C3: Control of P and F

EEB 453: Power Generation & Control

Dr. D. Setlhaolo
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Layout

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

• Turbine Governor and its characteristics
Control Loops

• Division of Load between gens;

• P/F characteristics of an interconnected system

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Introduction

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

• Deals with P & f control of the power system.
• Changes in P mainly affect the system f while changes in Q mainly
depend on changes in |V|.

Thus, P & Q can be controlled separately.

The 2 Major Control Loops in large Gens

• Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) controls the P & hence f
• ALFC: Combining the individual blocks of. gen, load, prime mover and speed governing
system. Deals with the regulation of P output of the gen and its freq (speed).

• Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) regulates |V| & hence Q.

• AVR: Solid state electronic device for automatically maintaining generator output VT
at a set value. It is part of the alternators excitation system
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Control Loops

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

• The 2 controls, along with the gen. and prime mover.

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Fig 1: Ps with ALFC & AVR
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Control Loops

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

Interaction of the 2 control loops in a PS:
• AVR
• Little interaction between the ALFC loop to the AVR loop.
• The AVR loop tends to be faster than the ALFC loop with time constants (of
the field winding in the excitation) are much smaller that in ALFC.
• Single loop

• ALFC
• Not a single loop
• A fast primary loop responds to f changes and regulates the steam (water) flow
via the speed governor and control valves to match the P output with that of the
load. The time period is a few seconds. The f is controlled via the control of P,
AGC.
• A slower secondary loop maintains fine f adjustment to maintain proper P
exchange with other interconnected networks via tie-lines. This loop does not
respond to fast load changes but instead focuses on changes, which lead to
frequency drifting over several minutes, Tie-line. 5
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Control Loops …
• Since the AVR loop is much faster than the ALFC loop, the AVR dynamics settle

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

down before they affect the ALFC control loop.

• Hence, cross-coupling between the controls can be neglected.

• With the growth of large interconnected systems, ALFC has gained importance in
recent times.

The topic of maintaining the system frequency constant is commonly known as

AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (ALFC) OR Turbine-governor control,
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

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Power & Freq. Control
AIM OF P & F CONTROL

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

• To maintain the desired gen’s Pout matching with the changing load in real time.
• To assist in controlling the frequency of larger interconnections.
• To keep the net interchange power between pool members, at the predetermined
values.

Turbine governor control

Is a component of the turbine control system that regulates speed in response to
changing load conditions. The governor output signal manipulates the position of a steam
inlet valve or nozzles which in turn regulates the steam flow to the turbine.

As the power drawn from them increases, the speed drops.

The ↓ in speed is non-linear but a governor mechanism is used to make the decrease in
speed linear with an increase in the power demand i.e. the governor is adjusted to
provide a slight drooping characteristic with increasing load. The speed droop (SD) of a
prime mover is defined by; 7
𝑁𝑛𝑙 − 𝑁𝑓𝑙
𝑆𝐷 = ∗ 100; 𝑆𝐷 ≈ 2 − 4%
𝑁𝑓𝑙
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AGR
• For power sharing between a no. of gens connected to the system, the

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

governors are designed to permit the speed to drop as the load is
increased. This provides the droop speed-output characteristic as shown in
Fig. 2.

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Fig 2: Speed-Droop characteristics
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AGR
The speed regulation R is given by the slope of the speed-output characteristic

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

∆𝑤
𝑅= (1)
∆𝑃

Governor % speed regulation is defined as;

𝑤𝑛𝑙 −𝑤𝑓𝑙
%𝑅 = (2)
𝑤0

𝑤𝑛𝑙 : no-load speed

𝑤𝑓𝑙 : Full load speed
𝑤0: Nominal speed

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AGR

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

To illustrate how the load is shared between two generators, consider 2
generators with droop characteristics as shown below.

Fig 3: Droop of 2 interconnected generators 10

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AGR
Let;

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

𝑓0 : Initial frequency
𝑃10 , 𝑃20 : The outputs of the two generators

If the load increases by say, ∆𝑃𝐿 , the units slow down and the governors
increase the output until a common operating frequency 𝐹1 is reached. The
shared amount of ∆𝑃𝐿 picked by each gen depends on the regulation.
Governor % speed regulation is defined as;

∆𝑓
∆𝑃1 = (3)
𝑅1

∆𝑓
∆𝑃2 = 𝑅 (4)
2

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∆𝑃1 𝑅2
= (5)
∆𝑃2 𝑅1
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The output is shared in the inverse of their speed regulation.

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

The output of the speed governor is ∆𝑃𝑔 , which is the difference between the
∆𝑤
set power ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 and the power which is given by the governor speed
𝑅
characteristic.

∆𝑤
∆𝑃𝑔 = ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 − (6)
𝑅

∆𝑤(𝑠)
∆𝑃𝑔 (𝑠) = ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) − (7)
𝑅

The hydraulic amplifier transforms the command into the gate/valve

∆𝑃𝑣 . Assuming a time constant 𝜏𝑔 for the governor;

1
∆𝑃𝑣 𝑠 = 1+𝜏 ∆𝑃𝑔 𝑠 (8) 12
𝑔
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AGR
Complete ALFC block diagram;

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

Fig 4: Block diagram of complete governor system
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…
The Figure 4 shows the complete LFC for an isolated gen. supplying a

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

load.

Since we are interested in the change in speed for change in load, the
transfer function

∆𝑤(𝑠)
can be obtained from a reduced block diagram;
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)=

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Fig 5: Reduced block diagram of a governor system
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AGC

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

1
∆𝑤(𝑠) 2𝐻 𝑠 +𝐷
= 1 1 (9)
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) (1+2𝐻𝑠+𝐷)( )
𝑅 1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠 1+𝜏𝑇𝑠

(1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑇𝑠)
= 1 (10)
2𝐻𝑠+𝐷 1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠 1+𝜏𝑇𝑠 +𝑅

We can re-write; ∆𝑤 𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝐿 𝑠 𝑇 𝑠

If we consider a step change ∆𝑃𝐿 in the load,

∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝑃𝐿 𝑠 = 𝑠
(11)
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AGC
The steady state freq. deviation ∆𝑤𝑠𝑠 is given by the limit of ∆𝑤. As 𝑡 → ∞. This

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

can be applied by use of the final value thereon;

∆𝒘𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∆𝒘 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔∆𝒘(𝒔) (10)

𝒕→∞ 𝒔→𝟎

−∆𝑷𝑳
= 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔 𝑻 𝒔
𝒔→𝟎 𝒔
Now,
𝟏
∆𝒘𝒔𝒔 = lim 𝟏 (11)
𝒔→𝟎 𝑫+
𝑹

−∆𝑷𝑳
∆𝒘𝒔𝒔 = (12)
𝒔

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⇒ Steady state speed deviation depends on the governor speed regulation.
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AGC
For multiple number of gens, composite frequency-power characteristics

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

depends on the combined effect of the droops of all generator speed governors.

Consider n generators with a composite load damping coefficient D, the ss

deviation after a load change ∆𝑃𝐿 is given as;

−∆𝑷𝑳 −∆𝑷𝑳
∆𝒘𝒔𝒔 𝒔 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟏 (13)
𝑫+[𝑹 +𝑹 +⋯+𝑹 ] 𝑫+𝑹
𝟏 𝟐 𝒏 𝒆𝒒
The stiffness or frequency bias factor of the system, 𝛽 is given by;

−∆𝑷𝑳 𝟏
𝛽= = 𝑹 + 𝑫; 𝑴𝑾/𝑯𝒛 (14)
∆𝒘𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒒

𝛽: indicates the change in frequency that would occur for the change in the load.
NB** The p.u. speed deviation ∆𝑤 = ∆𝑓 (p.u. frequency)
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P& F Control

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

• Power and Frequency Control of;
• Single generator to load
• Generator with another generator in parallel
• Generator to infinite bus
• Tie-line control

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P& F Control: 1 Gen to Load
• When a sync. gen is operating alone, P & Q supplied by the gen will be the amount

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

demanded by the load attached to it.
⇒ P & Q supplied cannot be controlled by the gen controls.

∴ For any given P, the governor set points control the gens operating f and,

• For any given Q, If controls the gens VT .

Example 1: Single Gen. to a load

Fig. shows a gen. supplying a load. A second load is to be connected in parallel with the
first one. The gen has a no-load frequency of 61.0Hz and a slope SP=1 MW/Hz. Load 1
consumes real power of 1000kW at 0.8 p.f. lag, while load 2 consumes P=800kW at
0.707 p.f. lag.
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 P& F Control: 1 Gen to Load

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1) 2022/10/17

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 P& F Control: 1 Gen to Load

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1) 2022/10/17

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P& F Control: 1 Gen to Load

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

SUMMARY:

• P & Q supplied by the generator is the amount demanded by the

attached load.
• The governor set points of the gen. controls the frequency of the
system.

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P& F Control: Gen ↑↑ to Gen

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

What happens if a gen is paralleled with another generator of the same
size?

 Basic constraint is that;

𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2

and the same applies to the Q.

NB**
Here f of the system and P of a
given gen are not constrained to
be constant.

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P& F Control: Gen ↑↑ to Gen
- What happens when the governor set

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

point of G2 are ↑
- - Curve of G2 shifts ↑

Figure 13: Diag. of a ↑↑ Gen. in

with another gen.

Figure 14: Diag. of a Gen. in ↑↑ with 24

another gen. of higher governor set points
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P& F Control: Gen ↑↑ to Gen

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

• ⇒ At the original freq. 𝑓1 , the power supplied by G1 & G2 will now be
larger than load demand so the system cannot continue to operate at the
same f.
• There is only one f at which the sum of the 2 machines (PG1 + PG2) is
equal to the load.

That frequency is higher than the original frequency and at that freq. G2
supplies more power than before and G1 supplies less power as shown in
Figure 14.

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Examples…
Example 2

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

Two gens supply a load, G1 has a no-load freq. of 61.5Hz and a slope
of Sp1 = 1MW=Hz. G2 has a no-load freq of 61Hz and a slope of
Sp2 = 1MW=Hz. The 2 gens supply a load f 2.5MW @ 0.8 pf lag.

a) At what frequency is this system operating and how much power is

supplied by each generator? Draw the power house diagram.

b) Suppose an additional 1MW load is attached to this ps, what would

the new system frequency be and how much power would G1 and G2
supply now?

c) With the system in configuration (b), what will the system frequency be
and gen powers be if the governor set points on G2 are increased by 0.5Hz? 26
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Examples: Example 2
Solution
Power produced by the gens with a given slope and fnl.

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

𝑃1 = 𝑆𝑝1 𝑓𝑛𝑙1 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝑃2 = 𝑆𝑝2 𝑓𝑛𝑙2 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2

a) 𝑆𝑝1 = 𝑆𝑝2 = 1𝑀𝑊/𝐻𝑧, 𝑃𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 = 2.5𝑀𝑊, 𝐹𝑛𝑙1 = 61.5𝐻𝑧 , 𝐹𝑛𝑙2 = 61.0𝐻𝑧

𝑃𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑆𝑝1 𝑓𝑛𝑙1 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 + 𝑆𝑝2 𝑓𝑛𝑙2 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡

2.5 = 1 61.5 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 + 1 61 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡

𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 = 60𝐻𝑧
Hence
𝑃1 = 1 61.5 − 60 = 1.5𝑀𝑊
𝑃2 = 1 61 − 60 = 1.0𝑀𝑊 OR 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 − 𝑃1

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Examples: Example 2…

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

Figure 15: Resultant house diagram
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Examples: Example Solution 2…
b) 𝑃𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 = 2.5 + 1 = 3.5𝑀𝑊

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

3.5 = 1 61.5 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 + 1 61 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 = 59.5𝐻𝑧
𝑃1 = 2.0𝑀𝑊; 𝑃2 = 1.5𝑀𝑊

⇒ Power sharing between the two gens changed.

c) If the no-load governor set points of G2 ↑ by 0.5Hz.

𝑃𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 = 𝑆𝑝1 𝑓𝑛𝑙1 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 + 𝑆𝑝2 𝑓𝑛𝑙2 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
3.5 = 1 61.5 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 + 1 (61 + 0.5) − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 = 59.75𝐻𝑧
𝑃1 = 1.75𝑀𝑊; 𝑃2 = 1.75𝑀𝑊 Power sharing matched, 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 ↑,
𝑃2 ↑and 𝑃1 ↓ 29
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P& F Control: Gen ↑↑ to Gen
SUMMARY

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

When 2 gens of similar size are operating in parallel;

 A change in the governor set points of one of them changes both the system freq. and the
power sharing. (Normally only 1 is adjusted at a time)

 An increase occurs in the power supplied by the gen whose set points are " while reducing the
power supplied by the other.

Case 1 How can the power sharing of the p.s. be adjusted independently of the system freq and vice-
versa?

NB** ↑ in governor set points on one gen ↑ that machines 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 and 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 ↑
&

↓ in governor set points on the other gen ↓ that machines 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 and 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 .

Hence To adjust power sharing without changing the system 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 ↑ governor set points of one gen and
simultaneously 30
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P& F Control: Gen ↑↑ to Gen

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

Case 1: Changing the power sharing while maintaining the system frequency

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Figure 16: House diag. of maintaining 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 while changing power
Sharing
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P& F Control: Gen ↑↑ to Gen

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

Case 2: Similarly to adjust 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 without changing power sharing,
simultaneously
↑ or ↓ both set points. ) to change the frequency without changing the
power sharing, ref. Fig 17.

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Figure 17: House diag. of maintaining power sharing while changing 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡
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Why gens should have 𝑆𝐷 = 2 − 4% ?

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

If e.g. 2 gens in parallel have at or nearly at characteristics, then the power
sharing between them can vary widely with only the smallest changes in no-load
speed, see Fig 18.

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Figure 18: A small change in 𝑓𝑛𝑙 in one of the gens would cause wild shifts
in power sharing.
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Example 3
One area of an interconnected 60Hz power system has 3 turbine-

Dr D. Setlhaolo UBEEB 453_2022/23(1)

generator units rated 1000, 750 and 500MVA, respectively. The
regulation constant of each unit is R=0.05 p.u based on its own
rating.
Each unit is initially operating at its half of its own rating when the
system load suddenly increases by 200MW.

Determine;
a) The p.u. area frequency response characteristic on a 1000MVA
system base.

b) The steady state drop in area frequency.

c) The increase in turbine mechanical power output of each unit.

Assume that the reference power setting of each turbine-gen unit
remains constant. Neglect losses and the dependence of load on
frequency. 34