Chapter Three

CHAPTER THREE
DAMPED SHM
The amplitude of a real oscillator decays with time unlike the ideal simple harmonic
oscillator (free undamped harmonic oscillator). In this case energy is lost. There are
dissipative forces, which reduce the energy and amplitude of a simple harmonic oscillator.
We will:
 Examine the mechanisms of energy loss,
 Derive the general linear differential equation of motion,
 Examine the different solutions to the general differential equation of motion and,
 Examine the parameters characterizing damped simple harmonic motion.

Aims

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

1. Define Damping
2. List the different mechanisms responsible for damping.
3. Write the differential equation of motion for a free damped simple harmonic

oscillation in terms of m, k, and c as well as  n and  .

4. Solve the differential equation of motion for damped shm by writing the
characteristic equation and using the system parameters to determine the damping
ratio to characterize the type of motion the system will undergo and hence write the
general solution for the type of motion.
a. Distinguish between the three types of damped motion, under-, over-,
and critical damping.
b. Solve the differential equation for the specific solution using the initial
conditions.
5. Define logarithmic decrement
6. Define relaxation time

Page 1 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

3. 1 Definition of Damping
Damping is the process by which oscillation decays in amplitude as a result of the
dissipation of energy. The damping force is the force producing energy dissipation. The
energy may be lost as friction, heat, or sound or any combination of the above. There are
generally three kinds of damping. We will concern ourselves with only one kind.

3.1.1. Solid/ Hysteresis Damping:

This is damping caused by the internal friction, or hysteresis, of a solid body when it is
deformed.

3.1.2. Dry Friction (Coulombic) Damping:

This damping occurs when a moving oscillator is in contact with a surface, resulting in

kinetic friction between the surfaces. The damping force Fdamp  const

3.1.3. Fluid Damping:

Energy is lost as a result of friction between the oscillator and a fluid. There are two kinds
of damping of this type:
Turbulent damping, where, 𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝 ∝ 𝑣 2 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑)
Viscous damping where, 𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝 ∝ 𝑣 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦).
We will deal with viscous damping as it keeps the differential equation linear, thus making
it easier to solve. Viscous damping can be achieved by a dashpot, a device consisting of a
piston in a cylinder as shown in Figure 3. 1.

Figure 3. 1
We can model a damped oscillator as shown in Figure 3. 2.

Page 2 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

damping ,c

mass,m

stiffness, k

Figure 3. 2
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 ∝ 𝑥 which opposes the motion so that,
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥
and the viscous damping force𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝 ∝ 𝑥̇ , which also opposes the motion, so
𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 𝑐𝑥̇ [SI unit of c: Nsm-1].
Once again we apply Newton’s second law of motion,
Inertial force on m, 𝑚𝑥̈ = net force on m
inertial force of m, mx  net force on m

Where,
the net force on m = Fres+Fdamp
net forceon m  - kx - cx
Newton’s second law becomes,
mx  - kx - cx
 mx  cx  kx  0
Which is the general differential equation of motion for free damped simple harmonic
motion in terms of m, k, and c.

The same general equation can be expressed in terms of the parameters  n and another

parameter, which we will define and call the damping ratio  .

As in the case of undamped simple harmonic motion dividing throughout by m gives,

Page 3 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

c k
x    x    x  0
m m
k
 n2 
m
c
 x    x   n2 x  0
m
We can then define a quantity  , the damping ratio, where

c

2m n
c
From which we can get 2 n  . Thus our differential equation becomes
m

 x  2nx  n2 x  0

which is the differential equation in terms of  n and  .

We can also express  in terms of m, k, and c.

c

2 m n
k
n 
m
c

k
2m
m
c
 
2 mk

3. 2 Solutions to the Damped Differential Equation

From the differential equation we will obtain an equation called the characteristic
equation. From the characteristic equation it will be seen that there are three types of
motions corresponding to the three classes of solutions possible from the characteristic
equation, based on the value of the parameter  .

The solution to the differential equation is called the general solution and is obtained by
substituting a trial solution into the differential equation. The trial solution has the form of

Page 4 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

the solution but is missing certain terms that make the solution complete. To determine the
these terms we substitute the trial solution into the differential equation which then gives
us another equation called the characteristic equation which is then solved to give the full
solution.
Let the trial solution be
xt   exp t
 x t    exp t
 x(t )  2 exp t
Then substituting for the derivatives into the differential equation gives
2 expt   2 n  expt    n2 expt   0

 expt  2  2 n    n2  0
Note that this condition must be true for all time and as expt   0, t , then it means
that 𝜆2 + 2𝜔𝑛 𝜆 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0, for all time.

This is quadratic equation in  . It will have two roots depending on the value the
discriminant. Once the value of  has been found we put it back in the trial solution then
applying the principle of superposition we obtain the full solution. To find the root we
apply the quadratic formula

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
where
a  1, b  2 n , c   n2 , x  
 2 n  2 n 2  4 n2

2
   n   n  2  1

The two roots are

   n   n  2  1
   n   n  2  1

Page 5 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

 n is common to both roots and is constant. Using the definition of the damping ratio we
can obtain an expression for it,
c

2m n
c
  n 
2m

The discriminant  2  1 depends on the value of  and there are three possibilities:

  1   2 1  0
  1   2  1  0 ,  2  1 is real
  1   2  1  0  2  1 is imaginary
We look at the three types of solutions and their corresponding motions.
Case 1:   1 critical damping

In this case      n   n
In this case the general full solution is given as
xt    A  Bt expt 
 xt    A  Bt exp nt 
In the case of critical damping the system returns to the equilibrium position in minimum
time. See Figure 3. 3 and Figure 3. 5.

Figure 3. 3

The critical damping is the value of damping constant that produces critical damping.
It is denoted by cc. In this case c= cc.
Now

Page 6 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

c

2mn
c

2mn
𝜉 = 1 when 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐 , so in this case;
cc
1
2mn
 cc  2mn  2 mk
Note that this gives us a new way of defining the damping ratio
c

2mn
but cc  2mn
c
 
cc
This enables us to define the damping ratio as the ratio of the damping constant to the
critical damping.

Case 2:   1 under damping or under damped motion

 2  1 will be imaginary. Let us rewrite the discriminant as

 2  1   1   2 
 1 1  2

 j 1   2  -1  j 
   n  j n 1   2
   n  j n 1   2
This corresponds to the case of complex roots for differential equations where the solution
will be in the form x(t )  expht C1 cos kt  C2 sin kt. We can simplify the roots by

introducing a new quantity  d , the angular damped frequency, where

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2
then

Page 7 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

   n  j d
   n  j d
So we can write the solution to the differential equation in this case as;
𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑡) [𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡]
This is referred to as under damping. The system oscillates according to [𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 +
𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡] but the amplitude decreases exponentially with time as given by exp(−𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑡).
Amplitude decreases within the ‘envelope’ of decaying exponential exp(−𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑡), see
Figure 3. 4 and Figure 3. 5.

Figure 3. 4
This shm is the same as free shm with two differences: As a result of energy loss the
amplitude A is not constant but is a function of time, A = A(t), i.e., it decreases

exponentially with time. The angular frequency for damped shm,  d , is constant but it is

less than that for free shm,  n , i.e.,  d   n .

Case 3   1 over damping

In this case the roots are positive

Page 8 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

   n   n  2  1
   n   n  2  1
The full general solution will be
x(t )  C1 exp t   C2 exp t 

This is the case of over damped motion where damping is the greatest and the system
returns to rest without oscillation. See Figure 3. 5.

Figure 3. 5

Example Seven:
Q. Consider a damped oscillator with 𝑘 = 32, 𝑚 = 0.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 1 in MKS units. Find
the solution with 𝑥(0) = 2, 𝑣(0) = 0. I suggest using symbols till the very end.

A. From the notes we know that this motion will be underdamped, critically damped or
overdamped depending on the value of 𝜉. If
 𝜉 = 1, critical damping

Page 9 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

 𝜉 > 1, overdamping
 𝜉 < 1, underdamping
𝑐 𝑐 1 1
We know that 𝜉 = 2𝑚𝜔 = 2√𝑚𝑘 = 2√0.5𝑥32 = 2𝑥4 = 0.125
𝑛

Hence this is a case of underdamping. Therefore the solution in symbols is

So we can write the solution to the differential equation in this case as;
𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑡) [𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡]
Where,

𝑘 32
𝜔𝑛 = √ = √ =8
𝑚 0.5

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2 = 8√1 − 0.1252 = 7.94

Therefore
𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−(8𝑥0.125𝑡) [𝐶1 cos 7.94𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 7.94 𝑡]
𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝑡) [𝐶1 cos 7.94𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 7.94 𝑡]

We utilize the two boundary conditions to find the constants 𝐶1 and 𝐶2

We start with, 𝑥(0) = 2
𝑥(0) = exp(−(8𝑥0.125 𝑥0) [𝐶1 cos 7.94 𝑥0 + 𝐶2 sin 7.94 𝑥0] = 2
𝑥(0) = 𝐶1 = 2
So that,
𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝑡) [2 cos 7.94𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 7.94 𝑡]
To get the velocity we differentiate w.r.t. to t,
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = exp(−𝑡) [2 cos 7.94𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 7.94 𝑡]
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = − exp(−𝑡) [2 cos 7.94𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 7.94 𝑡]
+ exp(−𝑡) [−2(7.94) sin 7.94𝑡 + 𝐶2 (7.94) cos 7.94𝑡]
We utilize the second boundary condition, 𝑣(0) = 𝑥̇ (0) = 0
𝑥̇ (0) = −[2 cos 7.94 𝑥0 + 𝐶2 sin 7.94 𝑥0]
+ [−2(7.94) sin 7.94 𝑥0 + 𝐶2 (7.94) cos 7.94 𝑥0] = 0
𝑥̇ (0) = −2 + 𝐶2 (7.94) = 0

Page 10 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

2
𝐶2 = = 0.252
7.94
The solution therefore is,
𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝑡) [2 cos 7.94𝑡 + 0.252 sin 7.94 𝑡]
The part of the solution [2 cos 7.94𝑡 + 0.252 sin 7.94 𝑡] can be written in the form, 𝑥(𝑡) =
𝐶
𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + ∅) where 𝐴 = √𝐶12 + 𝐶22 and Φ = tan−1 𝐶1 as shown in chapter two.
2

Therefore 𝐴 = √𝐶12 + 𝐶22 = √22 + 0.2542 = 2.02, and

𝐶1 2
Φ = tan−1 = Φ = tan−1 = 1.45
𝐶2 0.252
So that the solution, in this form is,

𝑥(𝑡) = 2.02 exp(−𝑡) sin(7.94𝑡 + 1.45)

3. 3 Characterisation of Damped SHM

For damped shm
 c 
xt   A exp  t  sin d t    ,
 2m 
which can be rewritten as

xt   A sin d t    ,
where the effective amplitude

 c 
At   A exp  t .
 2m 
Thus the amplitude of damped harmonic motion varies exponentially with time. As the
exponent is negative, the amplitude decays.

 c 
Thus in the plot of x versus t, the term A exp  t  shapes or modulates the displacement
 2m 

which oscillates at the damping frequency  d where it has been shown already
c
d  n 1   2 . Note that   n , so that 𝐴′ = 𝐴 exp(−𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑡). Using
2m

 d   n 1   2 it can be shown that the damping ratio

Page 11 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

2
 
  1   d  .
 n 
From the plot of x vs. t as time goes on the amplitude of oscillation decreases. This
corresponds to a real life where a harmonic oscillator will not vibrate with constant
amplitude A indefinitely. A will decay with time so the effective amplitude A’=A(t). This
is as a result of frictional damping forces, which cause the oscillator to lose energy. Because
of this if we want to describe or characterise damped shm we need to look at the amplitude
of shm and how it changes with time and the rate at which energy is lost. We have three
parameters.
 Logarithmic decrement
 Relaxation time
 Quality factor

3.3.1 Logarithmic Decrement

By definition, it is the natural logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of one oscillation to
that of the next following, which has the same sign. For example, 𝑥1 , 𝑥3 and 𝑥5 in Figure
3. 6 has the same sign. 𝑥2 and 𝑥4 has the same sign.

Figure 3. 6

Page 12 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

This is the natural logarithm of the ratios of decreasing consecutive amplitudes

2
corresponding to a cycle over a period of time Td, the damped time period where Td 
d
.
For our diagram
 At  
  ln  
 A2 t  

 A
  ln  
 A2 
 A1 
  ln   or generally
 A3 
 A 
  ln  n  for the nth amplitude
 An  2 

at t = 0 , x(0) = A.
using our solution,
x0  A sin 
 A sin   A
Now after the time of one oscillation, i.e., a time period, t = Td,
So,
𝑥(𝑇𝑑 ) = 𝐴2
 c 
x Td   A exp  Td  sind Td   
 2m 
d Td  2
 c 
 x Td   A exp  Td  sin2   
 2 m 

Page 13 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

sin2     sin 
A sin   A
 c 
x Td   A exp  Td 
 2m 
 c 
 A exp  Td   A2
 2m 
A  c 
 exp Td 
A2  2m 
 A c
ln   Td
 A2  2m
𝑐 𝐴
𝛿= 𝑇𝑑 [∵ ln = 𝛿]
2𝑚 𝐴2
the logarithmic decrement can also be written in terms of the damped angular frequency,

d
c 2  2 
   Td 
2m  d   d 

c
 
m d

again it can also be expressed in terms of  n ,  , and Td .

𝛿 = 𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑇𝑑

3.3.2 Relaxation Time

This is the time taken by amplitude to decrease to e –1 of its initial value.

A  A exp  n  t 
At t=0 , A’= A
So when the initial amplitude decays by e-1 after some time tr we have
A exp( 1)  A exp  n  t r 
 1   n  tr
1
tr  or in terms of m and c, .
n 
2m
tr 
c

Page 14 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

Where tr is the relaxation time or the time taken for the amplitude to decay to e -1of its
initial value

3.3.3 Quality Factor

We have seen that for a simple harmonic oscillator the total energy E can be given at any
1
time as E  kA2 ,
2
where A’= the amplitude of the system.
For a damped simple harmonic system A’=A(t)
so E= E(t) or
1  c 
E  kA2 exp  t 
2  m 
So energy of the system is a function of time.
1
If at 𝑡 = 0, 𝐸 = 𝐸0 , then 𝐸0 = 2 𝑘𝐴2 , so we can write E as,
𝑐
𝐸 = 𝐸0 exp (− 𝑡)
𝑚
We have seen that the relaxation time is the time taken for amplitude to decay to e-1 of its
initial value. We can apply the same idea to energy. The Q-factor is the number of radians
a damped system must oscillate through so that it decreases by e-1 of its initial energy.
If 𝐸 = 𝐸0 at 𝑡 = 0 then
 c 
E0 exp 1  E0 exp  t 
 m 
c
1 t
m
m
t 
c
Now we know that after an interval of 1 damped period Td, our system will have passed
through 2π radians, i.e.

Td  2 rad
t  Q rad
Forming a ratio,

Page 15 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

Td 2

t Q
2  m 
Q  
Td  c 
m
 Q  d  
c
The Q-factor can be said to be a measure of the rate at which energy decays or conversely
a measure of the ability of the damped simple harmonic oscillator to store energy.
Generally if Q is large the system will go through many cycles before decaying to e-1 of its
𝑚
initial energy in which case in, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝑑 ( 𝑐 ) the damping term is very small. Thus

k  c 
2

d     
 m  2m  

k m
can be expressed as  d    n , so generally Q   n   , for small (under-) damping.
m c

Summary of Key Points

 Damped harmonic oscillators have non-conservative forces that dissipate their

energy.
 Viscous damping 𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝 ∝ 𝑣 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦), keeping the differential equation linear
 Critical damping, 𝑏 2 = 4𝑚𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝜉 = 1, returns the system to equilibrium as fast as
possible without overshooting.
 An underdamped, 𝑏 2 < 4𝑚𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝜉 < 1, system will oscillate through the
equilibrium position.
 An overdamped system, 𝑏 2 > 4𝑚𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝜉 > 1, moves more slowly toward
equilibrium than one that is critically damped.
𝐴 𝑐
 Logarithmic decrement 𝛿 = ln 𝐴 = 2𝑚 𝑇𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝑇𝑑
2
2𝑚
 Relation time 𝑡𝑟 = 𝑐 , is the time taken by amplitude to decrease to e –1 of its
initial value
𝑚
 Quality factor 𝑄 = 𝜔𝑑 ( 𝑐 ), a measure of the rate at which energy decays.

Page 16 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

3. 4 Self Assessment Questions

1. List the three mechanisms responsible for energy loss of a harmonic oscillator.
2. Which mechanism is used in our analysis of free damped simple harmonic motion and
why?
3. Write down the differential equation for a system with a mass m, stiffness k, and a
damping c.
4. Write down the same differential equation again in terms of damping ratio  and the

un damped angular frequency n .

5. If the damping is responsible negligible or zero what does the above differential
equation reduce to and what type of motion does it represent?
6. What is the equation, which is obtained by substituting the trial solution into the
damped differential equation called?
a. Write down the roots to this equation. Which parameter in this equation
determines the type of roots?
b. List the three types of solution to the damped differential equation and how
they are categorised by the damping factor  .
c. List the three types of motion possible by this system and write their general
displacement functions.

7. Write down the expression for angular frequency  d ,. Is  d , greater or less than  n ?
8. Write down an expression for Td :

a. in terms of  d , and

b. In terms of n .
9. What is the difference between the amplitude in free shm and damped shm?
10. Distinguish between displacement and amplitude in damped simple harmonic motion.
11. What is the difference between free simple harmonic motion and damped simple
harmonic motion in terms of amplitude?
12. How much time is there between two consecutive amplitudes of the same sign in
damped shm?
13. Define the logarithmic decrement

Page 17 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

14. Define the relaxation time.

15. From Error! Reference source not found. identify which curve represents the
overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped cases for a damped simple harmonic
oscillator. Explain the reasoning behind your selection in detail.

Figure 3. 7
A) Blue: overdamped, Red: underdamped, Purple: Critically Damped.
B) Blue: underdamped, Red: overdamped, Purple: Critically Damped.
C) Blue: Critically Damped, Red: underdamped, Purple: overdamped.
D) Blue: underdamped, Red: Critically Damped, Purple: overdamped.
E) Blue: overdamped, Red: Critically Damped, Purple: underdamped.

3. 5 Exercises
1. A mass m is attached to a spring (with spring constant k) and a dashpot (with damping

constant c). The mass is set into motion with initial position x0 and initial velocity v0 .

For the different parameters of m, k, and c, in the table below find the position xt 
and determine whether the motion is over-, under-, or critically damped. If it is under

damped, write xt  in the form xt   C exp(  pt) cosd t    .

Page 18 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

m c k x0 v0 xt   C exp( pt) cosd t   

1 0.5 3 4 2 0 xt   4 exp(2t )  2 exp(4t )

2 1 8 16 5 -10 xt   5 exp(4t )  10 exp 4t 

3 4 20 169 4 16
xt   exp(  t ) cos6 d t  0.8254
313 5
3 2
4 1 10 125 6 50 xt   10 exp(5t ) cos10d t  0.9273

2. A mass m subject to a linear restoring force -kx and damping  cx is displaced a
distance x0 from equilibrium and released with initial zero velocity. Find the motion in
the under damped, critically damped and over damped cases.
  
x  x0 exp t cosd t  sin d t ; x  x0 exp t 1  t ;
 d 
x  x0 1  2  1 exp 2t   2 exp 1t 
1

3. A body of mass 5.5 kg is hung on a spring of stiffness 1000 Nm-1. It is pulled down 50
mm below the position of static equilibrium and released so that it executes vertical
vibrations. There is a viscous damping force acting on the body , of 40 N when the
velocity is 1 ms-1.
a. Determine the differential equation of motion and obtain the expression for the
displacement of the body as a function of time.
b. Calculate the distance the body moves from the instant of release until it is
momentarily at rest at the highest pint of its travel and the time that has elapsed
when it reaches that position.
c. Calculate the time that elapses for the body to pass through the equilibrium
position for the first time after release.
((a)
y  7.273y  181.82  0, y  exp 3.6366t 50 cos12.984t  14.0 sin12.984t 

(b)70.7 mm, 0.242s

(c) 0.142s )

Page 19 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.
 Chapter Three

4. A vibrating system consists of a 5kg mass, a spring with constant k=3.5Nmm-1, and a
dashpot with damping constant c=100 Nsm-1. Determine:
a. The damping factor (ratio)

b. The damped natural frequency d

c. The logarithmic decrement 
d. The ratio of any two successive amplitudes
(0.378, 24.5 rads-1,   2.56 ,13.0 )
5. The signal from a displacement transducer detecting displacements of a freely vibrating
body is in the form of a decaying sinusoid, as shown in the diagram below. Calculate
the stiffness of the elastic support for the vibrating mass of 4 kg, the damping constant
and the amplitude h of the displacement. (115 Nm-1; 9.24 Nsm-1; 0.075 mm)

y/mm

0.3

3.2 t/s
3.8

-0.15

Further reading
French, A. P. (2017). Vibrations and waves. CRC press.
Pain, H. J. (2017). THE PHYSICS OF VIBRATIONS AND WAVES Sixth Edition. John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.

Page 20 of 20
Prof . Kamweru P.K.