CHAPTER EIGHT

WAVES
Waves are energy or a disturbance transmitted from one point in a medium to another or
other points without giving the medium as whole any permanent displacement. They are
caused by an influence or disturbance initiated at some point and transmitted or propagated
to another point in a predictable manner governed by the physical properties of the elastic
medium through which the disturbance is transmitted. Wave motion can occur because two
neighboring vibrating systems are able to transmit their energy to each other. This is
because the two are coupled or share a common component which may be mass or stiffness.

Waves can be classified as progressive or stationary. This depends on whether the profile
of the wave is stationary or moving. From the point of view of energy a progressive wave
transmits energy while a stationary wave transmits none. Figure 8. 1 shows an incoming
and reflected travelling wave which when combined produce a stationary wave. Two
timeframes are shown with the first one near destructive interference (hence low amplitude
of combined wave) and the second near constructive interference (hence high amplitude of
combined wave).

Figure 8. 1

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Waves can also be classified as either longitudinal or transverse. This depends on the
direction the particles of media vibrate compared to the direction of the wave. When the
particles of medium vibrate at right angles to the direction of travel of the wave then the
wave is said to be transverse (shown in blue in Figure 8. 2). When the particles are
displaced in the same direction as the wave itself then the wave is referred to as longitudinal
(shown in red in Figure 8. 2). A good example of a transverse wave is a sound wave while
transverse waves are exemplified by light.

Figure 8. 2

Energy transmitted by the wave depends on the medium or its characteristic impedance.
This gives an indication of the resistance of the medium to the transmission of energy. As
energy travels through a resistive medium it may undergo a reduction in its energy; this is
known as attenuation.

When a wave travels from one medium to another, then absorption, transmission or
reflection of its energy can take place, Figure 8. 3 . In order to maximize energy transfer
from one medium to another impedance matching has to be done. This is the selection of
the boundary or appropriate medium that will ensure the greatest possible maximum
transfer of energy from one medium to another.

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 Figure 8. 3

When a wave or energy travels through a medium then dispersion occurs, depending on
whether the waves are of one frequency or not or the medium is dispersive or non-
dispersive. Simply put, dispersion is the phenomenon where waves travels at different
speeds in dispersive media, depending on their frequencies (wavelengths).

In a given medium depending on the conditions waves can behave in different ways
undergoing such phenomena as diffraction, interference or even the Doppler Effect.
Diffraction is where a wave bends around obstacles, through openings (apertures) or
around corners (Figure 8. 4).

Figure 8. 4
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In interference, two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater amplitude i.e.
constructive interference, or of lower or equal amplitude i.e. destructive interference, see
Figure 8. 5. When the phase difference between the waves is an even multiple of π (180°),
constrictive interference occurs, when the difference is a multiple of π, destructive
interference occurs. If the difference between the phases is intermediate between these two
extremes, then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed waves lies between the
minimum and maximum values.

Figure 8. 5

So far in our studies we have looked at the motion of systems, which can be described by
a single coordinate. For example in describing the motion of a spring if the mass oscillates
vertically we can describe its motion by a single coordinate say x or y. however if the
oscillates in more than one plane then it may be necessary to describe the motion of the
system by more than one coordinate say x and y.

Also, so far we have considered systems, which are composed of only one mass. It is
possible to have systems, which are composed of more than one mass. For example, it is
possible to have more than one mass connected by springs (stiffness) and or dashpots.
When this happens then the motion of one mass will affect the other. Think of the example
of prisoners chained together. In this case we say that the oscillators are coupled together.
Generally the motion of one mass will affect the other, but each mass will require a separate
coordinate to describe its motion. Once again, we have the case where we require more
than one coordinate to describe the motion of the system. In general we say that the number

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of coordinates required to fully describe the motion is known as the (number of ) degrees
of freedom of the system. The number of degrees of freedom = the number of masses x the
number of possible types of motion of each mass

So far we have been looking at the motion of a system consisting of a mass which can
undergo motion in one direction, hence we a one degree of freedom system. If we have two
masses connected by a stiffness but undergoing one dimensional motion then we have a
system with two degrees of freedom.

Now for each of these masses, if they undergo one-dimensional motion, we will have two
differential equations of motion, one for each mass. Both of these equations will have to
be solved for the two solutions. Just as for the case of a one degree of freedom, we found
the frequency of vibration, i.e., f or  . With two equations of motion we will obtain two
frequencies and in general with a system with n degrees of freedom, we will have n
differential equations with n solutions and n frequencies. These frequencies are known as
the natural frequencies of the system. These solutions and natural frequencies are fund
using boundary one of these natural frequencies. In which case the system is said to be in
a normal or natural mode of oscillation.

So far we have been looking at discrete systems, systems where we can localize the mass.
To make the connection between oscillations and waves we need to start with the definition
of a wave. A wave is defined as the transmission of energy from one point to another in a
medium without visible movement of the parts of the medium. For simple harmonic motion
we considered a particle, i.e., a localized mass. For the case of a wave we consider a
medium to be composed of a large number of connected particles. They are so many and
so close that they form a continuous space, i.e., a continuum.

The particles are so many in any medium, that for all practical purposes, the number of
particles is considered to be infinite. Our medium has an infinite number of connected
particles, hence in line with coupled oscillator theory we will have an infinite number of
frequencies and modes of vibration. By the term “modes of vibration”, we simply mean

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the way of vibration. The lowest frequency of vibration is called the fundamental or
fundamental frequency. There are similarities with shm once again. These are qualities
such as amplitude, time period, frequency, and even phase.

There are different ways in which a system can carry or propagate wave motion. The
particles of the media can move in the same direction as the wave or they can move at right
angles to the direction of the wave. In the first case the type of wave is referred to as a
longitudinal wave. In the second case the wave is referred to as a transverse wave.

We can also classify waves according to how the profile of the wave behaves. If the profile
appears stationary then the wave can be classified as a stationary wave. A good example
of a stationary wave is a rope tied between two posts, which is then rotated. The other case,
is when the profile (overall shape) appears to move. In this case the wave s referred to as a
traveling wave.

Aims

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

 Explain how energy travels with a pulse or wave
 Describe, using a mathematical expression, how the energy in a wave depends
on the amplitude of the wave

We will begin by considering the case of a string or one dimensional medium carrying a
transverse wave. In other words the particles move at right angles to the direction of the
wave. We will then again use Newton's second law to derive the one dimensional equation
of motion. The procedure will be fairly familiar. We apply Newton's second law not to a
discrete mass but to a mass element dm. In this case the acceleration will not be a total
derivative but a partial derivative. This is because the solution to the equation of motion
depends on two variables unlike previously that is the position in the medium of the
particle, and the time. Hence our equation of motion will not be a differential equation but
a partial differential equation, which is subject to some new background theory, but still

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follows the principle of superposition. The solution in this case gives the transverse
displacement, which depends on the position in the medium and the time. The
undetermined coefficients are found using boundary and initial conditions.

8.1 Derivation of the one dimensional equation of motion

Consider a small section of elementary length dx of string AB, and the forces acting upon
it, which make angles of  and   d as shown below.

Figure 8. 6
Let the mass of the string be distributed along the string so we can talk about the distributed
mass or the mass per unit length given by the linear density  .

We can apply Newton's second law to the transverse motion of the section dx. Transverse
inertial force on dx Fi = transverse net force on dx due to the tension, FT
dm  mass of dx  dx

 2 y   2 y 
Fi  dm 2   dx 2 
 t   t 
FT  T sin  d   T sin  T sin  d   sin 

now we have assumed that the string makes small angles so that we use the approximation,

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 sin  
sin  d     d 
 sin  d   sin  d
which can be expressed as

  
d   dx
 x 
y
but for small angles   tan  
x
so that
   y 
d  dx   dx
x x  x 

2 y
d  dx
x 2
so that finally,
 2 y 
FT  T  2 dx
 x 
Newton's second law finally takes the form,
 2 y   2 y 
  2 dx  T  2 dx
 t   x 
 2 y   2 y 
   2   T  2 
 t   x 
 2 y  T  2 y 
  2    2 
 t    x 
which we can rewrite as
 2 y   2 y 
 2   c 2  2 
 t   x 
Which is the one dimensional wave equation and where
T
where c  is the one dimensional phase velocity

For different systems, the equivalent of the wave equation is given in table 1.

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8.2 Solution to the Equation of Motion
It can be shown that the solution to this equation has the form

 x 
yx, t   A sin  cost   
 c 
which is the solution for a particular frequency or for a particular mode. For a general case
in which the medium is given a general impulse causing it to vibrate in all the modes then
the general solution will be the superposition of all the modes of displacement.

To determine the constants of the solutions the steps are going to the same as for shm. In
addition we need to determine the amplitude of the wave, A, as well as find the properties
of the system such as the frequency. Now we cannot use the initial conditions to find  as
initial conditions are for functions of time where t = 0. in this case we use the conditions
or restrictions due to space imposed on the system, i.e., the boundary conditions. If the
string is fixed at both ends then
yx  0, t   0 (first boundary condition)
yx  L, t   0 (second boundary condition)
Using the first boundary condition,
A sin0  0
 A  0 trivial solution
using the second boundary condition,
 L 
A sin 0
 c 
we ignore A  0 trivial solution
 L 
sin 0
 c 

 L 
 sin   sin n
 c 
 L 
    n
 c 

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  L 
 sin   sin n
 c 
 L 
    n
 c 

 n c   n  T
n    
 L   L  
the linear frequency can be found using the same expression as for shm.
n
fn 
2
nc

2L
n T

2L 

1 𝑇
From which we get, 𝑓1 = 2𝐿 √𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 .

in this case n which is any positive integer corresponds to the mode of oscillation of the
string.

Each mode will have its own frequency as by  n as well as its own shape. For each mode
the wave profile changes. For any instant of time,

Figure 8.7

The above represents diagrams of the first three modes. The 𝑛 = 1 mode is called the
fundamental, 𝑛 = 2 is called the first overtone, 𝑛 = 3, is the second overtone and so forth.
Looking at the equation given by the second boundary condition sin n represents an

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integral number of half sine curves. If the full sine curve corresponds to the wavelength of
vibration of the string at the nth mode, then if we look at the diagrams we should see that
the length L must accommodate an integral number of half sine curves. With reference to
the above diagrams,
n n
L
2
2L
 n 
n
we can also define the wavelength as the distance between two successive points having
the same displacement and the same slope.

 n c   n  T
From the expression for angular frequency  n     , we should be able
 L   L  
to see that it depends on the mode n. We can then see that frequency is an integral multiple
of a quantity called the fundamental, i.e., the very first mode of oscillation where n=1

 c    T
1    
 L  L 
 c     T 
 n  n   n   
 L   L   
  n  n1
1  the fundamental frequency

Example:
Q. The first overtone of a stretched string of a given length is 320 Hz. What is the
first harmonic?
A. From the equation 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 . For the first overtone 𝑛 = 2, and 𝑓2 = 320 𝐻𝑧
Therefore,
𝑓2 = 2𝑓1
𝑓2
𝑓1 =
2
320 𝐻𝑧
=
2
= 160 𝐻𝑧

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 Example:
Q. The E5-string on a violin is to be tuned to a frequency of 660 Hz. From bridge
to peg, the length of the string is 33 cm and its mass is 0.125 g. What must be
the tension in the string? For the fundamental f =660 Hz, n = 1, l = 0.33 m, and
m = 1.25 x 10-4 kg.
𝜋 𝑇 1 𝑇
A. From the equation 𝜔1 = 2𝜋𝑓1 = 𝐿 √𝜌 we get 𝑓1 = 2𝐿 √𝜌.
𝑚
This gives 𝑇 = 4𝐿2 𝑓12 𝜌, where 𝜌 = 𝐿

Therefore,
𝑇 = 4𝐿𝑓12 𝑚
𝑇 = 4 𝑥 0.33𝑥 6602 𝑥 1.25 𝑥 10−4
≈ 72 𝑁

We can rewrite our solution to the one dimensional wave equation. We have seen that the
system can oscillate in many different modes, at many different frequencies. The solution
will then depend on the mode n, i.e., y (x,t) becomes yn (x,t) where

 x 
y n x, t   An sin n  cos n t   n 
 c 

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Prof. Kamweru P K
  n c 
n   
 L 
 n  n 
 
c  L 
n
L n
2
 n  2 n 
 
c  n n 
 n  2 
  
c  n 

 nx 
yn x, t   An sin  cos nt   n  or
 L 
 2x 
yn x, t   An sin  cos nt   n 
 n 

An and n will be found using initial conditions.

The general solution y is the sum of all the displacement modes.

 nx 
y x, t    An sin  cos nt   n  or
n  L 
 2x 
y x, t    An sin  cos nt   n 
n  n 
The total energy of a stretched string (standing wave)
It can be shown that the total energy of a stretched string is given by
1
En  m n2 An2
4
Where En is the total energy of the nth mode and all the other symbols have their usual
meanings. Note that this energy is not a constant but depends on the mode n in question
where it can be seen that higher modes will have more energy as n is greater for the the
higher modes.

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So far we have considered an elastic string which has been tied at both ends and set into
motion by being given an instantaneous transverse displacement to produce any possible
number of modes of oscillation. We now consider the case when the string is made to
oscillate by vibrating one end at the frequency of the desired mode while the other end is
fixed to a massive body.

8.3 Standing waves as superposition of traveling waves

Initially at t = 0 the string is driven into motion. The string begins to execute transverse
simple harmonic motion. This disturbance can be seen to start from the end and moves
toward the fixed end. This motion will be viewed as a sinusoidal profile and this profile
can be seen to move with a definite velocity. This profile is the traveling wave. Once the
entire rope is driven into transverse shm the disturbance meets the massive body or
boundary and it is reflected back along the string in the opposite direction with respect to
the first motion.

The reflected traveling wave will combine with the waves traveling towards the boundary
in accordance with the principle of superposition. When it reaches the driven end it will
acquire a fixed profile corresponding to that of the desired mode ( compared with string
fixed at both ends) which will have the same fixed points, i.e., nodes.
The sum of the incident and reflected that produces a stationary profile is called a
stationary wave, as the profile is constant. Note that this is the same profile (for a given
mode) as the case in which the string is fixed at both ends.

8.3.1 Traveling waves

A traveling wave traveling in the positive x – direction will have an equation
 2 
yx, t   A sin x  ct 
 
While if the same wave travels in the negative x – direction it will have the equation
 2 
yx, t   A sin x  ct 
 

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(note that the sign of the term ct has changed).
Where c is the velocity, A the amplitude, and  is the wave length.
We have previously seen that
n  2 
  
c  n 
Or dropping the subscript as it is implicitly understood that the wave can take on any
number of the modes accessible to it. Then,
  2 
 
c   
c 
   2  

c
  2f where f  is the linear frequency of the wave.

This leads to an expression for the phase velocity c,
c  f
Looking at we can define something we call the wave number, wave vector or propagation
constant, k, which is the number of radians per unit wavelength, i.e..,
Using the other terms we can express y(x,t) alternatively as,
y x, t   A sin k x  ct 
 2 
 y x, t   A sin  x  ct 
 
  x c 
 y x, t   A sin 2   t 
    
 x 
 y x, t   A sin 2   ft  where f is the frequency
  
  x t 
 y x, t   A sin 2    where f  where T is the time period
1
   T  T

8.3.2 TRAVELLING WAVE SOLUTIONS

Having defined k we can also rewrite the solution of the standing wave in terms of k
yx, t   A sin kx cos t .

Note that for most of our purposes we will not require the use of the phase constant 

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 8.3.3 Standing wave amplitudes

Just as for shm we also have velocity and acceleration amplitudes. The velocity amplitude
is the first derivative with respect to time that gives the greatest velocity at a given position.
The acceleration amplitude is the second derivative with respect to time that gives the
greatest acceleration at a given position
y x, t    A sin kx sin  t
y x, t max    A sin kx the velocity amplitude
since sint  1 gives the greatest velocity
yx, t max    2 A sin kx the acceleration amplitude
since cos  t  1 gives the greatest value.

8.3.4 Comments on finite wave solution, dispersion and group velocity

There are some comments, which can be made about the traveling wave solution. As it

 2
stands yx, t   A sin x  ct  represents a wave (or wave train) which continues for all
 
x (space) and all t (time), i.e., it continues forever and will continue indefinitely in space
as x.
In reality we will encounter waves of finite length or finite wave trains. This means that in

 2
reality yx, t   A sin x  ct  will not describe finite wave trains very well.
 
 2
Now yx, t   A sin x  ct  has the general form f(x –ct) where f is any function. The
 
complete general solution to the one-dimensional is given by D’Alembert’s solution where
yx, t   f x  ct   g x  ct 

Which represents a wave of infinite length which travels with constant velocity c. this
brings us to the concept of dispersion, which is the variation or dependence of wave speed
upon wavelength. In other words, in reality, the speed of the wave through a medium will
not be constant but will depend on the wavelength.

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Using Fourier analysis a finite wave train can be broken down into waves of infinite length,
with different wavelengths, so that when a finite eave train is carried by a medium the
constituent waves will travel at different speeds with the effect that the finite wave will
broaden with time.

N.B.: in this case the finite wave is regarded as a collective (group) entity which travels
with a velocity called the group velocity, vg, whereas the velocity of a pure infinite
constituent wave is called the phase velocity vp (which is constant). The group and phase
velocities are defined as follows:
d
vg  and
dk

vp 
k
If vg <vp then this is referred to as normal dispersion, while if vg > vp, then this is referred
to as anomalous dispersion. In most cases we will be dealing with normal dispersion.
The dispersion is due to the medium carrying the wave. Hence we have the dispersive
media in which dispersion occurs and non-dispersive media in which dispersion will not
occur or will be negligible. For this reason our one-dimensional equation is a non-
dispersive wave equation as it yields a constant velocity c.

8.4 Energy Carried by a Wave

Our system made up of a string can be driven by an instantaneous displacement or
continuous oscillation. In either case energy is input into the system. By virtue of the fact
that the system is in motion, this implies that the system has kinetic energy. Also as the
string is deformed this implies that the system has potential (deformation) energy. It is
possible to find the total energy of the system.

Bearing in mind that our system is a string of length L, which is capable of many modes of
oscillation it will be convenient to determine the total energy per wavelength. We will do
this by considering an element of string length dx, deformed to length ds. Let the string
have a mass per unit length  .

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Prof. Kamweru P K
The mass of the element = dx

 y 
2
1
The kinetic energy of a segment = dx   dK
2  t 
dK
The kinetic energy in one dimension =
dx

dK 1  y 
2

  
dx 2  t 

The total kinetic energy K  for a length of string equal to a wavelength is found by
integration, i.e.,

K    dK
0

1  y 
2

     dx
0
2  t 
The potential energy is due to potential energy of deformation. This is the work done by
the tension in deforming the length from dx to ds.

dU x = the work done by tension in deformation

dU x  T ds  dx
now

 
1
ds  dx  dy 
2 2 2

1
  y  2  2
 dx1    
  x  
we can use the binomial theorem to approximate ds,
1
  y  2  2 1  y 
2

1      1   
  x   2  x 

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Prof. Kamweru P K
  1  y  2 
ds  dx1    
 2  x  
 1  y  2 
ds  dx  dx1      dx
 2  x  

1  y 
2

ds  dx    dx
2  x 

1  y 
2

dU x  T ds  dx  T   dx
2  x 
dU x
the potential energy density, the energy per dimension is
dx
where

dU x 1  y 
2

 T 
dx 2  x 

the potential energy in a wavelength is U  where


U    dU x
0

1  y 
2

 U    T   dx
0
2  x 

The total energy contained by a wavelength E is E  K   U  . It can be shown that the

potential energy density is equal to the kinetic energy density.

8.5 Power Carried by a Wave

If our system, the string, is made to produce traveling waves by continuously driving one
end, then work must be done. In other words unlike the string anchored at both ends, energy
is continuously input into the system. For each wavelength produced it follows that energy
input must be equal to the energy contained in the wavelength of the string. If the driving
force does work then this is the work done per wavelength (or per cycle) or the work done
per unit periodic time, i.e., the power.

Consider a string free at the end x = 0. The driving force F which is equal in magnitude to
the tension in the string T, is applied tangentially, to the string.

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Prof. Kamweru P K
As we are dealing with transverse motion we are then concerned with the component of

force in the transverse direction, Fy, where Fy  F sin .

We once again assume that the angle  is small so that sin  tan  .
So that
Fy   F tan 
 y 
Fy   F  
 x  x 0
 y 
finally Fy  T    T  F 
 x  x 0

the elementary work done in the transverse direction is given by dW  Fy dy0

where y0  yx  0, t  and dy 0 is its derivative .

 y   y 
dy 0    dx    dt
 x  x 0  t  x 0
but dx  0  x  0, x is constant
 y 
 dy 0    dt
 t  x 0

 y   y 
 dW  -T    dt
 x  x 0  t  x 0
t 
the work done over a cycle Wcycle is Wcycle   dW
t 0

t 
 y   y 
 Wcycle  -  T    dt
t 0 
x  x 0  t  x 0

dW
the power transmitted P will be given by P 
dt

 y   y 
P  -T   
 x  x 0  t  x 0

Significance

The time-averaged power of a sinusoidal wave is proportional to the square of the

amplitude of the wave and the square of the angular frequency of the wave. This is true for
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Prof. Kamweru P K
most mechanical waves. If either the angular frequency or the amplitude of the wave were
doubled, the power would increase by a factor of four. The time-averaged power of the
wave on a string is also proportional to the speed of the sinusoidal wave on the string. If
the speed were doubled, by increasing the tension by a factor of four, the power would also
be doubled.

Example:

Q. Consider a two-meter-long string with a mass of 70.00 g attached to a string

vibrator as illustrated in Figure 8.8. The tension in the string is 90.0 N. When the
string vibrator is turned on, it oscillates with a frequency of 60 Hz and produces
a sinusoidal wave on the string with an amplitude of 4.00 cm and a constant wave
speed. What is the time-averaged power supplied to the wave by the string
vibrator?

Figure 8.8

A. The power supplied to the wave should equal the time-averaged power of the
wave on the string. We know the mass of the string 𝑚, the length of the string 𝐿,
and the tension 𝑇 in the string. The speed of the wave on the string can be derived
from the linear mass density and the tension. The string oscillates with the same
frequency as the string vibrator, from which we can find the angular frequency.

1. Begin with the equation of the time-averaged power of a sinusoidal wave on a

1
string: 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2 𝜌𝐴2 𝜔2 𝑐. The amplitude is given, so we need to calculate the
linear mass density of the string, the angular frequency of the wave on the string,
and the speed of the wave on the string.
2. We need to calculate the linear mass density to find the wave speed:

𝑚 0.070 𝐾𝑔 𝐾𝑔
𝜌= = = 0.035 .
𝐿 2.00 𝑚 𝑚

3. The wave speed can be found using the linear mass density and the tension of
the string:

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 𝑇 90.00𝑁 𝑚
𝑐=√ =√ = 50.71
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
0.035 𝑚

4. The angular frequency can be found from the frequency:

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 60 s −1 = 376.80 s −1

5. Calculate the time-averaged power:

1 𝐾𝑔 𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = (0.035 ) (0.04𝑚)2 (376.80 s−1 )2 (50.71 )
2 𝑚 𝑠

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 Page 23 of 32
Prof. Kamweru P K
 Example:
 x
Q. If a wave is described by yx, t   A sin 2  t   for a string whose mass per
 c

u02T
unit length is  , show that the work per unit cycle Wcycle  where u0 is the
2c
u 02T
maximum transverse speed and that the mean power input P  .
2c
A. The power transmitted = the power input. So that if the power transmitted
 y   y 
P  -T   
 x  x 0  t  x 0

 y   y 
Then the instantaneous power input  -T    .
 x  x 0  t  x 0

yx, t     x 
  A sin 2  t  
x x   c 
yx, t  2A  x
 cos 2  t  
x c  c
 y  2A
   cos 2t
 x  x 0 c

yx, t     x 
  A sin 2  t  
t t   c 
y  x
 2A cos 2  t  
t  c
 y 
   2A cos 2t
 t  x 0

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 then the power input 
T
2A2 cos2 2t
c
y
the transverse speed u y 
t

 x
u y  2A cos 2  t  
 c
 x
it will be a maximum when cos 2  t    1
 c

if u0 = the maximum transverse speed, then u0  2A

T 2
then the instantaneous power input =  u0 cos2 2t
c
the average power will be found using the expression,
t 

P inst dt
P  t 0
t 

 dt
t 0

t 

 cos 2tdt
2

T 2
P  u0 t  0 t 
c
 dt
t 0

t 
1
 cos 2tdt  
2
given
t 0
2
t 

 dt  
t 0

then the average power will be

T 2
P  u0
2c
to find the work done per unit cycle we use the expression,

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 t 
 y   y 
Wcycle  -  T    dt
t 0 
x  x 0  t  x 0

 y  2A
   cos 2t
 x  x 0 c

 y 
   2A cos 2t
 t  x 0

2A2 t cos2 2tdt

Wcycle  T
c 
t 0

t 
1
 cos 2tdt  
2
given
t 0
2

Wcycle  T
2A2 
c 2
2A2  u02
u0 
2
Wcycle  T
c 2
1


2
Tu
Wcycle  0
2c

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Prof. Kamweru P K
8.6 Harmonic analysis

Many vibrating systems undergo periodic non-harmonic (non-sinusoidal) motion. The

advantage of harmonic functions is that they can be used to represent any periodic function,
harmonic or not. In other words, any periodic function can be represented as a sum of
harmonic functions.
Fourier analysis enables any periodic function of time to represented by a Fourier series,
i.e., as an infinite sum of sine and cosine functions. Each of the terms in the summation has
a coefficient and the real work comes in when you have to calculate the value of these
coefficients, just as you had to for the case of simple harmonic motion where we had to
find the undetermined coefficients.
Let x(t) be a periodic function with period T. its Fourier series representation is given by,

xt  
a0
 a1 cos t  a2 cos 2 t   an cos n t
2
 b1 sin  t  b2 sin 2 t    bn sin n t
or in summation form,
a0 
. xt     an cos n t  bn sin n t …(A1)
2 n1
2
where   is the fundamental frequency and a0, a1, a2,…, an, b0, b1, b2,…, bn, are the
T
Fourier coefficients which must be determined. To determine the coefficients an and bn we
must multiply equation (A1) by cos n t and sin n t respectively and integrate over one
2
time period T, 0  t  T  . We will then get expressions allowing us to evaluate the

coefficients, they are called Fourier integrals,

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 2

  T

0 xt dt  T 0 xt dt

2
a0 

2

  T

0 xt cos n tdt  T 0 xt cos n tdt

2
an 

2

  T

0 xt sin n tdt  T 0 xt sin n tdt

2
bn 


FOURIER INTEGRALS

The harmonic functions in an cos n t and bn sin n t (A1) are called the harmonics of
order n of the periodic function, x(t). the nth harmonic or harmonic of order n has a period
T/n.
The harmonics can be plotted as vertical lines on a diagram of amplitude (an and bn) against
frequency called the frequency spectrum, or the spectral diagram.

8.7 Numerical computation of Fourier coefficients

The coefficients are easy to determine in the cases where x(t) can easily be integrated in
the Fourier integrals.
If x(t) is not available in analytical form but say only in graphical or data form, x(t) is
available only at points t1, t2, t3,…,tN, which are equal intervals of time, then the
coefficients an and bn can be evaluated using a numerical integration procedure like
Simpson’s rule.
If t1, t2, t3,…,tN are assumed to be an even number of equidistant points over the period T
(N= even) with the corresponding values of x(t) given by x1 = x(t1), x2 = x(t2), …, xN =
x(tN), then the coefficients an and bn can be computed by using Simpson’s rule.
If we let

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 Example (Fourier series expansion):
Q.
x(t) Find the Fourier series expansion for the function shown below.

0
T 2T 3T t

A. The function x(t) can be represented within the first cycle as,
At
x(t )  0tT
T
2
T

it can be shown that
a0  A
a n  0, n
A
bn  - , n
n
therefore the Fourier series expansion of x(t) is

xt  
A A A A
 sin  t  sin 2 t   sin n t
2  2 n
A   
xt     sin  t  sin 2 t    sin n t 
1 1
 2  2 n 

8.8 Worked example

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Prof. Kamweru P K
The pressure fluctuations of water in a pipe, measured at 0.01 s intervals are given in the
table below. These fluctuations are repetitive in nature. Make a harmonic analysis of the
pressure fluctuations and determine the first three harmonics of the Fourier series
expansion.
Time station i Time ti x 10-2 (s) Pressure  i (kNm-2)
0 0 0
1 1 20
2 2 34
3 3 42
4 4 49
5 5 53
6 6 70
7 7 60
8 8 36
9 9 22
10 10 16
11 11 7
12 12 0

Solution:
Since the given pressure fluctuations repeat themselves every 0.12 s then the time period
T=

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 Summary of Key Points
 The energy and power of a wave are proportional to the square of the amplitude
of the wave and the square of the angular frequency of the wave.
 The time-averaged power of a sinusoidal wave on a string is found by 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
1
𝜇𝐴2 𝜔2 𝑣 where 𝜇 is the linear mass density of the string, A is the amplitude of
2
the wave, ω is the angular frequency of the wave, and v is the speed of the wave.
 Intensity is defined as the power divided by the area. In a spherical wave, the
𝑃
area is 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 and the intensity is 𝐼 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . As the wave moves out from a
source, the energy is conserved, but the intensity decreases as the area increases.

8.9 Self -Assessment Questions

1. What are boundary conditions?
2. Define term “wavelength”.
3. Write the solution to the one-dimensional equation for a wave mode n.
a. In terms of 𝜔, 𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐
b. In terms of 𝜔, 𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘
c. In terms of 𝜔 𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑  .
4. Write down the general solution to the one-dimensional wave equation.
5. Why is it called the general solution?
6. What is a stationary or standing wave? Sketch the first two modes of a standing wave
and show the nodes and antinodes.
7. Define the term wave number or wave vector k.
8. Distinguish between phase velocity and group velocity.
9. Given the function: 𝑦 = 𝐴1 cos 𝑘1 (𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡) − 𝐴2 sin 𝑘2 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡), determine whether
𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦
this is a solution to the wave equation, = 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑡 2

10. Show that 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin[𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡] may be written in the alternative forms:
a. 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin[𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)]

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Prof. Kamweru P K
 𝑥
b. 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin [𝜔 (𝑣 − 𝑡)]
𝑥
c. 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin [2𝜋 (𝜆 − 𝑣𝑡)]
𝑥 𝑡
d. 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin [2𝜋 (𝜆 − 𝑇)]

11. Let 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin[𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙0 ] where 𝜙0 the phase is constant. This wave is
travelling in the negative x-direction at the speed of sound in air, 330 m/s.
a. Determine whether 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) satisfies the wave equation.
𝜕𝑦
b. If 𝐴 = 6.0 𝑐𝑚, 𝑦(0,0) = 5.196 𝑐𝑚 and𝑦̇ (𝑥, 𝑡) ≡ | = +94.2 𝑚/𝑠, find
𝜕𝑡 𝑥=0
𝑡=0

(i) 𝜙0
(ii) 𝜔
(iii) k
(iv) 𝑣 and
(v) 𝜆
c. Sketch 𝑦(𝑥) at 𝑡 = 0
12. A one dimensional sinusoidal wave of wavelength 2m, travels along the x-axis (in the
positive x-direction). If its amplitude is 0.5 m and it has a period of 𝑇 = 0.5 𝑠:
a. Write down an appropriate wave function to represent this wave.
b. If the displacement of the wave is 0.2 m at 𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑦̇ (0,0) =
+5.76 𝑚/𝑠 find the phase constant.

Further reading
French, A. P. (2017). Vibrations and waves. CRC press.
Pain, H. J. (2017). THE PHYSICS OF VIBRATIONS AND WAVES Sixth Edition. John
Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Prof. Kamweru P K