adedipe (1997), he opines that, although it is important for the counsellor to
maintain a listening role, there are certain kinds of responses which communicate not only
that, the counsellor is listening, but also that the counsellor is a person with an active role.
The restatement is one of these responses. An example is the following interaction:

Client: “I don’t know whether to stay in school or to drop out and get a job but if I do, I
don’t know what kind of job I can find”

Counsellor: “You are wandering whether to stay in school or to drop out and work;

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Assuring: Assuring as a counselling technique, demands that a counsellor
makes a conscious effort to gain the client’s confidence in the process of assisting him to
solve his (client’s) problem. The counsellor exhibits a personal quality, which makes the
client to trust and rely on the counsellor as a worthy provider of assistance that can solve his
problem.

Silence: This technique involves sudden cessation or suspension of sound by both

the counsellor and the client temporarily. It is important for the counsellor to know the
appropriate time and way of using silence if not it can be mistaken for his inability of
knowing what to say. In case the counsellor does not know a lot to say when silence is
applied, he could make

statements such as: 7

 You must be deeply touched by your problems.

 Are you thinking of a better way to state your problems?
 You are not sure; you should discuss certain aspect of your problem with me.

These statements will enable the client to know that you are still in the process of helping him
to follow through his problem.

Self-disclosure: This technique refers to the act of making known someone’s

feelings/reactions or uncovering someone’s feelings or reactions to situations or
persons. Such feelings are of course secret until they are made known. A counsellor who
uses self-disclosure will definitely make known his feelings and reactions to his client’s
presentations.

This skill also involves conscious sharing of personal information about lives with clients
by counselors. In this situation, a counsellor gives his personal life history, how he/she
passed through certain problems similar to what the client presented. When this is done in a
counselling process, the client will feel relaxed and at the same time, understand that what
he/she is passing through is not an uncommon problem. This skill increases rapport and
embraces alliance between the counsellor and his/her clients. It is reasoned that such life
information should be relevant and focused otherwise; the client would feel that the
counsellor might just be wasting his/her time or merely diverting his/her attention from
what is disturbing him/her. For illustration, a depressed client due to loss of biological
parent could be counselled and relaxed when the counsellor discloses how his/her own father

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died in similar situation when he/she was an infant. In the same vein, it is irrelevant
discussing with the client how fifty people lost their lives in a ghastly motor accident
somewhere last year. This has nothing to do with a person who is in sober mood for losing
one of his parents recently.

It is, however, important to note that such feelings that are made known must be genuine,
sincere and authentic. The use of self-disclosure also demands that the counsellor must
have understood his client and in fact gained his confidence in their interpersonal
relationship. This is because if the counsellor disclosed his genuine feelings upon first contact
with client, the client may withdraw from counselling session. But if he understands the
client, and the client has developed trust in him, then self-disclosure will serve its functions
in helping the client to develop:

 develop appropriate honest behaviour;

 Complete counselling relationship.

When a Counsellor is genuine and transparent in his interaction with the client, he
could be:

 seen as a model to the client who also learn to imitate the counsellor’s
behaviour;
 able to provide a conducive and facilitating environment for himself and the
client.

Both the client and the counsellor are therefore able to feel very free in their discussion.
Where the client is initially reluctant, a good use of self-disclosure by the counsellor
would help the client express his problem fully. An example of self-disclosure is
when the counsellor says “I have heard similar problem before and it was resolved”.

Summarization Skill: This is the ability to pick major points of a conversation to bring
about corrections or confirmation of information. This is an important counselling
skill as it assures the counsellees that the counselors usually hear the correct content of
their problems. Summarization skill encourages clients to probe their points by
themselves. It can be used in the beginning of a counselling session to bring a synergy
between the previous counselling session and the current one or to reflect on the problem
earlier presented by the client(s). Also, summarization can be applied in-between counselling
sessions or midway into a counselling relationship to remind the counsellor and his client of

18
what they have done so far or at the end of a counselling session to mark the end of the
session.

Reframing Skill/Paraphrasing Skill: : This is a skill used by counselors to give alternative

statements or perspectives of what clients say. Reframing is used to keep clients at alert and
to challenge their cognitions. Through positive or negative alternative expressions of what a
client has said, the counsellor can manipulate the information presented. The client is also
encouraged to explore the values of what he has said. For instance, a client might state that
his major problem in school is distraction from friends during prep classes. In response to
this, the counselor might reframe the statement by saying, “Your friends distract your studies
and perhaps cause you to perform poorly in assessments”.

Empathy Skill: This is otherwise called reflection of feeling skill where the counsellor
demonstrates to his/her clients that he/she is aware of their feelings and emotions. It
covey’s the counsellor’s understanding of the clients’ problems and feelings. According to
Onah (2002), empathy implies an attitude in which the counsellor is able to sense the
hurt or pleasure as another person sees it; to perceive the causes of a client’s problems
as he perceives them, but without ever loosing the recognition that it is “as if” he
was the person involved. He/She maintains that empathy facilitates counselling as it
conveys to the client the message that much value is placed on him/her and that the feelings
and meanings which he/she attaches to his experiences are respected and worth attending to.
This no doubt makes a client in a counselling relation to feel a sense of belonging,
reassurance, love and relaxation. In applying empathy skill, the counsellor needs to let his
client understand that he too feels the way he, the client feels about his experience. If a
student reports to his/her counsellor that he/she often feels rejected by his classmates, the
counselor can respond by saying, “it is like you are feeling lonely and isolated each time you
are in the class” or “it sounds as if you are yet to make friends in your class”.

Engagement Skill: This is a skill that is described as an all-inclusive process of achieving

counselling tasks. It involves both the counselor and his/her clients being actively
involved in the counselling relationships. It enables the clients to become active
participants in order to establish and sustain their interest. When clients are involved in
counselling like in the Carl Roger’s Client-Centred Therapy, a solid foundation of interaction,
conversation and free expressions will be established. Hence, the counselor applying
engagement skill is expected to engage his/her clients in conversation even if the clients

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are not forthcoming in discussing their problem due to lack of trust. In the process of
engagement, a re-awakening attitude is established in such a client and because he/she is
involved, that elusive trust is ensured and a quick resolution of his/her problem will be
achieved.

Encouragement Skill: Encouraging somebody in a particular situation is an essential

tool in disarming his/her emotions. A trained counsellor is endowed with the skill of
encouraging clients with diverse problems. During any counselling session, it is expected that
the counsellor listens actively to get full information about the problem presented by his/her
client and engage in any activity that will promote full disclosure of problems by clients. This
could be done through verbal or non-verbal activity to ensure the client that you are
interested in his case and would like to hear more from him/her. When a client is
encouraged, no matter his/her vulnerability, the problem to him/her seems to have been
resolved or that he/she is in the right place for quick resolution of his/her problem. He
uses words or phrases that can encourage the client to bring out his problems using
words and phrases like: “really?” “True?” “Go on” “very sad my boy” “tell me
more” and a host of others. With these words and/or phrases, the client will feel relaxed,
become part of the counselling process and ready to go extra miles in discussing his/her
problems.

Congruence Skill: This is another Rogerian skill that every professional counsellor should
posses. According to Rogers (1965), congruence is a genuine sense of understanding
displayed by a counsellor in handling problems presented by clients. It involves
consistency and appropriate harmonious relationship with clients through observable
responses to situations, emotions, mood and state of the mind of the clients. Hence, the skill
of congruence helps to express the genuineness and authenticity of counsellors and
encourages clients to express themselves and equally assists them to understand that
they (the clients) will not be judged by their counselors. In all, congruence establishes
and sustains a working alliance between counsellors and clients by facilitating rapport, love
and good working relationships. Congruence is the only reasonable counselling skill that
checks conflict in counselling sessions. This is because a state of congruency in thoughts and
emotions clears clients’ doubts and reservations. A counselor with a female client who is
suggesting abortion can be engaged in such a way that the proposition is not completely

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or out rightly postioned at the onset. While the counselllor is concurring with the client
but explicitly explaining the consequences of abortion, efforts should be made to avoid
eye contact and interruptions so that the client will not withdraw into his/her shell.

Focusing Skill: This is the ability of a counsellor to re-direct a client’s attention to a

particular goal at a particular time. The counselor while discussing with his/her clients
ensures that there is adequate concentration or attention on what is considered essential by
both parties based on what is being discussed. Focusing skill is about the need to attend to
problems or feelings of clients as they arise during the course of a counselling process.
The benefit of this is that clients are encouraged to work on present and particular problems
where attainable goals exist. This is contrary to focusing on past experiences or early
childhood experiences which cannot be changed or influenced easily. It leads to charting a
direction in counselling sessions through the creation or formulation of
counselling goals and the action plan to achieve the goals. A good illustration is the ability
of a counselor to re-direct the attention of his client from a trivial issue that is
responsible for his problem to what should be done to avoid the occurrence of
that problem in future so that he/she will live adjusted life.

Clarification Skill: Clarification is an old but important skill used by counsellors in ensuring
complete understanding of clients’ problems. It involves deep understanding of clients
through active communication and participation in counselling process by both parties.
One of the cardinal uses of clarification skill in counselling relationships is to clear doubts
and avoid assumptions. Through this, clients are made to feel important as they are being
heard with keen interest. Each party asks questions where there is confusion to prevent
misunderstandings which may deter genuine progress towards achieving set objectives.

4.3 ASSIGNMENT

 Discuss the importance of any 5 techniques/skills in making the counselling

process successful.

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TOPIC 5.0: THE COUNSELLING PROCESS-DURATION 3 HOURS

5.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Discuss the aims of counselling.

2. Describe the individual counselling process.

3. Describe the individual counselling process.

Read the following section which contains PDF lecture notes on the topic of the
counselling process.

5.2: THE COUNSELLING PROCESS

This section will highlight the aims of guidance and counselling and give a detailed
description of the counselling process.

5.3 Aims of Guidance and Counselling

The guidance and counselling purposes include: assisting individual students, teachers,
adults and the society in general to:

1. Find out and make individuals aware of their basic personal prerequisites,
abilities, assets, liabilities and potentialities,
2. Provide usable information on vocation and to correct or clarify misinformation,
3. Assess an individual’s chances to succeed in the labour market,
4. Create awareness of clients in the availability of jobs and how to progress in it,
5. Make available opportunities for further training and advancement in
occupations,

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 6. Assist students in making appropriate and satisfying personal, vocational and
educational choices;
7. Assist students acquire a positive image of self through self- understanding the
needs and problems of each person,
8. Assist teachers and school personnel in understanding the needs and problems of
each student,
9. Assist school authorities / administrators in improving educational objectives
and programmes of interpersonal relationships;
10. Mobilize all the available resources of the school or home for satisfaction of the
vocational, educational and socio- personal needs of the students;
11. Help students develop proper attitude towards themselves, others, school,
values, interests, morals, beliefs and discipline;
12. Help students develop to optimize and utilize their skills and correct the sources of
their weaknesses and to improve the standard of education;
13. Guard individual’s mental health; and promote human effectiveness.

5.4: The Counselling Process

There are two ways in which counsellor can engage their clients: Individual Counselling and
Group Couselling. Individual counselling involves dealing with one client at a time while
group counselling involves a counsellor working with a group of clients together. Individual
and group counsellng processes are almost similar but some slight differences may be
observed. The following sessions will describe the individual followed by the group
counselling process.

5.4.1: The Individual Counselling Process

The stages involved in counselling processes begin with the entry of a client into the
counsellor’s office with a disturbing problem. This stage is called initiation stage.

Initiation for counselling can emanate from three sources. They include the client, the
counsellor’s invitation of a client and referral from a third party (Makinde, 1988). In this first
step, a client may decide to visit a counsellor with a problem that is disturbing him/her which
may include issues emanating from academic, social, psychological and vocational areas.
It could be choice of academic subjects in line with chosen future career,

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boyfriend-girlfriend relationship, and emotional disturbance due to loss of a close relation or
poor grades in continuous assessments due to poor study behaviour. A counsellor initiates
counselling by inviting a client whom he/she has discovered to have some disturbing
problems but not able to reach the counsellor for one reason or the order. This could be due to
cultural values, ability to solve own problem, ignorance of the existence and roles of
counselling and pride among others. Finally, a third party can initiate counselling by
referring a client to a counsellor for possible solutions to an identified problem disturbing the
person. For instance, a teacher can refer a student known to be a truant or who is consistently
failing his class work for counselling. A man can also take his son or daughter to a counsellor
for counselling on some disturbing issues he cannot handle as a parent.

The second stage of counselling procedure is the reception of the client by the counsellor.
This is where the counsellor shows a lot of maturity and respect for the client as any
mistake here can undermine the success of intending counselling process. The
counsellor receives the client into his/her office by welcoming him/her and offering
him/her a seat. The counsellor can stand up to do so or move out of his seat to welcome
the client (Anagbogu, 1988). With the cultural norms of the environment in relation to the
pleasantries exchanged, the counsellor goes ahead to establish genuine rapport.
According to Anagbogu (1988), rapport is a condition created for mutual understanding,
respect and acceptance such that interest generated in the course of counselling relationship
can be sustained. This usually begins immediately after the reception of the client to ensure
that the interpersonal relationship in the counselling process is smooth, free and relaxed. To
achieve a working rapport, the counsellor must put the other qualities earlier discussed
(appropriate training and attitudes, confidentiality, understanding, acceptance and sincerity)
into place.

Thirdly, the counsellor begins the counselling process through interview. This interview
stage is when the counsellor finds out from the client what his/her problem is all about. This
is called problem identification. This is followed by the definition of counselling goals where
the counsellor determines the behavior to be changed in an observable manner. In the
course of the interview, the counselor employs a combination of counselling skills to
achieve his/her purpose.

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These skills range from listening skill to clarification, restatement, paraphrasing, verbal
tracking, interpretation to focusing among other skills depending on the nature of the problem
presented. The interview skill expected of the counsellor as a one-to-one relationship is made
up of open-ended statements to enable clients exhaust their points without restrictions. This is
the hub of counselling in any counselling process or setting.

The fourth stage is the determination of the available asset base of the client as a platform
to begin the counselling process. The counsellor probes the client to find out the qualities
in him/her that can enable them determine the direction of the counselling encounter in
order to achieve the objectives set for the session. As the interview progresses, the
counselee provides the necessary information and suggestions needed to solve his/her
problem. This is why it is often said that counsellees are in a better position to solve their
problems during counselling relationships.

The fifth stage is the evaluation stage where, based on the successful or unsuccessful
achievement of the action plan in previous stages, the two parties (counsellor and counsellee)
evaluate the problem situation to find out if it worked or not. If it did not work, what must
have gone wrong? Is it that the strategies applied were ineffective or that the counsellor
applied wrong skills during the counselling process? This will call for further investigation by
the counsellor.

The sixth stage is the termination stage. According to Akinade, Sokan and Osarenren
(2005), counselling process is terminated if the counselling objectives have been achieved
and they are observable. They maintain that if the counsellee comes back for evaluation and
the goals are not achieved, the counselling process will have to start all over again and both
parties must re-devise other strategies apart from the ones that failed them. Makinde (1988)
is of the opinion that termination of counselling relationship can be done under the
following conditions:

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  After client has gained insight into his problem and has been able to cope with it or
resolve it.
 When counsellor sees clearly that the client is using the relationship for dependency
or is willing to deviate from originally outlined relationship.
 When client proves un-co-operative, or referred to another without the knowledge of
the initial counsellor.
 If problem is beyond the competence of counsellor, then he should refer client to
another specialist.

Termination of counselling relationship should be handled carefully so that clients do not feel
abandoned but as positive process where they understand that termination is not final as they
may return later. It should occur when counselling goals are achieved or there is no rapport.

The final stage is the follow-up stage. Anagbogu (1988) sees follow-up as a means of
monitoring individuals with a view to obtaining regular progress reports on their
performances and how satisfied they are after successful termination of counselling
relationships with them.

It is highly desirable to organize follow-up meetings in order to:-

a) Assess continuing progress

b) Suggest changes which may further assist in the development process

c) Correct the positive kind of behavior the client is engaging in, which assist in living a
productive personal lifestyle.

Follow-up assures continuity, consistency of counselling clients for future engagement in life
activities. It is used to assess the efficacy of counselling strategies and monitoring the
performance of clients on continuous basis. Some experts argue that counselling ends with
the termination stage while some others believe that it extends to follow-up stage as a
feedback.

In every counselling relationship, there must be certain objectives that need to be achieved.
To successfully achieve the set objectives, counselors usually map out their plans for a
successful trip.

To be competent enough to pass through the above stages successfully with clients,
counselors need to cultivate good attitudes, genuine rapport, sincerity, confidentiality,

26
warmth, empathy not sympathy, and above all, they should be able to accept clients the
way they are and demonstrate enormous spirit of unconditional understanding. They must
be committed to their duties. In any counselling process, counselors are expected to
demonstrate their ability to explore and apply a number of available counselling skills in
order to successfully treat their clients’ problems.

5.4.2: Stages in Group Counselling Process

Group counselling process is developmental because the group work transit from one
stage to the other until the group is ended. Specifically, the group process starts from the
initial phase to work; termination and then follow up phase. The essentials of each phase are
stated below:

Initial Phase

At this stage of group counselling, the Counsellor introduces himself by name,

occupation and his mission in the meeting. He also states to members about
confidentiality and that he expects everyone to keep secret whatever is discussed in the
group. The members are also encouraged to appreciate the essence of observing
confidentiality by mentioning the punishment to be meted out to individuals who
commit the offence of divulging the group’s secrets.

Then the members of the group introduce themselves, their names, their programme, work,
marital status, number of children and then major things they like best and those they dislike
most. After this, the counsellor states to them, the purpose of meeting and informs the
members that they all have similar problems. The counsellor and the clients then fix
the meeting schedules. They also formulate the ground rules e.g. nobody outside the
group should have knowledge of what goes on, in the group, there should be respect for
one another, and no one should make fun of any other person etc. The counsellor
summarizes the session’s discussion.

Working Phase

It is during this stage that the members introduce their problems while others listen
attentively. After each member has introduced his problem, members are guided
to ask questions where necessary. They are also guided to help each other to

27
understand their problems. Goals are then set for each member based on the problems
stated. The working phase can last for several sessions with about one hour in each session.

Summary of the group activity in the session is made and stated to the members. In the
absence of further discussion, the session could end. The counsellor also states to the
members that the group encounter was already going towards the termination stage.
Members are encouraged to mention the impact of the group work on their studios and
adjustment generally. Assignments are given to group members and feedback
expected at the next session. Sometimes, some members are either asked to assist
other members to work through their problems in counselling or in- between
counselling sessions, some members volunteer to assist others in this direction.

Termination Phase

This is the stage in which group counselling comes to an end principally because:

 Most issues have been discussed;

 The goals set have been achieved; and
 Necessary steps have been taken to refer some difficult cases to the appropriate
professional who is competent enough to assist such clients.

It is essential to mention that all the assignments and homework given in the group must have
been submitted before termination is effected.

Follow-Up Phase

This is an important phase in the group dynamic process in which effort is made by the
counsellor to follow-up with all the decisions or resolutions arrived at by the group members.
This is essential because it is follow-up activity that will help detect and reveal those
clients who still needed assistance. The assistance may demand a re-assessment of the
problem. It can sometimes necessitate arranging for an individual counselling; where
the group meeting cannot be re-convened.

5.5 ASSIGNMENT

 Describe the individual and group counselling processes clearly outlining the
techniques/skills that can be applied to ensure he processes achieve the intended
goals.

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TOPIC 6.0: THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO THE COUNSELLING PROCESS-
DURATION 3 HOURS

6.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Describe classical conditioning process.

2. Describe operant conditioning process.

3. Discuss the importance of theories in the counselling process.

Read the following section which contains PDF lecture notes on the topic of theoretical
approaches to the counselling process.

6.2: Theoretical Approaches to the Counselling Process

The counselling process is a systematic process which follows some laid down guidelines and
theories which aid counsellors in ensuring that the clients are adequately helped. The some
theories borrow a lot from the behavioural approaches to learning and hence a background of
classical and operant conditioning is key in this area.

6.2.1: Behavioural Approaches to Learning

Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or
potential behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive our
environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or
behave. John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study how the process of learning
affects our behavior, and he formed the school of thought known as Behaviorism.

Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in how our behavior results from the stimuli in
the environment.

The behavioral approaches emphasize the importance of individuals making connections

between experience and behaviour, They consider learning in terms of changing what
learners do (hehaviour).Basically there is always a relationship between one event (stimulus)

29
and another (response) however some responses are reflexes (involuntary motor activities)
e.g. winking, yawning, Sneezing etc others are learned, eg like fearing a dog, a cat darkness.

The learning process is what behaviorist call conditioning. New responses are learned and old
one becomes internalized as hehaviour. The conditioning process is called learning by
association (santroek, 2004).

Conditioning occurs in two ways that is:

 Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning

6.2.2: Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is also referred to us respondent learning. It is a simple form of

learning through association. Normally people tend to associate events that occur together in
time and place. These events are said to be contiguous because the appearance of one indicate
that the other events is to be anticipated for example people associate lightening and thunder.

Classical conditioning is derived from experiments conducted by Ivan Pavlov. Ivan Pavlov
was a Russian scientist who carried experiments on dogs’ digestive system.

His experiment involved harnessing the dog in the laboratory and giving it food and then
measuring the amount of saliva the dog produced. This means the dogs were used to being
given food by Pavlov. During the course of experimentation, Pavlov noted that the dog
salivated when they heard his footsteps and also when they saw the food bowl. Pavlov
guessed that the dogs had learned to associate his footsteps and even the sight of the food
bowl with food and that this association caused salvation.

Pavlov deduced that this salvation was a learned response. He then set out to conduct a series
of experiments to confirm his believes.

In his experiment Pavlov put a hungry dog in experimental positioning, then he sounded a
bell and then gave the dog food. He repeated this sequence of events many times. After many
repeated trials the dog would salivate at hearing the bell alone. If dog hears the bell and
salivate it means that it has learned the association between the bell and food.

The following terminologies are used in classical conditioning.

• Natural stimulus

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The food given to the dog before conditioning process is referred to as the natural stimulus
because under natural conditions the dog will elicit salvation on being presented with it.

• Natural response

Salivation is natural response because naturally, salivation is elicited by presentation of food.

• The neutral stimulus

Before the conditioning process the bell is called a neutral stimulus because it has no
relationship whatsoever with salivation. Dogs will not normally salivate as a result of healing
a bell.

• Conditioned stimulus

The bell during and after conditioning is called the conditioned stimulus because it acquires
the power to elicit salivation by its association with the food.

• Conditioned response

Because the dog has learned to associate the bell with food salivation after hearing the bell is
called a conditioned response. It is a learned response.

Principles of classical conditioning

I. The principle of reinforcement- food given after the bell as acts as reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement is essential for a new behaviour to be learnt.

2. The principle of extinction.

Extinction refers to the dying of the learned response, which occurs when reinforcement is
withdrawn e.g. when the bell is not accompanied with food for several times, the dog stops
salivating at the sound of the bell, thus the learned behaviour disappears.

3. The principle of spontaneous recovery.

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a learned response without a reinforcement, it

occurs if a dog that was initially conditioned to associate the sound of the bell with
presentation of food. This dog is taken through the process of extinction. It is then given
some resting time where no bells are heard. If this dog is returned to the experimental

31
situation again and the bell is sounded, it will salivate even if no food is given. However this
response dies very fast if reinforcement is not reintroduced.

4. The principle of generalization

Generalization refers to responding to stimuli, which is similar to the original stimuli to the
original stimulus as long as both are reinforced.

5. The principle of discrimination

Discrimination refers to learning to pick out the differences in the stimuli and therefore
responding to a very specific stimulus. This occurs when a dog has been conditioned to
respond to a particular stimulus. If the experimenter introduces other stimuli he not
accompanies them with the reinforcement. As a result the dog learns to pick out the
differences is stimuli and to respond to very specific ones. Discrimination training takes a
much longer time and more trial to establish.

Despite the fact that classical conditioning experiments have been conducted on animals the
principles of classical conditioning can be applied to human behaviour- It has been observed
that human beings can learn new behaviour by conditioning- A very good example is fear.

The relevance of classical conditioning to the theory and practice of counselling lies in its
application to the clients’ problem of not only fear and anxiety but also depression and anger.
Thus counselor can assist clients apply principles of classical conditioning to extinguish
fears, by discriminating the fearful objects from other aspects of life.

Generally some of the problems faced by clients weigh them down because they associate
untreated events and objects — For example a girl who was sexually assaulted by a man
when she was small may be unable to trust any man in future.

6.2.3: Operant Conditioning

Another type of learning, very similar to classical conitioning, is called Operant

Conditioning. The term "Operant" refers to how an organism operates on the environment,
and hence, operant conditioning comes from how we respond to what is presented to us in

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our environment. It can be thought of as learning due to the natural consequences of our
actions.

B.F. Skinner Theory of Instrumental or Operant Conditioning

Instrumental conditioning theory of learning was formulated by B.F. Skinner. Who was
an American Psychologist. His theory came based on the lapses discovered in the
classical conditioning theory. Skinner believed that classical conditioning explained only
how behaviour that has already been acquired can occur in the presence of a new stimulus
(Iversen, 1992). Operant or instrumental conditioning, however, believed that most
learning consist of acquiring new behaviour. He believed that behaviour is an
outcome of response that follows the action. The learner will possibly repeat
the action or a particular behaviour if it is followed/ rewarded with a pleasant
consequence (positive reinforcement).

To establish his claims, Skinner performed many experiments with pigeons and
white rats in the laboratory. He constructed a box (Skinner box) with a small lever inside it.
The lever releases food to the animals whenever the lever is pressed. In one of the
experiments, a hungry rat is placed in the box and if the rat presses the lever, the food would
drop for it. The lever in this box is mechanically connected to a device that automatically
records every attempt the rat made.

In the box the rat moved around tirelessly and each time the lever is pressed, the food falls
for the rat. The rat becomes persistent in pressing the lever so that the food could fall. The
food that comes down for the rat reinforces its action, this lever pressing becomes
a conditioned response for the rat. In contrast, if the food is not accompanied with the
pressing of lever, the number of presses would fall gradually to the lowest point.
In this type of theory, it is the result or consequence of a behaviour that makes that
behaviour more likely to be repeated on learned. If the result of behaviour is
gratifying, one is likely to respond the same way the next time one encounters that stimulus.
In the above experiment, the pressing of lever becomes instrument (instrumental).

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Skinner in this theory identified the two types of reinforcers, they are positive and
negative reinforcers. The stimulus that occurs after a response is called a
reinforcer. Giving a pleasant or complimentary remark to a student for scoring
a good mark in an assignment or homework is a positive reinforcer. By this action, it
is likely that such a student will want to continue doing his/her assignment
promptly. However, the student who receives punishment for misbehaving in the classroom
is not likely to repeat the action for which he/she has received unpleasant/negative reward,
this is termed as a negative reinforcer.

Reinforcement

The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything
stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if
you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you.
The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat.
This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do
so.

This is a simple description of a reinforcer (Skinner, 1938), the treat, which increases the
response, sitting. We all apply reinforcers everyday, most of the time without even realizing
we are doing it. You may tell your child "good job" after he or she cleans their room; perhaps
you tell your partner how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe you got a raise at
work after doing a great job on a project. All of these things increase the probability that the
same response will be repeated.

6.3: Counselling Theories Categories

A theory is simply a set of models or conventions postulated by an expert utilizing a cluster

of relevant assumptions that are systematically related to each other within a set of empirical
definitions and delimitations. A counselling theory is a set of rules, principles, laws or models
designed or put together as a guide to counsellors solving their clients’ problems. Counselling
theories serve as road maps or guidelines to counsellors in reaching a logical conclusion in
helping their clients solve their problems.

Counselling theories are called several names depending on the experts. In the same vein,
there are several types of counselling theories. Some experts refer to counselling theory as
theoretical model, approach or framework while others simply refer to it as counselling

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orientation. Counselling approaches fall under three main categories which include
behavioural, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic and humanistic approaches or therapies. The
behavioural group focuses on cognitions and behaviours based on man’s thoughts and
actions. The belief here is that change can occur through reconditioning of thoughts and
behaviour.

The psychoanalytical and psychodynamic approaches focus on man’s unconscious

relationship patterns from childhood. Scholars in this school of thought believe that
unconscious thoughts are responsible for emerging behavior of man.

The humanistic approach is all about self-development in the “here and now”. Man is assisted
here to recognize his strengths and weaknesses and make him responsible for his behaviour.
These three broad categories of counseling and psychotherapeutic therapies could give rise to
Adlerian, behavioural, brief, cognitive, analytic, cognitive behavioural among other therapies
or approaches that are explained in this unit.

6.3.1: Benefits of Counselling Theories

There are several benefits of counselling theories depending on the nature of the problem
presented and the strategies needed to solve the problem. On a general note however,
counselling theories are of immense values to counsellor through the:

i. Provision of framework for helping clients. Counselling theories provide counsellors

with the opportunity to detect areas where knowledge is lacking and also where further
research is needed in order to assist clients through laid down rules and regulations or
pathways.

ii. Provision of guidelines for understanding what an individual is made of, how he
develops, operates and what is responsible for his behaviour at a particular time and how to
help him out. The complexity of human personalities and problems makes it necessary in a
counselling session to rely on theories as guides instead of depending largely on personal
experiences and actions that may be highly subjective.

iii. Provision of orientation and guides to help givers. Counselling theories provide
counsellors and other stakeholders in social works the orientation or background information
and knowledge needed in assisting clients during counselling sessions. This could be
achieved through well-formulated and integrated ideas from different disciplines to increase

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the knowledge of counsellors who by nature must be vast in order to be successful in
assisting people.

iv. Provision of direction or road map about processes and techniques to be used in
counselling. With the knowledge of counselling theories that can be applied to solve a
particular problem, the counsellor is also equipped with the appropriate skills and techniques
that can help to unravel the underlying issues in the problem presented for solutions.

v. Provision of base-board or bench mark for obtaining a clue about a client’s problem.
Counselling theories provide counsellors with background information about their clients’
problems as soon as such clients present their problems.

vi. Provision of a framework for research. Counselling theories provide necessary

methods for collection of facts and also provide explanations for possible relationships
between events by explaining the facts and their inter-relations via research activities.

vii. Provision of professional status to counselling. Counselling theories have provided

scientific opportunities through research activities that enable people to see the relevance of
counselling in human endeavour.

viii. Provision of useful methods of constructing case frameworks (hypotheses) during

counselling. Through observations and mapping out of concepts, certain assumptions are
tested and verified in order to arrive at a conclusive solution to clients’ problems.

ix. Offering clients a way of making sense during counselling. Through the guidelines
provided during counselling sessions, clients are also given the opportunities to contribute to
finding the solutions to their problems in simplified, clear and unambiguous terms.

x. Prediction of counselling actions. Well-formulated counselling theories enable

counselors to make predictions about what is likely to be the result of a particular action that
he intends to embark upon while trying to assist his clients in solving their problems. Also,
possible counselling outcomes or directions of clients during counselling sessions can be
predicted through a well thought theory of counselling.

6.4: ASSIGNMENT

 Counselling theories play a key role in the counselling process. Discuss.

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TOPIC 7.0 MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE COUNSELLING PROCESS: THE
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY-DURATION 3 HOURS

7.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Discuss the structures of personality according to the Psychoanalytic theory.

2. Describe the psychosexual stages of personality development according to

the Psychoanalytic theory.

3. Explain causes of maladjustment according to the Psychoanalytic theory.

4. Discuss counselling techniques according to the Psychoanalytic theory.

Read the following section which contains PDF lecture notes on the topic of major
approaches to the counselling process: the Psychoanalytic theory.

7.2: Major Approaches to the Counselling process: The Psychoanalytic Theory

There are many theoretical approaches which counsellors can utilize during the counselling
process, one of the major theories is psychoanalytic theory which will be discussed in this
topic.

7.2.1: Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Personality encompasses psychological and behavioral characteristics by which each person

can be compared and contrasted with other people. Those behaviors that make each of us
unique is also personality, that leads us to act in a consistent and predictable manner both in
different situations and over extended periods of time.

The Psychoanalytic theory is by Psychologist Sigmund Freud who is regarded as the father of
Psychology. According to Freud, our behavior is triggered largely by powerful forces within
our personality of which we are not aware. These hidden forces are shaped by childhood
experiences, and play an important role in energizing and directing our everyday behavior.
Freud further explains three levels of awareness; the conscious, the pre-conscious and the
unconscious. The conscious contains those things in our awareness at a moment e.g., what we
are learning now, the pre-conscious contains those things you may not be dwelling on at the
moment but we can easily recall them without much effort e. g, which high school did you
attend? Finally the unconscious mind which contains information which you cannot recall
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when conscious but it might come to the conscious level when you get a slip of a tongue,
during dreams or under therapy. The unconscious mind contains instinctual drives,
unfulfilled wishes, sexual drives and desires, aggressive demands and needs that are hidden
from conscious awareness because of the conflicts and pain they would cause us if they were
part of our everyday lives. Many of our life’s experiences are painful and the unconscious
provides a safe store for our recollections of such events. Uncomfortable memories can
remain in our unconscious without continually disturbing us.

7.2.2: The Structure of Personality

To describe the source of personality, Freud discovered a comprehensive theory that held that
personality consisted of three separate but interacting structural components; Id, Ego and
Superego. They are not physical structures found in certain parts of the brain, instead they
represent abstract conceptions of a general model of personality that describes the interaction
of various processes and forces within ones personality that motivate behavior.

The Id

The Id is the raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality present from the time of
birth. The sole purpose of the id is to reduce tension created by drives related to hunger,
sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. This drives are fueled by psychic energy or
libido as called by Freud. The aim of the Id is immediate gratification of needs by
following the pleasure principle.

The Ego
The ego [self] evolves from the id to create ways to get what one wants in a world full of
rules, because the ego makes compromises between the unreasoning demands of the id
and the real world. It is said to operate on the reality principle. The more experiences
that
bad things. Introjection is the term used by Freud for this process of internalizing
parental and societal values into personality. Interjected values, our ‘shoulds’ and
‘should nots’, forms the third component of personality, the superego.

The Superego

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The Superego is the moral judge of personality, the conscience or the ego ideal. The
things people know are wrong make up the part of the superego as the conscience.
Pressure to conform to the ‘shoulds’, the ideal behavior that people know are right
comes from a second part of superego known as the ego ideal. The superego operates on
the morality principle since violating either category of its rules results in guilt.

Unfortunately, basic needs [id], reason [ego], morality [superego] and the demands of
the environment are often at odds. This creates inner turmoil known as intra psychic or
psychodynamic conflict, which the ego must try to resolve. Freud believed that the
number, nature and outcome into a psychic conflict shapes each individual’s personality
and determines many aspects of life of behavior.

7.2.3: Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Freud held a view that infants are born with physiological fond of drives and urges which he
called the libido. He further believes that human behaviour is rooted in instincts which
motivate people to seek for bodily gratifications in order to maintain an equilibrium or
homeostasis.

Freud believed and provided us with a view of how personality through a series of stages
during childhood. These are called psychosexual stages. Each one relates to the part of the
body that is the main area of pleasure at that stage, called the erogenous zone. The failure to
resolve problems and conflicts at a given stage can leave a person fixated i.e. overly attached
to or unconsciously preoccupied with the pleasure associated with that stage.

Stage 1:Oral Stage

A child’s first year or so is called the oral stage because the mouth is the centre of pleasure
and sexual gratification. The child’s main activity is sucking and manipulation of the lips and
mouth. Personality problems occur mainly when oral needs are either not met or
overindulged. In the adult personality, fixation at the oral stage might result in such oral
characteristics as talking too much, over eating, smoking, alcoholism, or using biting
sarcasm. Excessive dependence on others like an infant on his mother is another possible sign
of oral fixation.

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Stage 2: Anal Stage
Usually occurs during the 2nd year, when the demand for toilet training conflicts with the
child’s instinctual pleasure in having bowel movements at will, because the centre of focus
and conflict shifts from the mouth to the anus during this period. If toilet training is too harsh
and demanding or is begun too early or too late, conflicts may arise. Followers of
psychoanalytic theory urge that unresolved conflicts from the anal stage can create an anal
personality. The adult fixated at the anal stage might symbolically withhold faeces by being
controlling, stingy, highly organized, stubborn and perhaps excessively concerned with
cleanliness, orderliness or detailed. At the other extreme are those who expel feaces by being
sloppy and disorganized/. At about age 3 the phallic stage begins.

Stage 3: Phallic Stage

There is another major shift in the primary source of pleasure for the child. This time interest
focuses on the genitals and pleasure derived from fondling them. This is the stage of one of
the most important periods of personality development according to Freud’s theory, the
Oedipal complex. As children focus their attention on their genitals, the differences between
male and female anatomy become more salient. At this time, Freud believed that the male
begins to develop sexual interests in his mother, starts to see his father as a rival and wishes
to kill his father as Oedipus did in the ancient Greek mythology, but because he views his
father as too powerful, he develops fear of retaliation called castration anxiety. The fear that
becomes too strong that the ego represses the incest desires, then the boy seeks to become
like or identifies with his father and in the process begins to learn male sexual behaviors
which will later help him form a sexual relationship with a woman other than his mother.

Resolution of these conflicts is more complicated for the female child, a condition known as
the Electra complex. She begins with a strong attachment to the mother, but as she realizes
that boys have penises, and girls don’t, she begins to hate her mother perhaps blaming her for
the lack of it and considering her inferior. She experiences penis envy and transfers her love
to her father who has the sex organ she wants. But the girl mostly avoids her mother’s
disapproval. She does so by identifying with her mother by adopting female sexual behaviors
and subsequently choosing a male mate other than her father. At this point, the Oedipal and
Electra complexes are is said to be resolved and psychoanalytic theory assumes that both
males and females move on to the next stage of development. If difficulties arise during this
period however, all sorts of problems are thought to occur, which include improper sexual

40
behavior and the failure to develop a conscience. Following the relationship of Oedipal and
Electra complexes, at around age 5-6, children move into the latency period which lasts until
puberty.

Stage 4: Latency Period

Little of interest is occurring [dormancy]. Sexual concerns are more or less put to rest in the
unconscious. At this time the individual is more concerned with the development of other
aspects such as education and socialization.

Stage 5: Genital Stage

Focus during this stage is on mature adult sexuality which Freud defined as sexual
intercourse. During adolescence, sexual feelings reemerge making the start or the final period
i.e. the genital stage which extends until death. This period is concerned more with the
expression of one’s sexuality with peers well as forming and maintaining intimate sexual
relationships.

7.2.4: View of Maladaptive Behaviours

This approach holds the belief that personality develops within the first six years of life.
Human behavior is determined by irrational motives, unconscious motives, instinctual drives,
and sexual drives emanating from the unconscious mind.

Human nature is basically deterministic, and behavior is determined by irrational forces,

unconscious motivations, biological and instinctual drives, and psycho-sexual events during
the first six years of life. The goal of much of our life is gaining pleasure and avoiding pain.
There exists in individuals death instincts which account for aggression. People through their
behavior have manifested an unconscious wish to die or to hurt themselves or others. Both
the sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do.
Although there may be conflicts between the life instincts [Eros] and the death instincts
[Thanatos], human beings are not content to be the victims of aggression and self-destruction.

According to Freud, psychopathology or maladaptive behaviours stem from unconscious,

unresolved conflicts that occurred during childhood. Counselling is therefore based on the
analysis of early childhood experiences. The counsellor attempts to uncover the material
hidden in the client’s unconscious mind. The awareness of this material helps the client to
overcome the maladaptive behaviours.

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7.2.5: The Psycho-Analytic Techniques in Counselling

The psychoanalytic approach emphasizes the following in counseling:-

i. Maintain the Analytic Framework: - this includes the procedures and styles that help
to build trust in the client. These are consistency in meetings, starting and ending sessions in
time.

ii. Free Association: - this involves allowing the client to open up and say whatever
comes to mind, however trivial or insignificant it is. This is the path that leads to the
unconscious mind, fantasies, conflicts, and motivations. The counselor listens with the ‘third
ear’ interpreting the meaning of events and at the same time leading the counselee deeper into
the unconscious.

iii. Analysis of Resistance: The client may resist if they become aware that they are
releasing the material in the unconscious to the conscious mind. The client resists releasing
more material to avoid feelings of anxiety. The client may express resistance by missing
appointments, periods of silence during free association, avoiding discussion of some issues,
or coming late for sessions.

iv. Interpretation: - this involves understanding the counselee’s personality and the past
experiences which are causing him/her anxiety and difficulties. It should go as deep as the
client can go and the counselor should take care of resistance.

v. Dream Analysis: - what a person perceives in a dream is the manifest content, which
is a disguised form of the latent content which is the hidden symbolic, unconscious motives,
wishes and fears. Counselees should be encouraged to relay dreams, experience the emotions
they evoke, associate freely with the elements of the dream, and must confront it by focusing
on it and exploring it further.

Freud regards dream as the royal highway to the unconscious mind since an individual is
completely relaxed during sleep. The relaxed condition of dreaming is conducive for
releasing of the unconscious material without the threat of feeling anxious. A therapist
analyses the dream’s manifest content (the events and the symbols that occur in the dream) to
identify the latent (unconscious) content. Analysis the contents would uncover the
unconscious conflicts and motives.

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vi. Analysis and Interpretation of Transferences: - Transference involves the client
projecting onto the therapist both positive and negative feelings that were previously directed
to a parent or another significant person in their life. Such feelings may be manifested in
commenting about the therapist, sexual advances towards the therapist and extreme
dependence on the therapist among other manifestations. Transference is a form of resistance.
The therapist analyses it to show the client how they misperceives, misperceives,
misinterprets and responds inappropriately to the present in terms of past events.

Analysis and interpretation of transferences helps the client to express feelings, beliefs, and
desires from the unconscious. This enables the client to work through the conflicts that are
keeping them fixated and retarding their emotional growth.

7.3 ASSIGNMENT

Describe characteristics of people who may have gotten fixated in:

 Anal stage
 Oral stage

Adler’s Theory of Personality Development.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an apostle of Sigmund Freud until 1911 when they parted
ways due to consistent criticism of some aspects of Freud’s work by Adler and other experts.
He deviated a little and tilted towards social interest and awareness of individual’s goals as
the major emphasis of personality development.

3.2.1. Basic Concepts of Adler’s theory

Adler’s theory posits that an individual can only be understood if one is aware of his goals as
every individual has a purpose in life. Man only strives to achieve his own unique potentials.
If therefore an individual’s goals are formulated on a faulty and destructive platform, it will
result to domination and exploitation of people around him but cooperative and good-willed
if his goals are on a constructive platform. Adler maintains that the first five years of an
individual’s personality development is very crucial as that is the period when goals will be
healthy or unhealthy depending on the type of experiences he has with others. Some basic
concepts of Adler’s theory are:

1. Creative evolution and social interest.

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The mental health of people depends largely on their ability to ensure that there is progress
and adequate welfare of the people in their community. The social interest here means that
people are endowed with the innate potentials for social feelings which must however be
properly guided and tutored by people. This is a case of golden rule where one expects others
to do unto him what he would do to others.

2. Feelings of inferiority and the striving for superiority.

Every individual has defective organs capable of intensifying his weakness. Feeling of
inferiority before people is a weakness that may hinder somebody’s urge to achieve
something which can push him into self-pity. The individual here can be pushed by faith to
be withdrawn and isolated, a feeling of having nothing to contribute.

3. Fictional Finalisms

An individual’s behaviour is guided by his ability to create and fashion out a suitable idea in
that direction. In this regard, a person sets out goals and objectives to achieve something.
These motivating goals give direction to his behaviour and ultimately, his personality
development. These goals could be healthy frictions or mistaken frictions depending on
perceptions of any individual and the society at large.

4. Life style and creative style.

People behave differently and display different styles of life, showing their unique ways of
pursuing sound life goals. Formed during the first five years of life, this concept forms the
cornerstone or basis of an individual’s behaviour and personality. Creative life is
conceptualized by Adler as a sub-set of style of life which places a man’s destiny into his
hands. Man is therefore the architect of either his good or bad personality dispositions.

3.2.2. Adler’s processes of personality development

In his theory, emphasis is significantly placed on family as an important factor and agent of
personality development which has to do with child rearing practices adopted in a particular
home or society. Hence, the types of parenting style and socialization processes adopted by
parents account for the pattern of personality development of children in a particular
community. Every single person or individual has a role to play in the family. The father
should recognize his duties as the head of the family while the mother as the first extended
contact of a child should not relent in teaching her children basic skills to survive in the

44
society. The siblings too have their own roles and influences depending on their positions or
birth order in the family. Any attempt to derail by any member of the family will result to
faulty personality development while a coordinated family coherence and democratic
parenting will always usher in positive personality development. Adler used early
recollection, dream analysis, and birth order to assess and understand individual’s personality
chart and development. He believes that these strategies can be exploited to understand the
personality make up of a person in order to assist him when he is in trouble.

4.0 Conclusion

Theories of personality development are postulated by different theorists depending on their

individual perspectives of human beings. Sigmund Freud perceived or conceived his
psychoanalytic theory of personality development on childhood experience, stressing that
personality is built upon human urges or drives (libido) which account for his personality
dispositions. The interaction among the id, ego and superego in man brings out what his
character or personality is all about. Adler on the other hand is concerned about man’s goals
and objectives which account for his personality in the society. He emphasized good
parenting to bring about positive personality development.

5.0 Summary

In this unit, two theories of personality development were discussed. They are the Sigmund
Freud’s and Alfred Adler’s personality development theories. Also discussed in this unit are
the basic concepts and processes of personality development of each theory.

TOPIC 8.0: TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORY OF COUNSELLING- DURATION 3

HOURS

8.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Explain the trait and factor theory of counselling.

2. Discuss the theory’s assumption on man.

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3. Discuss the objectives and processes of counselling using trait and factor theory.

4. Give the techniques of counselling under the theory.

5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of trait and factor theory.

8.2: Trait and Factor Theory of Counselling-

8.2.1 Introduction

This approach to counseling draws the work of Frank Parsons and his colleagues. The central
idea was that various job-skills could be directed into elements related to human traits. The
goal was that each person could be matched to a kind of job in which individual potential and
job satisfaction could be maximized. This theory emphasizes the role of personality traits in
counselling. With the information about what an individual is made of as provided by the
theory, the counsellor can approach his clients’ problems professionally and in the interest of
his clients to enable them realize their abilities and live well-adjusted life.

8.2.2: Main Content

Trait and factor theory is a theory of counselling uses a counsellor-centred approach. The
main trust of the therapy is that personality is a system of interdependent variables or traits
which include abilities, interests, attitudes and temperament (Makinde, 1988), stressing that
an individual progresses from infancy to adulthood with the above traits coming into
maturity.

8.2.3: Assumption about Man

The theory believes that every individual is an organized being with capabilities and
potentials. Man is uniquely endowed with innate potentials in his own way and only seeks to
use self-understanding as a means of developing those potentials of his. He uses knowledge
of his ability as a tool to develop his identified potentials and requires an assistance to do so.

8.2.4: Counselling Objectives of Trait and Factor Theory

The proponents of the theory believe that counselling using the theory will enable counsellors
applying it in the course of attending to their clients to:

1. Use objective measurements to identify the traits of clients through psychological

tests.

2. Define or portray clients in their unique ways.

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3. Help clients to know and understand their traits and environment.

4. Predict possible success of clients in certain ventures.

5. Facilitate the development of excellence in all aspects of human life (Makinde, 1988).

6. Help students in assessing their assets and liabilities in relation to the requirements of
the society.

8.2.5: Counselling Processes

Counselling is tailored towards specific guidelines with the process of establishing rapport,
cultivating self-understanding, advising or planning a programme of action, carrying out the
plan, and referral where necessary. Counselling is done through direct advice, persuasion and
explanation. Other specific techniques of the theory are:

1. Induce conformity.

2. Changing the environment.

3. Selecting appropriate environment.

4. Learning needed skills.

5. Changing attitudes.

In choosing and applying any of the above techniques, the theory postulates that:

1. Every individual is an organized, unique, capable and potential entity.

2. Human beings are stable after the adolescent stage.

3. Human traits can be evaluated using psychological tests.

4. Personality and interests of people are in tandem with their behaviours.

5. Different school curricular demand different capacities and interests

6. Individuals learn faster and better if their potentials are in line with curricular demand.

7. Diagnosis of students’ potentials by both students and counsellors should be followed

by placement according to their traits that were identified.

8. Every individual has the ability and the desire according to his own traits.

To achieve the above, the counselor has six stages or steps to do so.

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1. Analysis: This involves the collection of data from a wide range of sources in order to
understand his clients.

2. Synthesis: This is the process of summarizing and organizing data obtained to

determine the clients’ strengths and weaknesses.

3. Diagnosis: This involves conclusions about the problems identified.

4. Prognosis: This involves prediction of clients’ future development based on the

treatment given.

5. Counselling: Here, both clients and counsellor brainstorm in order to achieve

adjustment and re-adjustment.

6. Follow-up: This is an action taken to assist the client with reoccurring problems in
future and monitoring the progress made so as to determine or adjust counselling sessions.

8.2.: Advantages of Trait and Factor Theory

a. It applies scientific approach to counselling by using measurement and prediction.

b. It involves gathering objective data about clients.

c. Final decision is usually that of the client.

d. It involves teaching/learning relationship.

8.2.7: Disadvantages of Trait and Factor Theory

a. It is counsellor-centered or didactic in nature.

b. Client has little or no contribution to the solution of his problem.

c. It involves direct advice through forcing conformity.

8.2.8: Conclusion

Trait and Factor theory of counselling is a cognitive, direct and didactic counselling approach
that emphasizes personality traits in counselling. Human beings are uniquely built with
different potentials which must be taken into account while addressing a client’s problem as
presented. In doing so, the counsellor can use psychological tests to identify his client’s traits
in order to apply appropriate technique of counselling the client. Direct advice is encouraged
by the theory in order to enable the client conform to what the counsellor wants to achieve.

48
Trait and Factor theory is a teaching-learning process of counselling that allows clients to
have final decision on their problems based on the wise counsel of professional counsellors
during counselling sessions.

8.3: ASSIGNMENT

 Highlight the processes and techniques of counselling using trait and factor
theory.

The Person Centered Approach

Congruence permits the actualizing tendency of the individual to become fully functioning. A
fully functioning person has the following qualities:-

 Open to their experience.

 Accepting to their feelings.
 Capable of living in the present with preoccupations about the past and the future.
 Free to make choices that are best for them, and to act on those choices.
 Trusting of self and of human nature.
 Capable of balanced and realistic expressions of both aggression and affection.
 Creative and non-conforming.

TOPIC 9.0: CLIENT-CENTRED OR ROGERIAN THEORY-DURATION 3 HOURS

9.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Explain the basic concepts of the Rogerian approach.

2. Discuss the counseling objectives and the processes of counseling using the
theory.

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the client-centred theory of Carl

Rogers.

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9.2: Client-Centred or Rogerian Theory

This counselling theory was founded by Carl R. Rogers (1902-1987) as a self-actualization

approach to clients’ problems. The theory is thus variously referred to as Rogerian approach,
self-theory or person-centred theory. The theory postulates that an individual has the capacity
to solve his problems in positive ways with little or no assistance from any other person if
given the necessary conditions to do so. Thus, man has the capacity to regulate, guide and
control himself (Onah, 2005).

The approach utilizes a positive and developmental point of view towards the individual. The
individual’s perception of self under environment is all important. The individual is seen as
being able to effectively deal with the problems of living, if free from perceptual barriers.
The basic role of counseling is through stabling a relationship in which the counselor sets the
conditions in which the client is free to explore aspects of self and environment. The
counselor should be genuine, warm, and emphatic and demonstrate unconditional positive
regard for the client, reflect the essence of the client so as to facilitate a clear understanding
of the situation.

9.2.1: Main content

This theory formulated by Rogers (1965) enables students or clients self-actualize without
undue interference from counsellors. This Rogerian approach is a non – authoritarian
approach that sees a patient as a client. Rogers proposes that human beings have inherent
self-actualizing tendency which helps persons to meet their needs, develop a positive view
about one-self and interact with other people in the society effectively.

Man is seen by the theory as a natural good person or being whose “badness” must be as a
result of the influence of his society or environment. Man is capable of solving his problems
if obstacles or variables responsible for his problems are removed. As a person socializes in
his society, especially with the significant others, he becomes aware of the need to
demonstrate self-regard and regard for others.

According to the theory, a conducive environment encourages the self–actualizing tendency.

On the other hand, if the environment is frustrating and demands its own standards and
expectations, the self-actualizing tendency will be discouraged.

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According to this theory, the main counselling task is to create an atmosphere in which the
self-actualizing tendencies can be reactivated. The following conditions are necessary for
effective counselling:

Unconditional Positive Regard: This refers to therapist’s deep and genuine caring for the
client. The therapist is careful to maintain a positive attitude to the client even when disgusted
by the client’s actions. Therefore the counsellor accepts the client without any conditions,
hence the counsellor cares and prizes the client.

Congruence or Genuineness, where the counsellor has to show every sense of sincerity in
the counselling relationship and communicate same to his client, hence the counsellor should
share his or her feelings with the client, both positive and negative. The counsellor should
also be genuinely interested in helping the client.

Empathetic understanding: Empathy is the ability to understand what the client is feeling.
This refers to the therapist’s ability to understand sensitively and accurately the client’s
experiences and feelings in the here and now. An important part of the task of a person-
centered counsellor is to follow precisely what the client is feeling and to communicate to
them that the therapist understands what they are feeling.

9.2.2: Counselling Objectives

The Rogerian approach is a self-centred therapy that aims at:

1. Assisting clients to identify and eliminate emotional blocks responsible for their
problems.

2. Assisting clients to accept their experiences realistically.

3. Helping clients to grow towards maturation and the assimilation of new experiences.

4. Helping students/clients to attain insight into their problems

5. Assisting clients to become confident and self-directing in whatever they are doing.

9.2.3: Counselling Procedures and Skills

Under the Rogerian approach, the counsellor in his warm and accepting attitude allows his
clients to express their feelings through non-verbal and verbal skills, allowing them to take
decisions for themselves. Counselling is done using noncommittal expressions like “Yes,
Yes, Yes”, “Go ahead and tell me more”, “Quite interesting”, “I see”, etc. Through this

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process and skills, the clients can differentiate and discriminate between the objects of their
feelings and perceptions of themselves, other persons, their (clients’) experiences with them
(others) and the entire environment. The clients now begin to experience feelings that have in
the past been responsible for their distorted behaviours.

Effective counselling using the theory based on the following assumptions or conditions.

The assumptions are :

 The process involves an unconditional acceptance that two persons (counsellor and
client) are in psychological contact to solve a problem;
 the client has a problem as he is in a state of incongruence, vulnerable and anxious to
solve his problem.

Conditions

 the counsellor demonstrates unconditional positive regard for the client before him;
 the counsellor exhibits an empathic understanding of his client’s internal reference;

To achieve these, the counsellor needs to adopt techniques like

 Active listening,
 Reflection of feelings and thoughts,
 Clarifications, and
 Facilitation for self-exploration.

Characteristically, counselling is centred on empathy, unconditional positive regard, warmth,

and genuineness in order to achieve desired goals.

9.2.4: Advantages of client-centred theory

1. It recognizes the importance of relationship between the client and the counsellor.

2. The client is an active partner in the counselling encounter under the theory.

3. It enables the client to see himself as a worthy individual that has equal right with the
counsellor.

4. It provides clients with self-confidence to face life challenges.

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5. It enables the client to have a wide range of freedom id deciding his fate or making
his choice.

9.2.5: Disadvantages of client-centred theory

1. The theory sees man from only one angle (that man is inherently good) as it is a
known fact that man is both good and bad.

2. Clients may not see the need to see experts when they have problems since the whole
business of counselling lies on them.

3. Clients are given too much power in counselling relationship under the Rogerian
approach.

9.2.6: Conclusion

An individual develops maladaptive behaviours when he interacts with persons in his

environment in a negative way. However, he has an inherent valuing process with which he
continuously avoids negative experiences. His self-concepts emerge as he continues to
interact with his environment. To curb maladaptive behaviours acquired as a result of this
interaction, the Rogerian theory postulates that through reflection of feelings and thoughts as
well as clarifications and active listening and facilitation of self-exploration, the counsellor
can assist the clients to re-evaluate themselves and see some significant others in the society
for proper adjustment.

9.3: ASSIGNMENT

 What are the basic concepts of client-centred theory?

 Discuss the counseling process and skills of client-centred theory.

TOPIC 10.0: RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY (RET)-DURATION 3 HOURS

10.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

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1. Explain the client-centered theory of counselling as provided by Albert Ellis.

2. Discuss the theory’s assumption on man.

3. Discuss the objectives and processes of counselling using the theory.

4. Give the techniques of counselling under the theory.

10.2: Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) Rational –Founder, Albert Ellis.

Rational Emotive Therapy (RET), stresses the role of thinking and believe systems as the root
of personal problems. This approach has also been known as rational therapy, semantic
therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy and rational-behavior training. It operates under the
philosophical tenet that an individual is self-actualizing. It works under the assumption that
people’s emotions are a result of their beliefs, philosophies, interpretations, and evaluation
about events happening to them and not from the events as they are. This approach also
assumes that an individual is born with rational and irrational tendencies and that his
irrational thinking and dysfunctional feelings and behaviors are the reflections of his
emotional problems.

Counseling in the rationale-emotive approach is active and confrontative. The counselor

considers the client’s “reality” as irrational or self-defeating when the client’s thoughts,
feelings, and behavior defeat his own personal goals, values, and interests

10.2.1: Main Content

Ellis (1962) founded a cognitive theory of counselling as a result of persistent behaviour

problems associated with irrational behaviours. These irrational thoughts or behaviours are
genetically determined and acquired from one’s culture and parents during the process of
socialization. Human beings subject themselves to irrational thinking patterns and in the
process, destroy themselves.

Man is basically rational as well as irrational and functions through logic and reasoning in
his endeavours. Man becomes productive, effective and happy when he is rational but
irrational and unproductive when he displays emotional or neurotic behaviours. Thus, it is of
significant importance to learn to recognize irrational or illogical and unrealistic views of
man and subsequently substitute such views with rationality, reason and new direction of
purpose. Ellis believed that a large part of what we call emotion is nothing more than a

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biased, prejudiced or strongly evaluative kind of thinking (Akinade, Sokan & Osarenren,
2005).

Ellis (1962) in his ABC principle was able to show how a person can acquire rational or
irrational belief. For illustration, the existence of a fact is the A while B is one’s self -
analysis of the fact (A) and C is the consequence of the analysis (B) as perceived by the
person. C is a mere reaction that is not caused by A but by B.

Therefore, when one controls B by thinking appropriately, then C (inappropriate behavior)

will not occur. For instance, it will be irrational and counter- productive for a student to say
“The lecturer failed me”. A in this case is poor performance while B is the probability that
the lecturer just decided to fail him/her and C is the students’ perception of the result
obtained. As a matter of fact, changing a client’s illogical thoughts should also involve
exposing him to the main irrational thought that human beings are prone to so that he will not
fall victim of such actions after treatment. By implication, the student in this case who
thought that his/her lecturer failed him/her unjustly should be informed of several illogical
thoughts of students in their course of justifying their grades at the end of every semester.

This theorist (Albert Ellis) presented eleven irrational and senseless ideas or beliefs that man
displays through the ABC principle. These are:

1. The idea that an adult human being must be loved or approved by everybody in the
society.

2. That one should be thoroughly competent, adequate and achieving in every endeavour
if he is to be adjudged worthwhile.

3. The idea that some people are bad, wicked and villainous and should therefore be
blamed and punished.

4. That it is awful and catastrophic or suicidal when things are not as one wants them to
be.

5. The idea that human unhappiness is caused by outside circumstance and the person
has no control over it.

6. The idea that if something is dangerous or fearsome, one should keep dwelling on its
possible occurrence.

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7. The idea that it is easier and better to avoid certain life difficulties and responsibilities
than to face them.

8. The idea that one should always depend on others and must have someone stronger, to
rely on.

9. The idea that one’s past experiences and events are the determinants of his present
behaviours and that because something strongly affected one’s life, it should indefinitely
have a similar effect.

10. The idea that one should be quite upset over other people’s problems and
disturbances.

11. The idea that there is invariably a right, precise and perfect solution to every problem
and that it must be found or the result will be catastrophic if this perfect solution is not found.

RET is of the view that the demand for unrealistic responses causes anxiety, depression and
lack of assertiveness. Such a demand is the “must” action in individuals. For instance, the
stance that one “must” do well and get approval, or else he is worthless is enough to cause
anxiety and depression in him. In the same vein, that somebody must be loved by everybody
in his class at all times is an illogical position that is unrealistically internalized by such a
person which is causing him disaffection among his peers. In the absence of that expected
love from his mates, he becomes depressed, tensed up, dejected and withdrawn. That one
must be treated reasonably, considerately, and lovingly or else he is a nonentity is enough to
lead him to resentment, hostility and violence. Also, that life must be fair, easy, and hassle-
free is equally enough to drive somebody to a state of hopelessness, procrastination and
addiction to substances or other habitual living.

10.2.3: Counselling Objectives of RET

Ellis (1977) enumerated the goals and objectives of counselling as:

1. Encouraging or enabling clients to perceive their situations as the source of their

emotional disturbances.

2. Encouraging clients to bring into focus the illogical and irrational ideas to enable
them re-adjust their thinking in a logical manner.

3. Helping clients to be “cured” of their unreason by reason.

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4. Teaching clients how to re- think, challenge and contradict faulty internalized
thoughts.

5. Helping clients understand how self-talks are causing and maintaining certain
disturbances and unhappiness in them.

10.2.4: Counselling Procedures and Skills

The counsellor using this approach (RET) employs relationship, supportive and sight–
interpretative strategies to engage in real teaching to assist clients/students to resolve their
problems. In doing this, the counsellor is to establish rapport and use devices as mentioned
above to contradict and deny the self– denying propaganda and substitute the originally
learned and self–instilling irrational ideas with logical ideas. The counsellor encourages,
persuades, cajoles and occasionally insists that the client engages in some activities that will
counter the original beliefs held. The counselor can also use instruction. logic, reason,
suggestion, confrontation and prescription of behavior. He also attempts to help the clients
identify stressful situations and focus on changing the individuals’ cognitions to
physiological or emotional symptoms to alter the way they cope with those situations.

As Akinade, Sokan and Osarenren (2005) put it, an effective therapy should be directed
towards unmasking clients’ past and especially their present illogical thinking or self-
defeating verbalization by:

1. Bringing them to their attention or consciousness.

2. Showing the clients how they are causing and maintaining their disturbances and
unhappiness.

3. Demonstrate exactly what the illogical links in their internalized sentences are.

4. Teaching them how to rethink and re-verbalize these sentences in a more logical,and
self-helping way.

10.2.5: In-Text Assessment

A boy of fourteen years old who refuses to go to school in order to go into business for quick
wealth and recognition in the society needs counselling. What approach can a counsellor
apply in making him to realize himself and enroll in a school?

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Answer: A counsellor can apply the principles of Rational Emotive Therapy by Albert Ellis
in order to work on his irrational thoughts so that he can become logical and more useful to
himself and the society.

10.2.6: Advantages of Rational Emotive Theory

1. RET recognizes the contributions of clients in counselling interactions.

2. It teaches clients to adjust to an imperfect society.

3. It produces quick results.

4. It permits effective use of counsellor’s limited time.

5. RET enables counsellors to directly attack irrational ideas of clients.

6. It is effective in school system since it is like teaching and learning process.

7. It enables clients to realize that their problems will persist if they continue to harbor
their irrational thoughts.

8. It encourages clients to change their thinking and ideas and to accept more rational
philosophies of living.

10.2.7: Disadvantages of Rational Emotive Therapy

1. In some cases, clients may not be following in the counselling process.

2. The theory has age barriers as tender or too old clients may be very inflexible and
benefit less in the counselling interaction.

3. The counsellor in this case assumes to know it all and sees himself as a judge.

4. The counsellor is at the risk of imparting his own ideas to his clients during the
process of teaching to change illogical thoughts.

10.2.8: Conclusion

In this unit, we were told that illogical thoughts are responsible for people’s maladjustment in
the society. The counsellor has the capacity to rebrand the illogical thoughts and feelings of
people through relationship technique, insight-interpretative technique and supportive
technique. Here, the counsellor contradicts and denies the illogical reasoning of his clients
through teaching, suggestions and prescriptions to solve their problems. The clients are often

58
received by the counsellors in a calm, supportive, open and warm manner in order to provide
trust and confidentiality to the clients.

10.3: ASSIGNMENT

Discuss three situations of illogical thinking which can cause emotional distress and
explain how those situations are illogical.

TOPIC 11.0: BECK’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF COUNSELLING-DURATION 3

HOURS

11.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Explain Beck’s cognitive theory.

2. Discuss the theory’s assumptions on man.

3. Discuss the objectives and processes of counselling using the theory.

4. Give the techniques of counselling under the theory.

11.2: Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Counselling

11.2.0: Introduction

Similar to Albert Ellis’ therapy is the Beck’s cognitive therapy as they are all active,
directive, time-limited and structured in approach. Their approaches have the same goal of
helping clients recognize and discard self-defeating cognitions. Beck’s theory believes that
man’s problems are as a result of maladaptive beliefs and not irrational thoughts as put
forward by Ellis. Beck’s theory is an insight therapy that equally emphasizes recognizing and
changing negative thoughts and maladaptive beliefs. It is based on the theoretical rational that
the way people feel and behave is determined by how they structure their experience (Corey,
1991).

11.2.1: Main Content

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 Aaron Beck (1976) became interested in his clients’ automatic thoughts or personalized
notions that are triggered off by particular stimuli which lead to emotional responses. He
based his argument on the fact that cognitions are the major determinants of how we feel and
act. This is an insight therapy that emphasizes recognition and changing of negative thoughts
and maladaptive beliefs based on the fact that the way people feel and behave is determined
by how they structure their experience (Corey, 1991). Corey (1991) maintains that for man to
understand the nature of emotional episode or disturbance, it is essential to focus on the
cognitive content of an individual’s reaction to the upsetting event or stream of thoughts. An
individual is dysfunctional due to distortions in processing information that lead to faulty
assumptions and misconceptions, such as;

Arbitrary Interference by reaching conclusions without sufficient and relevant evidence

which Beck called catastrophic thinking of absolute worst scenarios that one may not like.

Selective Abstraction where conclusions are made on isolated details of an event thereby
missing the significant of the overall context.

Overgeneralization of events or ideas where one holds extreme beliefs about something on
the basis of a single incident and applies that inappropriately to dissimilar events or
situations; magnification and exaggeration or overestimation of the significance of a negative
event; Personalization of ideas whereby people relate external events to themselves even
when there is no basis for making that connection.

Polarized Thinking whereby an individual thinks and interprets an idea in all-or-nothing

terms or categorizes experiences in either or extremes leading to dichotomy of thinking and
reaction to events.

Beck’s therapy sees man as a rational being with logical thoughts and reasoning but
unproductive because he displays hasty or inaccurate conclusion of events. Such conclusions
therefore make man to have unrealistic negative thoughts and assumptions. Man is governed
by rules (premises or formulas) and gets into trouble when he labels, interprets and evaluates
events by a set of rules that is unrealistic or when he uses the rules inappropriately or
excessively.

11.2.2: Counselling Objectives of Beck’s Cognitive Theory

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Beck’s counselling theory can be applied successfully in treating depression, general anxiety,
social anxiety, test anxiety, phobias, psychosomatic disorders, eating disorders, anger and
chronic pain problems (Corey, 1991). Based on this, his counselling objectives are to:

1. Change the way a client thinks.

2. Identify distorted and dysfunctional cognitions through a process of evaluation.

3. Teach a client how to discriminate between his own thoughts and reality.

4. Enable a client learn the influence that cognition has on his feelings, behaviours and
even environmental events.

5. Teach clients to recognise, observe and monitor their own thoughts and assumptions,
especially their negative automatic thoughts.

11.2.3: Principles and Processes of Beck’s Cognitive Theory

Beck became interested in his clients’ personalized notions that are triggered of by particular
stimuli that led to emotional responses which he termed automatic thoughts. Counselling is
based on the assumption that cognitions are the major determinants of how we feel and act.
Secondly, counselling consists of all the approaches that alleviate psychological distress
through the medium of correcting faulty conceptions and self-signals. Finally, changing
dysfunctional emotions and behaviours is by modifying inaccurate and dysfunctional
thinking.

After gaining insight into the effects of their unrealistic negative thoughts on them, clients
are trained to subject these automatic thoughts to reality testing, by examining the evidence
for and against their cognitions. Counselling sessions should be characterized by genuine
warmth,accurate empathy, non-judgmental actions, acceptance, trust and rapport with clients.
The processes involved in doing so include:

1. Giving the clients assignments.

2. Gathering data on the assumptions they make.

3. Keeping a record of their activities.

4. Forming alternative interpretations.

5. Using problem-solving and coping skills to solve their emotional problems.

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6. Time-limited and structured approach to guide the clients on the path to follow.

7. Giving directive through teaching to realize the acceptable interpretations of concepts.

11.2.4: Differences between Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) and Beck’s Cognitive
Theory.

Rational Emotive Therapy Beck’s Cognitive Theory

1. Therapist is a teacher and there is no 1. Counsellor rests on desirable
need for warm personal relationship. quality therapeutic based on warm
relationship.
2. It is client-centred.
2. It is counselor-centred.
3. It is directive, persuasive and
confrontational. 3. It involves Socratic dialogue
to discover misconceptions.
4. Different methods are applied based
on the individual personality 4. Different approaches are
and resistance. applied to different disorders in
relation to clients’ cognition.
5. It is based on
irrational thinking. 5. It is based on inaccurate
conclusions.

11.2.5: Advantages of Beck’s Cognitive Theory

1. Clients learn to substitute realistic and accurate

interpretations for their biased cognitions.

2. They also learn to modify their dysfunctional beliefs and assumptions that predispose
them to distort their experience.

3. It involves Socratic dialogue to discover misconceptions by the clients themselves.

4. The theory uses eclectic approaches in relation to different disorders to clients’

cognition.

5. It embraces warm and acceptable relationship with the clients.

6. It enables counsellors to suggest alternative rules and always ask for evidence for a
particular action.

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11.2.6: Disadvantages of Beck’s Cognitive Theory

1. It is counsellor-centred and didactive in nature.

2. The counsellor in this case assumes to know it all and sees himself as a judge.

3. The counsellor is at the risk of imparting his own ideas to his clients during the
process of teaching to change illogical thoughts.

4. It has nothing better than other cognitive theories as the theory is largely resting on
the positions of others.

11.2.7: Conclusion

Beck’s cognitive theory is a theory that borrows heavily from the behavioral approaches
where an individual’s maladaptive behavior is greatly influenced by his cognition of self and
the environment. It postulates that man’s problem is as a result of his inability to give
accurate interpretations to the events that led to his predicament. The counsellor here teaches
the clients how to identify distorted and dysfunctional cognitions through a process of testing
in order to enable them live meaningful life.

11.3: ASSIGNMENT

Identify situations in which people may engage in:

i) Personalization
ii) Polarized thinking

TOPIC 12.0: BEHAVIOURAL THEORY OF KRUMKOLTZ AND THORESEN-

DURATION 3 HOURS

12.1 Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Discuss the basis of behavioural counselling.

2. Discuss the basic concepts of behavioural counselling.

3. Discuss the counselling objectives, processes, techniques, implications,

advantages and disadvantages of behavioural approach.

12.2: Behavioural Theory of Krumkoltz and Thoresen

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12.2.0: Introduction

In behavior counseling, principles of learning and counseling are applied to the understanding
and control of human behavior. John Kromboltz and Carl Thoreson have been two of the
leaders in application of behavioral principles to the school of counselling.

The behavioral approach emphasizes the role of the environment in shaping behavior.
Although all theories point to learning as an interaction of biological predispositions and the
environmental factors, the behavioralists focus more on how humans learn behavioral,
emotional, and cognitive reactions. Both adaptive as well as maladaptive behaviors are
acquired according to the same fundamental principles of learning and just as it is learned,
behavior can be unlearned and relearned. Instrumental operant conditioning postulates that
behavior is controlled by its consequences. The consequences are namely: - positive
reinforcement which increases the probability of a response to gain something positive,
negative reinforcement which increases the response to avoid something negative, and
punishment which is painful consequence of a response.

Classical conditioning emphasizes two principles namely:-Stimulus generalization through

which a person generalizes from specific conditioned or reinforced stimulus to others. E.g. a
male who trusts his mother may trust women except with good reason, or a child who learns
to stay away from moving objects stays away from fast moving people as well.

Discrimination, which is learning to differentiate stimuli. E.g. a child who was sexually
abused learns not to hate or distrust all people.

Social learning theorists emphasize modeling where an individual learns by observing others
and imitating their behavior.

12.2.1: Main Content

Krumboltz and Thoresen (1969) in a bid to find appropriate counselling approach deviated
slightly from the cognitive or mental process principle and psychoanalytic approach to a
more contractual form of dealing with behaviour problems. Behavioural theory sees man as a
being that has the potential to change his behaviour in order to solve any problem presented
to him by his environment. This theory believes that since behaviour is a function of heredity
and environment, it can be changed through learning or relearning. Problems of maladaptive
adjustment arise from inappropriate learning experiences or faulty pattern of imbibing
knowledge.

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Characteristically, behavioural counselling maintains that man’s behaviour is learned and is
therefore subject to change through the same process. Secondly, specific changes of a man’s
environment can help in changing relevant behaviours which can only be tackled by altering
the relevant changes in the environment. Also, reinforcement and social modelling as social
learning principles can effectively be used to develop counselling procedures in behavioural
counselling. Specific changes in behaviour are the determinants of counselling effectiveness
and its outcome. Finally, counselling procedures are not fixed or permanent but situational to
assist clients’ problems as they occur.

12.2.2: Counselling Objectives

Krumboltz and Thoresen (1969) are of the opinion that counselling as a matter of necessity
should be to:

1. Bring about relevant changes in students or clients by altering their faulty

environment.

2. State students’ problems in specific behavioural terms.

3. Assist students in dropping their old habits acquired innately or through socialization.

4. Assist students in dealing with the aspect of the environment responsible for their
problems.

5. Help students in re-organizing their thinking, perception, attitude or belief about an

experience.

12.2.3: Counselling Procedures and Skills

The behavioral counselor’s role is goal-focused, active, directive, and prescriptive. The
counselor makes suggestions about some solutions to the problem and activities to be
engaged in during the interview e.g. role playing. Outside the counseling setup, the counselor
encourages the counselee to monitor his/her behavior and record the observations for self-
evaluation against the ideas of the counselor relationship.

The counsellor and his clients share the process of decision making without any of them
manipulating each other in order to increase, decrease or teach new behaviour. The
counsellors help clients to define and move towards achieving observable goals. Each
problem presented by a client is solved with a suitable procedure as procedures are not static
or sacrosanct, fixed or pre–determined. The counsellor in effect helps his clients to define

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goals and provide resources, information and cues to achieve counter-learning or re-learning.
Besides, the counsellor in warm and friendly atmosphere can use social learning principles
(reinforcement and modelling) to specifically handle his clients’ problems. Other techniques
that can be used by the counsellor here include systematic desensitization, operant
conditioning, counter conditioning, time out, extinction, token economy, feedback, behaviour
modification and verbal instruction.

Behavioralists’ techniques include the following:-

Systematic desensitization is a method used to help the client who has developed phobia or
fear for something. The client is made to approach the feared experience in small steps and
relax after each step. This method was first used by Watson and Johns in 1824 to help a 3
year old boy to overcome his fears for animals which had developed because of an attack
from a dog.

Flooding is applied to help the client who has developed fear for something. In this method,
the fear-causing or anxiety-causing stimulus is presented to the client continuously until the
undesirable behavior is eliminated. For instance, if a child has developed fear for a teacher
the parent can pay several visits to the teacher with the child, until the fear in the child is
eliminated.

Counter-conditioning: This method is used to help a client who has developed a bad habit or
is addicted to something. It involves presenting a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus in such a way that the undesirable behavior is eliminated, for example in treatment
of phobias, the feared items can be presented when the client is in a situation when the feared
items doesn’t pose any threat. For example bringing a cat near a child with cat phobias when
the child is held by the mother and allowing the baby to play with the cat.

Assertive Training – this is helping the client to become expressive without fear or holding
back. Behavioral rehearsal which leads to assertiveness will bring the counselee to express
feelings and emotions and hence gain relief and solution.

Participant Modeling – the counselor’s role-plays the behavior that he/she wishes the
counselee to attain and assists the counselee to imitate then. Gradually the counselee’s
anxieties are dissolved and he/she can exhibit the behavior without difficulties.

Contingency Contracting – this is where a system of rewards and punishments is

established in advance, and followed to ensure that behavior is modified appropriately.

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Time out-a punishing technique in which the misbehaving person is isolated from the group,
eg keeping a naughty child in bedroom without toys. It also involves confining a person in
unpleasant places like imprisonment.

Extinction-When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is called

extinction. You are taking something away so that a response is decreased.

Token economy-an instrumental conditioning procedure in which tokens or prices are given
to reinforce socially acceptable behavior. Later the tokens are used to buy desired items or
privileges for example trips or home visits for mental patients.

Response cost-a punishment technique which involves removing a positive reinforce for
example revoking a driving license for a person who commits a traffic offence withdrawing a
scholarship for students who display undesirable behavior, demoting undeserving prefects.

12.2.4: Advantages of Behavioural Approach of Counselling

1. Counselling is about tackling observable behaviours which can be quantified.

2. Counselling procedures are applied according to the problems presented.

3. It is a teaching process of counselling that enables clients to realize their maladaptive

behaviours.

4. Counsellors help clients to define goals and where they make mistakes, they are
promptly corrected.

5. The theory emphasizes the use of reinforcement to increase the probability of

occurrence of any positive behavior.

6. Clients can easily be influenced as it makes use of social modelling where life or
symbolic objects are used to counsel them.

12.2.5: Disadvantages of behavioural approach of counselling

1. Clients are not at liberty to make decisions on their own.

2. Poor application of reinforcement can mislead counselling direction.

3. The counsellor needs to be highly skilled in order to be able to handle operant

conditioning and modelling techniques to produce desired results.

4. The blueprint for action in behavioural counselling is often shroudedin trial and error.

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12.2.6: Conclusion

The interaction between man and his environment is highly unique and requires varying
degrees of techniques in handling different clients. Most often the techniques used here
include operant conditioning (reinforcement), social modeling and counter conditioning
procedures. Behavioural approach is suitable in treating gross deficits in behaviour. These are
avoidant responses that resulted from formally inappropriate stimuli which have acquired the
capacity to elicit high intensity emotional reactions. This involves the use of desensitization
through reciprocal inhibition where incompatible response is associated with unadaptive
learned behaviour in the presence of the situation that elicits the unadaptive behaviour. It
simply means ignoring undesirable behaviour and substituting it with more desirable
behaviour. These are the major concerns of behavioural approach of counselling.

12.3: ASSIGNMENT

Discuss two behaviours that can be modified using each technique given below.

 Time out
 Response cost
 Contigency contracting
 Systematic desensitization

TOPIC 13.0: GESTALT THEORY OF COUNSELLING-DURATION 3 HOURS

13.1: Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Explain the meaning of Gestalt theory of counselling.

2. Discuss Gestalt’s view on human nature.

3. Give the counselling objectives and processes of Gestalt theory.

4. Discuss the processes and techniques of counselling provided by Gestalt

theory of counselling.

5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Gestalt theory of counselling.

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13.2: GESTALT THEORY OF COUNSELLING

13.2.1 Introduction

Gestalt theory of counselling was propounded and popularized by Fritz Perls (1893-1970).
He was born in Berlin, Germany and trained in Psychiatry. As an expert in Psychiatry, he
became interested in emotional problems of human beings and in the process developed the
Gestalt theory, an existential approach based on the premise that people must find their own
way of life and accept personal responsibility if they hope to achieve maturity.

Gestalt is a German word which means “whole.” It is the concept of integrating body and
mind functioning into a perceptual whole. This approach sees man as a whole organism that
cannot be separated from the environment. Counselling is aimed at integrating attention and
awareness. The therapist on his part endeavors’ to assist the client to understand how he
behaves at a particular time and at the same time, tries to unravel what the client avoids in his
life encounter. The belief is that the client’s response to life experiences is contained in his
thoughts, feelings and actions. He is assisted to gain self-awareness through the analysis of
his behaviour and body language in order to give expression to repressed feelings.

13.2.2 Main content

The main proponent of Gestalt theory, Fritz Perls views Gestalt theory as essentially an
existential therapy that is in harmony with medicine, science and universe. Gestalt is a
German word which means “whole.” It is the concept of integrating body and mind
functioning into a perceptual whole.

Although a person has many parts and aspects of the body, which include; emotions,
thoughts, sensations and perceptions, he functions as a whole unit. Consequently a person can
only be understood in the context of a whole person.

Another important concept in Gestalt Therapy is the environment. An individual is a part of

their environment and if you want to understand a person, you need to understand their
environment also.

Another crucial concept in Gestalt Therapy is “here and now”. A person can only experience
themselves in the present and not in the past nor in the future. A person can only be
physically present in one place at a time and problem is experienced when a person lives

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“here and there” simultaneously. Although one is physically present, their mind may be
present in another place, that is in the past or future.

For example a person with terminal sickness may live in the past where they had dreams or
plans of what they wanted to accomplish in life. While doing so, the person ignores the
present situation and its possibility on personal development. The reality is that the person
cannot go back and live in the past. The process of healing begins when they accept that fact
that they can only live “here and now” and begin making new dreams based on the present
reality.

Flitz Perls also argues that personality consists of self (what one actually is) and self-image
(what other people expect one to become). The self helps a person to become all that one is
capable of becoming (be self-actualized). The self-image on the other hand hinders self-
actualization. According to Perls, a person’s early interaction with the environment will
determine which aspect will dominate their personality. For example, opportunities and
support given by parents will promote self-actualizing tendency. On the other hand, if parents
impose their wishes on the child, they will promote the self-image. Perls regarded
maladaptive behavior to be a developmental disorder caused by neglecting the self while
attending to the demands of self-image.

13.2.3 View on human nature

The Gestalt Theory believes that man can deal effectively with his life problems, especially if
he makes full use of awareness of what is happening in and around him. Man has potentials
that are not fully utilized despite the fact that he is capable of making life richer by
harnessing his potentials. Man is viewed as a whole and inseparable from the environment.
When a man encounters another man, the two of them try to establish a world in which both
have a common interest through communication. Hence, people take to various ways of
avoiding problems.

13.2.4 Counselling objectives of Gestalt theory

This theory in essence provides necessary interventions and challenges to help man realize
himself as a whole entity made up of parts. Hence, the counselling objectives of the Gestalt
theory are to:

1. Help clients proceed toward integration and a more authentic and vital
existence.

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 2. Enable clients move toward increased awareness of themselves.

3. Assist clients develop skills and acquire values that will allow them to satisfy
their needs without violating the rights of others.

4. Help clients to live here and now.

5. Enable clients become more aware of all of their senses.

6. Help clients learn to accept responsibility for what they do, including
accepting the consequences of their actions.

7. Help clients move from outside support toward increasing internal support.

8. Enable clients to be able to ask and get help from others and to give to others.

13.2.5: Counselling processes

Counselling processes under the Gestalt theory involve focusing on clients’ feelings,
awareness at the moment, body messages, energy, avoidance, and blocks of awareness to be
in touch with the obvious. According to Corey (1991), at the point of catastrophe, the
counsellor shows concern and explains the feelings that might be in the client. Here, the
clients are helped to get through their impasse by playing the role of weakness, helplessness,
stupidity and foolishness to make them to be aware through explanation to get out of the
frustration. This will enable the clients to become more realistic, and matured as the blocks
that prevent them from standing on their own feet would be removed. The counsellor pays
attention to the body language of the clients and emphasize on the relationship between
language patterns and personality. He further confronts them gently by interventions that help
them to become aware of the effects of their language patterns.

In the process of counselling, the counsellor may change questions to statements, personalize
pronouns to own experience, ask how and what questions, share intuitive feelings, use body
expressions and bring resentments and appreciations to enhance awareness. The useful tools
to help the clients gain fuller awareness, experience internal conflicts, resolve inconsistencies
and dichotomies, and work through an impasse that is preventing completion of unfinished
business are as given below:

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 1. Directed awareness- The Gestalt therapist uses simple questions to help the
client promote self-awareness. For example ‘What are your legs doing? This helps the
client to focus on the present.
2. The use of ‘I’ language: the therapist encourages the client to use this in-order
to take responsibility of their behaviours.
3. Games of dialogue: Role playing is mainly used to help the client gain self-
awareness and insight. Specifically the empty chair technique is used. The client sits
on a chair and plays different roles about him concern. For example a man
contemplating divorce may role-play it before it happens. It is hoped that the role-play
will give him an insight of how he will feel after divorce.
4. Dream-work: Gestaltians regard elements recurring in dreams as representing
parts of self that have been neglected or not fully accepted. The client is helped to
discover and integrate those parts in their personalities.

5. Making the rounds: This involves asking a person in a group to go up to others

in the group and speak or do something with each other in order to confront, to risk or
disclose self.

6. Reversals: This involves asking a person with inhibitions and excessive

timidity to play a particular role in a group. The person will immediately see his
negative side.

7. Rehearsals: This involves rehearsing what is right consistently.

13.2.6: Advantages of Gestalt counselling Theory

1. It uses action approach that brings conflicts and human struggles to life.

2. It brings relevant aspects into the present.

3. It uses confrontation to deal with hopelessness.

4. The theory also provides unique ways of dream analysis which places dream
as a projection of life.

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 5. It is based on growth and enhancement not on techniques to treat

disorders.

6. It is useful in interpreting the uniqueness of individuals.

7. It is effective in helping people to integrate the potentials within them.

13.2.7: Disadvantages of Gestalt theory of counselling

1. It deemphasizes the cognitive factors of personality.

2. It requires high level of personal development in order to be understood and

applied as it is highly idiosyncratic to the system of counselling.

3. There is little or no research to demonstrate its effectiveness empirically.

13.2.8: Conclusion

Gestalt theory of counselling as discussed above employ techniques that enable clients to
mobilize their natural resources in dealing with their environment decisively and effectively.
This results to the creation, direction and guidance of personal growth and provision of
solutions to personal problems. Gestalt theory emphasizes whole as yardstick for measuring
an individual’s personality.

13.3 ASSIGNMENT

 Discuss FIVE counselling techniques in Gestalt therapy.

TOPIC 14.0: REALITY THERAPY -DURATION 3 HOURS

14.1: Topic Objectives

By the end of the topic you will be expected to;

1. Identify and discuss the basic concepts of reality therapy.

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2. Discuss the counselling objectives and procedures of reality therapy.

3. Critically examine William Glasser’s reality therapy.

14.2: REALITY THERAPY

14.2.1: Introduction

Reality Therapy Founder was William Glasser. William Glasser developed the concept of
Reality Therapy (Carew, 1983). Glasser’s reality Therapy was introduced to alleviate
peoples’ suffering and in the end eliminate irresponsible behaviour. The therapy is a reaction
against conventional therapy, short-term, with focus on the present. Stresses a person’s
strengths.

According to the theory, a human being has psychological needs such as love and belonging,
power, freedom, and desire to have fun. In addition a human being’s sole physiological need
is survival. The needs must be fulfilled in a responsible manner in order for a person to
develop a healthy functioning personality and consequently develop a success identity. On
the other hand if one’s needs are fulfilled in an irresponsible manner or not fulfilled at all,
they develop a failure identity, which is the main source of maladaptive behavior.

Basically, a way clients can learn more realistic behavior and thus achieve success. The
philosophical base of this approach is that people are self-determining, autonomous, and
responsible. The two traits of a successful person are love and warmth. Thus an adjusted
person is classified as “success.” He is happy, confident, rational, and responsible. A
maladjusted person is classified as “failure.” He is lonely, self-critical, irrational, and
irresponsible. Reality therapy, also known as an action system focuses on involvement and
motivation. It has eight important principles:

 Becoming personally involve with the client.

 Focusing on the client’s present behavior.
 Helping the client evaluate and judge his own behavior.
 Helping the client in making decisions and committing himself to be responsible.
 Accepting no excuses for nonperformance and nonfulfillment of plans.
 Eliminating punishment for client’s failures.
 Preventing interference with reasonable consequences.

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  Encouraging and challenging client not to give up in spite of difficulties.

Reality therapy focuses on behavior and not on feelings. It puts emphasis on the power and
potential of positive thinking and acting. It is a verbal system that is direct, frank, and
realistic and is more often used in academic settings where two-way communication exists.
Happiness and the capacity to laugh at one’s mistakes are considered indispensable to mental
health such that humor is a part of reality therapy.

Reality therapy is concerned with the client’s conscious thoughts, not on his unconscious
thoughts such as dreams or fantasies. Confrontation and even verbal shock therapy are
sometimes necessary to guide the client to responsible action and behavior. Responsible
behavior is the ultimate goal of this approach with its problem-centered and success-oriented

14.2.2: Main content

According to the theory, a human being has psychological needs such as love and belonging,
power, freedom, and desire to have fun. In addition a human being’s sole physiological need
is survival. The needs must be fulfilled in a responsible manner in order for a person to
develop a healthy functioning personality and consequently develop a success identity. It is a
state in which an individual feels good and comfortable about themselves. On the other hand
if one’s needs are fulfilled in an irresponsible manner or not fulfilled at all, they develop a
failure identity, which is the main source of maladaptive behavior. A person experiences
anxiety, quilt and self-disapproval.

Basically, a way clients can learn more realistic behavior and thus achieve success. The
philosophical base of this approach is that people are self-determining, autonomous, and
responsible. The two traits of a successful person are love and warmth. Thus an adjusted
person is classified as “success.” He is happy, confident, rational, and responsible. A
maladjusted person is classified as “failure.” He is lonely, self-critical, irrational, and
irresponsible. Reality therapy, also known as an action system focuses on involvement and
motivation. It has eight important principles: becoming personally involve with the client,
focusing on the client’s present behavior, helping the client evaluate and judge his own
behavior, helping the client in making decisions and committing himself to be responsible,
accepting no excuses for nonperformance and nonfulfillment of plans, eliminating

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punishment for client’s failures, preventing interference with reasonable consequences, and
encouraging and challenging client not to give up inspite of difficulties.

Reality therapy focuses on behavior and not on feelings. It puts emphasis on the power and
potential of positive thinking and acting. It is a verbal system that is direct, frank, and
realistic and is more often used in academic settings where two-way communication exists.
Happiness and the capacity to laugh at one’s mistakes are considered indispensable to mental
health such that humor is a part of reality therapy.

Reality therapy is concerned with the client’s conscious thoughts, not on his unconscious
thoughts such as dreams or fantasies. Confrontation and even verbal shock therapy are
sometimes necessary to guide the client to responsible action and behavior. Responsible
behavior is the ultimate goal of this approach with its problem-centered and success-oriented

Hence, Glasser provides conditions that help clients to develop the psychological strength to
evaluate their present behaviour, and if it does not meet their needs, to acquire more effective
behavior. He stresses that our behavior is our best attempt to get what we want and in doing
so, to gain effective control of our lives.

Reality therapy discards the orthodox concept of mental illness, including neurotic and
psychotic disorders and contends that neurotic or psychotic behavior is not something that
merely happens to us but it is behavior that we chose as a way of attempting to control our
world. The therapy emphasizes responsibility which is behavior that satisfies ones needs in
ways that do not interfere with other patterns of behaviour by other people. When people
make choices that infringe on other peoples’ freedom, their behavior becomes irresponsible.
The therapy seeks to provide the best way to control events around us through what we do. In
doing so, three basic questions are often asked as thus: Is what you are choosing to do getting
you what you want? Are you responsible for your action/ what exactly do you want? Other
questions that the therapy posits include

1. Is what you are doing hurting you or helping you?

2. Is your behaviour working for you?

3. Is what you are doing against the rules?

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4. Is what you want realistic or attainable?

5. Does what you want help you to look at it that way?

These questions help clients to realize the consequences of their intending behaviours and the
quality of actions judged as without self-assessment, the will find it difficult to change. The
therapy recommends that answering those questions directly will enable clients to recognize
that some behaviours are not effective.

14.2.3: Nature of man

Reality therapy sees man as an autonomous person who knows what he wants from life and
makes plans for meeting his needs and goals (Glasser, 1989). Man lives in the external world
but always tries to control it so that it is as close possible to his own internal world.
Furthermore, through hard work, the deterministic philosophy of human nature to change and
live more effectively and mold the environment to match inner pictures of what man wants

[Link] behaviour is therefore purposeful and originates from within the individual
rather than from external forces. When man’s psychological needs are thwarted, he feels
pains and may not be able to fulfill and satisfy his life but when his needs are responsibly
attended to, he develops an identity characterized by success and self-esteem that displays
desirable behaviour. Man cannot change how he is feeling without thinking of how he is
doing or thinking but he can change what he is doing or thinking. Man is capable of
depressing or annoying himself. Glassier (1989) identifies human basic needs as four
psychological needs for belonging, power, freedom, and fun and the psychological need for
survival which powerful forces that drive man. Man’s brain functions as a control system to
aid him to what he wants. Reality therapy therefore concentrates on changing current and
total behaviours of man, not merely attitudes and feelings.

14.2.4: Counselling objectives of Reality Therapy

The objectives of counseling under the reality therapy are to:

1. Teach people better and more effective ways of getting what they want

from life.

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2. To teach people to learn how to achieve freedom so that others do not suffer in the
process.

3. Assist people in designing a plan for change as a way of translating talk into action.

4. Promote discussion on clients’ current behaviour and discourage excuses for

irresponsible or ineffective behaviour.

5. Evaluate realistically, clients’ attainable wants.

6. Teach clients to formulate and carry out plans to change their behaviour.

7. Teach clients to focus on their strengths and potentials that can lead to success.

8. Assist clients in finding more effective ways of meeting their needs for belonging,
power, freedom, and fun.

14.2.4: Counselling processes and skills

The therapists under the reality therapy usually engage in procedures that lead to change by
exploring clients’ wants, needs, and perceptions and focusing on current behaviours. The first
step in the process of counselling involves planning and commitment. This the teaching phase
of counseling to provide information and help clients find more effective ways of successful
experiences. The clients are urged to own their responsibilities and actions through the use of
humor.

Another important skill is to engage the clients through confrontation to examine what they
are doing, thinking, and feeling in order to figure out if there is a better way for them to
function. Counselling focuses on what the clients are conscious of and then help them to
increase their level of awareness and so that they can learn alternative ways of behaviours or
doing things. Confrontation enables clients to decide if what they are doing is getting them
what they want and determine what changes if any they are willing to make.

In all, the counsellor in a process to assist his client will sit him down and explain clearly
what was required of him. In addition to the confrontation technique earlier mentioned, the
counsellor can increase the sense of worth of his client by comparing his thoughts to those of
a trusted, respected person or role models. Where this fails, the counsellor may wish to

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engage the client in relearning. At any stage of counselling, the counsellor must accept his
client uncritically as a person and understand his behaviour. He should be emotionally
involved in the process of counselling to actually get the direction of his client. The
procedures consist of:

1. The therapist becoming involved with the patient in a warm, honest, open way so that
the client can begin to face reality and evaluate that behaviour that is unrealistic.

2. The counsellor rejects unrealistic and irresponsible behaviours with full explanations
to the client.

3. He assists the client in restructuring the fulfillment of his needs realistically.

14.2.5: Advantages of Reality Therapy

1. It teaches people more effective ways of dealing with their problems and the world at
large.

2. It helps clients to be realistic in making any decisions in a bid to solve their problems.

3. The therapy can be applied to people with any sort of psychological problem, from
mild emotional upset to complete psychotic cases like withdrawal.

4. The therapy is suitable in handling cases in schools, hospitals and rehabilitation

centres.

5. It is a popular approach in treating substance abuse.

14.2.6: Disadvantages of Reality Therapy

1. The therapist acts like the lord in the counselling relationship thereby issuing out
directions and order to his clients.

2. The evaluation process to determine the behaviours of clients is not

scientific.

3. The therapy is an off-shoot of an earlier jettisoned therapy for lack of merit.

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4. It does not take into consideration, clients’ past in treating their present ailments
which must have been as a result of past experience.

5. It places a lot of responsibilities on the counsellor.

14.2.6: Conclusion

Reality therapy is relatively new as a theory of counselling but undoubtedly an effective

means of handling various problems in our society today. Counsellors as well as teachers
with enough background in the techniques of reality therapy can conveniently and effectively
manage their students/clients in any school setting. The therapy has no age or class barrier
and can be applied to people with mild mental illness in order to enable such patients directly
attack the sources of their unfulfilled needs which must have emanated from their inability to
control the world around them to satisfy their needs.

14.3 ASSIGNMENT.

 Discuss the nature of man according to Reality Therapy.

EXISTENTIAL THEORY

1.0 Introduction

Viktor Frankl, Rallo May and Irvin Yalom in 1905 propounded the theory of Existentialism
or Existential Therapy to understand human behaviour through the exposition of philosophy,
theology, psychology and psychiatry. Later, Viktor Frankl in 1978 termed his own version of
existential therapy as logotherapy. This is a therapy that emphasizes meaning into life.
According to him, even wellfunctioning people sometimes perceive life as meaningless and
experience a sense of emptiness. He called this situation the unheard cry for meaning. He
sees logotherapy as a means of helping people to recognize the depth of their need for

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meaning, reassuring them that all people can create meaning in their lives, and support them
in their efforts to find purpose and meaning. He used “dereflection” or intervention to help
people deal with feelings of meaningless. Hence, logothrapy was designed to help people find
a meaning in life.

Frankl (1978) also described a cycle in which fears evoke symptoms that in turn increase the
fears. For example, a person who fears heights avoids them and because of the avoidance,
anticipatory anxiety develops, the heights become increasingly frightening in the person’s
mind, and the avoidance as well as the fears increase. To break this, Frankl (1978) used
Paradoxical Intentionin which clients are encouraged to do or wish for the very thing they
fear most. For instance, if going out in the dark makes one to faint, urge him/her to go out and
try to faint. The person went out but did not faint.

However, in this unit, the work of Rallo May is extensively discussed as it represents the true
picture of existentialism as propounded by the trio of Frankl, May and Yalom in 1905. They
believe that existential guilt and neurotic anxiety result when we lack awareness of our
physical world, our relationships, and our psychological world; fail to take responsibility for
making our lives meaningful and worthwhile; and realize that we have not become what we
might have. It reflects our awareness that we have not fully realized ourselves as human
beings and have allowed our lives to be controlled by chance and circumstance. Depression
often is the result of efforts to defend against existential guilt and anxiety and avoid the task
of making our lives meaningful.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, the learners should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of existentialism.

2. Discuss Viktor Frankl’s view of existentialism.

3. Discuss the counseling objectives and processes of existentialism

4. Discuss the implications of existential theory in Nigeria.

5. Give a critique existential theory.

3.0 Main Content

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May (1968) sees the essence of helping an individual as an attempt to understand the
individual as an existing member of his society. Existentialism as propounded by May
believes that efforts should be geared towards enhancing man’s growth and potentialities to
achieve a harmonious balanced person in him. A harmonious and balanced person is calm
enough to struggle in the midst of challenges and problems to chart a course for himself. For
an existentialist, life has no inherent meaning and is replete with challenges (Seligman &
Reichenberg, 2011). Unless people meet these challenges with awareness, openness, and
courage, their emotional development can become blocked or delayed.

According toSeligman and Reichenberg (2011), there are four ultimate concerns of the root
of emotional difficulties of man which are:

1. Inevitability of death: From onset, we realize that one must die one day no matter how
special the fear of our ultimate non-being can cast a pall over people’s lives and make them
seem pointless.

2. Isolation: No matter the people around an individual, he is ultimately alone. No one

can use our thoughts or feelings as we can do. Loneliness can be most acute when we are
with others and are aware of our lack of a true connection with them.

3. Meaningless: Life seems inherently meaningless. The only certainties in our lives are
birth and death. The inherent meaninglessness of life can lead to hopelessness,
discouragement, and a sense of emptiness.

4. Freedom and responsibility: Modern society presents people with an overwhelming

and constantly increasing array of choices. Choices of lifestyle, choices of acquisitions, and
others. We have both the freedom and the responsibility to make choices that create a
worthwhile existence for ourselves in the limited time we have on earth.

Seligman and Reichenberg (2011) are of the opinion that everyone experiences the four
ultimate concerns and they are what create feelings of anxiety in everyone. They maintain
that existential anxiety is an inevitable part of the human conditions, deeper than anxiety
about one’s career or health. It is a positive sign rather than a pathological state; it indicates
that people recognize the need to accept responsibility for their lives and are engaged in
efforts to create a worthwhile and meaningful existence. Such people are living authentic
lives in which they are aware of their self-in-world construct, strive to make wise choices and
take responsibility for their decisions (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2011). Existential anxiety is

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normal anxiety in man while neurotic anxiety as explained above is abnormal anxiety
responsible for man’s problems.

According to Makinde (1988), Existentialism emphasizes that man is a dynamic entity who
is always changing. Man is a being in existence that is totally free and responsible for his acts
and actions. He is constantly searching, thinking, feeling, changing, growing and choosing
his goals for better living. Man is a meaningful whole who defines himself in the context of
what is on the ground. He is very much open to reality and creates meaning for himself in
order to exist.

3.1 Counselling objectives

Existentialism as a behavioural counselling is broadened to foster freedom and improve a

client’s encounter with others who also exist in the same world and beyond. Specifically,
existential counselling aims at.

1. Assisting clients to discover meaning for their existence.

2. Assisting clients to accept responsibilities for themselves

3. Assisting clients achieve their growth and potentialities.

4. Assisting clients to think realistically

5. Helping students to live a balanced life like some significant others in their society.

6. Enabling people to become truthful in their lives again.

7. Enabling people to widen their perspective on themselves and the world around them.

8. Assisting people to find clarity on how to proceed into the future whilst taking lessons
from the past and creating something valuable to live for in the present.

3.2 Counselling procedures and skills

Counselling in Existentialism involves entering the client’s world in order to take part in its
realities. The counsellor enters into a relationship with his client so that the client’s existence
becomes real to him. This is done through the provision of necessary information, knowledge
and insight using flexible techniques like modelling, explanation, interviews and
confrontation. These techniques can be used interchangeably until a decision is taken by the
client(s).

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3.4 Counselling implications in Nigeria

Existentialism has potentials for counselling practices in Nigeria. Nigeria is a country in

transition from underdevelopment to development via various reforms even in educational
sector. This in essence portrays Nigeria as a dynamic nation with dynamic citizens. Through
existential counselling, Nigerian students can understand the realities of their being and
change their present inappropriate study behaviours that are presumably responsible for
dropping out of schools and poor academic performance with their attendant crime problems
in our society. With the opportunities available in existential counselling, Nigerian students
can realistically prepare and write examinations without cheating. In thewider society too,
Nigerians can assert themselves and look for a meaning to their life especially in the face of
various challenges rocking many Nigerians today.

3.5 Advantages of Existentialism

1. It sees individual’s identity or awareness of himself as basic antecedents of behaviour.

2. It is scientific as it can be verified and communicated to others.

3. The theory emphasizes the importance of the counsellor rather than that of his
techniques.

4. It has flexible techniques.

5. Counsellor’s presence in counselling relationship provides client with hope for his
experience to become real to himself.

6. It recognizes man as a dynamic entity in a dynamic society who can always fend for
himself.

3.6 Disadvantages of Existentialism

1. The emphasis placed on individual’s realization of selfrelegates counselling

techniques to secondary importance.

2. There is no clear cut approach recommended for counsellors’ use.

3. Terminology is often incomprehensible and employed in disparate ways.

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4.0 Conclusion

Existentialism is a behavioural approach that seeks to educate man to find meaning to his life.
With no clear cut technique but strategies based on problems provided by clients, the
counsellor under the therapy merely tries to enter into the clients’ world and provide
information that can enable them (clients) to evaluate themselves. With this the clients can
clarify certain issues that act as stumbling block to their growth.

Existential Approach

This approach focuses on the belief that life has no significant meaning except if it is created.
It advocates that an individual has to strive to attach meaning to life by developing his
potentials. Hence, counseling is all about making man to achieve sense of life via a personal
world view in addition to willingness to face challenges of life. The existential approach uses
flexible techniques like insight, knowledge, decisive action, commitment; explanation and
discussion to enable clients discover meaning for their existence.

The Logotherapy Approach (Victor Frankl)

This is a philosophically oriented psychotherapy or approach. It focuses on what it means to

be human and challenges the client to make attitudinal changes for his sake and others. It is a
humanistic-existential approach with three basic concepts: freedom of the will, will to
meaning, and meaning of life. Although freedom is the core of the humanistic-existential
perspective, there are limitations to human freedom: physical, social and psychological.
However, inspite of the limitations imposed by heredity, health, economic, political or
psychological forces, man possess the freedom to transcend (self-transcendence) certain
limits inorder to make a stand, expressed in his attitude and action. This going beyond
human limits propels the client to reach a spiritual or existential dimension that allows him to
discover meaning inspite of pain, suffering and misery.

The will to meaning guides behavior. When one goes beyond self through self-detachment
and self-transcendence, the client discovers self-actualization, meanings, and creative,
experiential and attitudinal values. However, the meaning of life is unique to every person
because it grows in the context of that person’s life. Logotherapy is best applied to persons

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suffering from physical and psychological trauma of all kinds. It is now often used in booth
psychotherapy and medical treatment. The process of counseling is non-didactic and
nonconformative. Thus, a life which seems hopeless can have meaning. Even pain and
suffering can have meaning

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

1.0 Introduction

Another behavioural approach to counselling was developed by Eric Berne (19101970) in

1961 as a theory of personality and social action as a clinical method of psychotherapy based
on the analysis of all possible transactions between two or more people. This simply means a
transaction or communication between people in a bid to solve some problems. The therapists
here emphasize that perception affects social competence and taught clients how to solve
their problems by developing positive self-perception and positive relationships. Challenges
are faced as they occur and as they are instead of blaming them on somebody else. What the
therapists teach their clients is life-skills that can enable them enhance their social
competence.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain some basic concepts of transactional analysis.

2. State the counselling objectives, processes, skills, implications, advantages and

disadvantages of transactional analysis.

3. Apply transactional analysis in Nigerian situation.

4. Discuss transactional analysis as a counseling theory.

5. Justify the contribution of transactional analysis to knowledge acquisition.

3.0 Main content

Transactional analysis is a contractual and decisional therapy that supplies a framework for
the analysis of transactions between people and within a single person, based on the concept
of three ego states (parent, adult and child ego states). According to Olusakin & Aremu
(2009), transactional analysis recognizes that people develop dysfunctional behaviours,
attributes, reinforce positive relationship styles and positive functioning. The job of the

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therapists here is to teach clients how to strengthen their adult functioning in order to think,
feel and behave more realistically in their society. The life blood of therapy in transactional
analysis is communication where clients are taught how to give and receive compliments in
the face of human needs for recognition. Hence, transactional analysis is described as a
theory of communication and inter-personal

relationships or interactions.

Man is seen in this therapy as an entity that has capacity to rise above habit patterns and to
select new goals and behaviours. He is capable of being influenced by the expectations and
demands of significant others in the society.

He also has the ability to receive, challenge, reverse and challenge decisions and make new
ones. Man engages in therapy because he has entered into

conspiracies and game playing with others.

3.1 Basic concepts of Transactional Analysis

The transactional analysis has three distinct patterns of behavior or ego states which clients
are taught to recognize when they have problems and come for assistance. These are the
Parent, Adult, and Child (P-A-C) ego states.

Parent ego state: This represents the interjection of the parents and parental substitutes. Here,
individuals re-experience what they imagined were their own parents’ feelings in a situation
or they feel and act towards others as their parents did towards them. People here are still
being guided by the teachings and behaviours of their parents towards them or other people
as they were growing up in the society.

Adult ego state: The adult ego state is the processor of data in individuals. This the objective
part of an individual that gathers information about what is going on. It is neither emotional
nor judgmental but works with the facts available and with external reality. The adult state
has no passionate convictions.

Child ego state: This consists of feelings, impulses, and spontaneous acts of human beings.
This ego state is manipulative, egocentric, creative, initiative and action laden. Modification
of its duties leads to traumatic experiences, demands, training and decisions about how to get
attention. Transactional analysis clients therefore seek knowledge from their therapists on
how to recognize the ego state in which they are functioning when there is a problem.

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3.2 Counselling objectives of Transactional Analysis

The goal of counselling in Transactional Analysis is to substitute autonomous life style

characterized by awareness, spontaneity and intimacy for a life style characterized by
manipulative game playing and a self-defeating life script (Corey, 1991). The main
counselling objectives of Transactional Analysis therefore are to:

1. Help clients make new decisions about their present behaviour and the

direction of their lives.

2. Assist individuals learn alternatives to sterile and deterministic ways of

living.

3. Help clients to take control of their thoughts, feelings and actions.

4. Assist clients in obtaining a friendly “divorce” from their parents.

5. Assist clients in breaking through a series of impasses that stem from injunctions and
early decisions.

6. Teach clients how to move freely among the child, adult and parent ego states.

3.3Counselling Processes of Transactional Analysis

Counselling under this therapy is designed to gain both emotional and intellectual insight,
but with the focus clearly on rational aspects where the role of the therapist is largely to pay
attention to didactic and cognitive issues. The therapist assists the clients to discover the
disadvantages of the past when they made certain decisions; adopted life plans; and develop
strategies in dealing with people that they might now wish to reconsider. In doing so, both the
clients and the therapist consider four basic emotional status of the relationship referred to as
I’M OKAY-YOU’RE OKAY, I’M OKAY-YOU’RE NOT

OKAY, YOU’RE OKAY-I’M NOT OKAY and I’M NOT OKAY-YOU’RE NOT OKAY.
These issues are resolved during counselling to ensure equal relationship and contract.A
resolution of the above helps clients to acquire the tools necessary for change through
encouragement and contract approach (joint relationship between counsellors and clients).

During the process of counselling, the therapist is at liberty to pick any or a combination of
any of the following techniques to treat his clients. These are:

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1. Structural analysis where the therapist helps the clients to be aware of the parent,
adult and child ego states in them.

2. Transactional analysis where the clients are made to understand what happens
between ego states through interactive analysis.

3. Analysis of rituals and past times where the clients are drilled in the process of asking
for information rather than making assumptions in their relationships.

4. Family modelling to understand fully the need to separate adult ego state from other
ego states and model significant others that will impact positively on their lives in order to
understand their problems.

5. Analysis of games and rackets to enable clients understand that perceptions affect
social competence.

6. Script analysis where the clients are made to understand the need to tackle their
feelings, thoughts and behaviours as they are instead of responding to their life scripts.

3.4 Implications of Transactional Analysis

In a developing economy like Nigeria where there is serious pressure on every member of a
family, this therapy is no doubt a must therapy to treat emotional outbursts of both young and
old couples. Dialogue is the key to any kind of family problem. It is very important that
couples often engage in constant communication in order to understand themselves and avoid
the clash of their ego states for family survival. They would understand that they should make
little or no reference to their past in the face of trouble. In schools, industries and social or
cultural organizations, information and positive communication are the key to the success of
their endeavours. Efforts should always be made to avoid communication gap.

3.5 Advantages of Transactional Analysis

1. It helps the client to assume more personal responsibility for the outcomes of the
counselling experience.

2. It challenges clients to become more aware of their early decisions.

3. Transactional analysis concepts can easily be interpreted and used with other concepts
of other theories.

4. It focuses on cultural and familial injunctions.

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5. It provides structural approach that teaches clients how their early decisions have
contributed to their behaviour.

3.6 Disadvantages of Transactional Analysis

1. It is primarily an intellectual experience.

2. Clients may be confused in the specialized terminology and structure of the theory.

3. Concepts and procedures have not been subjected to testing for specific validation.

4. The terminology may not be useful to some ethnic-minority clients.

4.0 Conclusion

Transactional analysis as contractual and decisional therapy is an attempt to understand an

individual’s personality in order to assist him in solving his emotional problems. It enables
clients to take charge of their thoughts, feelings and actions. The major role of the therapist is
to make the clients understand their ego states and live normal life.

Transactional Analysis (TA):

Founded by Eric Berne. It leans towards cognitive and behavioral aspects. It is designed to
help people evaluate decisions they have made in light of the appropriateness of the present.
TA evolved from the discovery of the ego states re-experienced by persons under direct
stimulation of the brain. Human behavior is explained in three separate and distinct ego
states: Parent, Adult, Child. The Parent ego explains the client’s value systems, morals and
beliefs. The Adult ego state is that part of the client that gathers and processes data in an
objective and non-feeling way and makes decisions from available information and current
events to which he is exposed. The Child ego refers to spontaneous feelings and actions
which may be playful, happy, eager, curious, rebellious, sad, stubborn or obedient. The
therapeutic process is geared to helping clients identify whether they are functioning as Child,
Adult, or Parent in their interactions with others.

Responsibility is the key issue in the process. A client is viewed as responsible for his
decisions and actions and that he has the ability to make decisions for life survival. The
treatment is based on the assumption, “I’m O.K. You’re O.K.” Based on a group setting,

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transactional analysis is best in making clients immediately experience the quick change in
their behavior and feelings. There are four kinds of rational analysis used by the counselor in
T.A.: Structural analysis (analysis of individual personality), transactional analysis (analysis
of what people say and do to one another), game analysis (identification of the resulting
racket feelings), and script analysis (analysis of overall life plans).

There are four major positions involving an individual with another:

(1) I am O.K.; You are O.K.

(2) I am O.K.; You are not O.K.

(3) I am not O.K.; You are O.K.

(4) I am not O.K.; You are not O.K.

It is important that the counselor continues to work with his clients until they have
successfully completed the T.A. contract. This approach is now used in bigger groups as part
of training programs in education, business and industry.

Adlerian Therapy

This approach was propounded by Alfred Adler. The main principle of the therapy
is a therapeutic relationship that is co-operative, encouraging and practical in quest to
assist man to explore his unique lifestyle and worth. The therapy exposes individuals to the
understanding of their habitual behaviour. The counselling techniques employed here are
dialogue, insight, encouragement, re-orientation and enablement.

1. The Adlerian Approach (Alfred Adler)

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This approach recognizes the importance of birth order in the family which influences one’s
character and lifestyle. Terms such as “inferiority complex,” “masculine protest,” and
“organ inferiority” were introduced by Adler to understand the individual

The Adlerian approach believes that the client can overcome feelings of inadequacy and
weakness and that clients must believe in their own dignity and worth as persons. It has four
components: establishment and continued enhancement of rapport through encouragement,
assessment of the client’s lifestyle through a study of family constellations birth order, family
environment and childhood recollections, insight into the client’s philosophy of life, goals
and behavior patters, and motivating the client towards changes of behavior that benefits him
and society.

The approach focuses on human wellness, individual growth and expansion, and social
interests. This approach is therefore considered as humanistic, holistic, phenomenological,
teleological, field-theoretical, and socially-oriented. The interpretation is upon purpose and
not upon cause, upon movement and not upon description, upon use and not upon possession.
Thus, the core of this approach is the psychology of use.

Brief Therapy

This approach combines the cognitive and behavioural approaches within a small setting.
Sessions are usually brief with follow-ups after some specific period of time. Clients are
treated here with assignment, direct teaching or instruction, explanation and observation.

Cognitive Analytic Therapy (CAT)

This approach combines cognitive and psychotherapeutic approaches to encourage clients to

use their own resources to develop their skills. These acquired skills are needed by them to
change their destructive patterns of behavior. This involves the treatment of negative
thoughts using various techniques of counselling. Such techniques include directive, insight
interpretative, supportive and forcing conformity techniques.

Cognitive Therapy

This is slightly different from the CAT as it uses the power of the mind to influence behavior
while the former encourages clients to utilize their own potentials in developing skills that

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can alter undesired behaviour. Cognitive therapists believe that past experiences are germane
to self-perception thereby altering man’s attitude, emotions and ability to deal with
challenges. Man is assisted to identify, question and alter his negative thoughts. Also,
treatment is structured and directed as in CAT. Hence, techniques that are usually applied
under this approach are direct instruction, teaching, encouragement, forcing conformity and
changing the environment from where the client draws his inspirations from.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

This therapy believes that man tends to form self-concept that affects the behaviour he
displays. Such concepts can be positive or negative and can be influenced by man’s
environment. Human beings are saddled with cognitive triad (Sincero, 2011) which includes
the self, the world and the future. These are all negative thoughts in man where in the self, he
sees himself as rubbish. In the world environment, he sees the world as an irrational place
with a lot deceit, and in the future, he sees himself doomed with little or no hope (Sincero,
2011). Here, clients are taught how to change their thoughts and expectations. One of the
counselling techniques employed in cognitive behavioural therapy is the relaxation
technique. Others include teaching, explanation, assertive training, and enhancing awareness
techniques.

Eclectic Approach

This is selection of what is particular to the client from a wide range of methods. Proponents
of this approach believe that no single approach works better than all others for a particular
problem. To them, both affective- impulsive and rational-intellectual challenges in man are
dealt with using various resources to develop problem-solving behavior. Makinde (1988)
believes that eclectic approach works towards replacing emotional-compulsive behaviour

inherent in man using intellectual resources. Techniques of eclectic counselling include

deliberate action, re-education, training and selective treatment.

2. Existential – Humanistic Therapy:

Key figures: Rollo May, Abraham Maslow, Victor Frankl; Sidney Jourard. The “third force”
in psychology developed as a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which the
humanistic psychologist asserts do not do justice to the study of humans. The existential –

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humanistic approach, emphasizes the philosophical concerns of what it means to become
fully human. Many existentially oriented psychologists have argued against restricting the
study of human behavior to those methods used in the physical sciences. Existential therapy
is rooted in the premise that humans cannot escape from freedom and that freedom and
responsibility go hand in hand.

Existential therapy aims at the counselee:

1) Being fully aware of the present moment;

2) Choosing how to live in the moment;
3) Taking responsibility for the choice.

The neurotic client, according to this therapy, has lost the sense of being, and the goal is to
help him or her recapture or discover his or her lost humanity.

Humanistic Psychotherapy

This approach emphasizes personal growth or awareness where man explores his feelings and
takes charge of his thoughts and actions. The approach is not entirely on dysfunctional
behaviour but about self- development and enhancement of potentials to achieve life
adjustment. It is also a holistic approach that is non-directive or client-centred in philosophy.
The client is aided to use his creative instincts to explore and solve his personal problems.
Techniques of counseling that can be applied here are verbal and non-verbal or motor
channels, unconditional remarks, positive regard, empathic statements, and non-committal
expressions.

Humanistic Approaches

Humanistic psychologists advocate self actualization i.e. all humans have the potential,
human behavior is a function of choice and will, and the client is at the center of the

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counseling process. The counselor should show warmth, respect, acceptance, employ
understanding, genuineness and unconditional positive regard.

A. Attending Skills [SOLER]

1) Squarely Face the Client

Adapt a body structure that indicates involvement, indicating to the client that “I am available
to you” or I choose to be with you.

2) Open Posture

Avoid closing hands; assume a non-defensive posture, as a sign of confidence, security and
showing involvement.

3) Leaning Towards the Client

Conveying in message “I am with you “or “I am interested in you and what you have to say”.

4) Eye Contact Maintenance

Without appearing to be staring, convey the message “I am with you” or “I want to listen to
what you have to say”.

5) Relax

Set yourself at ease. Body relaxed, voice without tension, avoid distracting facial expressions.

B. Confronting Techniques

This can be for better or worse. Some clients respond well to confrontation whereas others
experience it as too upsetting even when the responses are presented very gently. Some even
find confrontation uncomfortable but benefit from it. Part of being sensitively emphatic and
skillful, a counselor should know when and how to confront a client. In general,
confrontation works best within the context of a trusting relationship wherein the client feels
understood and cared about.

Guidelines for Use of Confrontation by Egan

1) Avoid Labeling

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Making clients feel put down may increase resistance to feedback. Words such as dumb,
selfish, lazy, etc should not be used, both because they are not effective and they convey a
lack of respect for another person.

2) Describe the Situation and Relevant Behaviors

Rather than labeling, describe the self-limiting behaviors accurately as possible. When you do
this, don’t put everything on the client at once. You are not trying to build a case for a trial.

3) Describe the Impact of the Behavior

Find out how relevant i.e. how the counselee or significant others are effected by the behavior
in terms of emotions and behavior. This should not be done in all confrontations, do it
selectively.

4) Help Clients Identify What They Need to Do to Manage the Problem

Showing clients alternatives or even better, helping them to explore alternatives can be
valuable when you challenge some aspects of behavior.

Counselor’s Strategies

1. Assertive Training

Specific training and practice on how to become more outgoing or aggressive in positive
ways e.g. how to apply for a job, conduct an interview, approach people, stand-up for
what one rightly deserves.

2. Behavior Modification

These are specific kinds of procedures used to accomplish certain tasks. Frequently, behavior
modification takes place in schools to overcome certain kinds of behavior, or problems which
are clearly counter-productive for the individual.

3. Behavior Rehearsals

This involves trying out particular kinds of behavior in simulated situation prior to the
engaging in the behavior in the real situation.

4. Brain Storming

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This involves rapidly listing as any things as possible which may relate to a given situation,
but without judgment as to the quality or appropriateness of the items. These techniques are
often used to get clients out of very narrow ways of thinking about things.

[Link]

Contact with others to acquire additional specific data concerning aspects of the client’s
situation.

[Link]

The counselor and the client make verbal and written agreements that certain kinds of
behavior will be done under specified conditions. Significant others may be involved in the
contract including parents, teachers, students, and instructors.

7. Demonstration or Social Modeling

Counselors or others actually show the client the desired kinds of behavior. This technique
capitalizes on demonstrated power of imitation as an influence of behavior.

8. Direct Suggestion

Counselor or client may have a good idea about what should be done in a situation. All that is
needed is encouragement to pursue the idea.

9. Intervention

The counselor with the client’s consent involves contact with others who can assist in
resolving the clients concern, including people from home, school, and the community.
Sometimes intervention means direct manipulation of events to assist in the client’s
development.

10. Relaxation

Systematic training in how to relax usually associated with reducing specific kinds of tension
or anxiety e.g. giving speeches, confronting specific people and others.

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.

Conclusion

Various counselling approaches have different but interwoven techniques of counselling

aimed at getting to the root of clients’ problems. The few approaches of counseling discussed
in this unit are by no means exhaustive. The most important thing is to understand that they
are formidable indices for effective tackling of clients’ problems. This could be achieved if
only we understand fully the tenets of each of them and apply them in line with their
philosophy of application. As a result, many counselors practice integrative approach where
they blend some types of techniques in order to achieve the goals set to solve clients’
problems.

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