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Heat transfer and Deformation
➢ Based on working temperature -
▪ Cold Forming - Near room temperature
▪ Warm Forming - Between room temperature and recrystallization temperature.
Working temperature ~ 0.3 Tm
▪ Hot Forming - Above recrystallization temperature
Working temperature ~ 0.5Tm to 0.7 Tm
➢ Heatis generated in the workpiece - plastic deformation and interfacial frictional energy
➢Heat dissipation to the environment leads to reduction in temperature.
T → Ti + ∆Td + ∆ Tf –∆Tc
T = Total Temperature
Ti = Initial Temperature
∆Td = Temperature rise due to plastic deformation
∆Tf = Temperature rise due to friction
∆Tc = Temperature lost to environment by convection and radiation
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Heat transfer and Deformation
Temperature rise due to deformation energy
The amount of plastic work done per unit volume = σε
Total plastic work done = σεV where V is the volume
Considering α as the fraction of plastic work done. 𝜀
Therefore total plastic work done is ασεV. 𝜀ሶ =
𝑡
Internal stored energy is mCPΔTd within the workpiece
where CP = Specific heat capacity
ΔTd = Change in temperature due to deformation energy
Equating the energy balance mCPΔTd = ασεV
ΔTd = ασεV/mCP
ΔTd = ασ 𝜀ሶ tV/ mCP
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Heat transfer and Deformation
Temperature rise due to friction
Frictional energy overcome between tool and workpiece
Wf = Shear force X velocity of flow = τAv = nτy Av
where, τ = nτy shear stress (sliding/sticking condition)
n = shear factor, 0 ≤ n ≤ 1;
τy = shear strength
v = velocity
A = Area of contact between tool and workpiece
Making energy balance, 𝑊𝑓 × 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑓 where, t is time
nτy Avt = mCPΔTf
ΔTf = nτy Avt/mCP
Heat transfer and Deformation
Comparison between cold and hot working
✓ Cold working - room temperature while hot working - 0.5 – 0.7 times of
melting point temperature
✓ Load required in cold working is relatively more than hot working
✓ Elongated grains - cold working while equiaxed grains - found in hot
working
✓ Strength of cold worked materials are relatively higher than the strength of hot
worked materials.
✓ Ductility of cold worked materials is lower than hot worked materials
✓ Dislocation density more in cold worked materials while less dislocation
density in hot worked material
✓ Annealing is often required after cold working
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Heat transfer and Deformation
✓ Elastic deformation disappears completely when load is removed
✓ Plastic deformation is a permanent deformation without failure and takes place
when elastic range of the deformation has been exceeded.
✓ In plastic region, metal's behaviour is expressed by the flow curve: σ = Kε n
where σ is stress, K is strength coefficient, ε is strain and n is strain
hardening exponent.
✓ Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true strain.
✓ Generally for metals at room temperature, strength increases with the increase
in strain hardening.
✓ The value of K and n is temperature dependent. Strength and strain hardening
reduces with increase in temperature.
✓ While ductility of metal increases with increase in temperature.
Heat transfer and Deformation
Quantification of flow stress value
➢It is considered to be the middle value between yield strength and ultimate strength of the
metal and is taken as a function of strain, and is expressed as:
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
where, 𝜎𝑓 is flow stress; ε is true strain; K is strength coefficient; n is strain
hardening coefficient
➢Therefore flow stress can also be defined as the stress required to sustain deformation at any
given strain
➢The average flow stress – based on work done under stress–strain curve from the
beginning of strain to the final value
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 Τ 1 + 𝑛
𝑎𝑣
ε = maximum strain
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Heat transfer and Deformation
Strain rate sensitivity
Strain rate is estimated as
𝜀ሶ = v/h
where, 𝜀ሶ = true strain rate
v = Speed of deformation
h = instantaneous height of the workpiece being deformed
➢As strain rate is increased, resistance to deformation increases.
At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain rate.
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐶 𝜀ሶ 𝑚
where C = strength constant, m = strain rate sensitivity exponent.
Heat transfer and Deformation
✓ At room temperature, the effect of strain rate is almost negligible
✓ As temperature is increased, strain rate becomes significant in determining
flow stress
✓ In cold working strain rate have very small effect on flow stress
✓ Flow stress as a function of strain and strain rate can be expressed as,
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐴𝜀 𝑛 𝜀ሶ 𝑚 where A = Strength coefficient
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Thermomechanical processing
✓ A metallurgical process that combines mechanical deformation process like
metal forming processes with thermal processes like heat-treatment,
quenching or controlled heating and cooling process
✓ Purpose is to improve the mechanical properties of materials processed by
work hardening effect
✓ Better explain by Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain growth mechanism
Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Annealing
➢ It is a heat treatment process in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for
an extended period of time and then slowly cooled.
➢ The purpose is to relieve stresses, increase softness, ductility and toughness
➢ It consists of 3 stages
▪ Heating to the desired temperature
▪ Holding or soaking at that temperature
▪ Cooling usually at room temperature
Rate of heating or rate of cooling is important – too high rate create temperature gradient and
internal stresses - may lead to wrapping or cracking
The actual annealing time must be long enough to allow for any necessary transformation
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reactions.
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Process annealing
➢ It is a heat treatment process of cold worked material - that is to soften and
increase the ductility of previously strain-hardened metal
➢ Commonly used that require extensive plastic deformation - to allow a
continuation deformation with high reduction ratio
➢ Recovery and recrystallization occurs during the process
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Normalizing
➢ Steels that have been plastically deformed by metal working processes and
consists of a grains of pearlite with irregularly shaped and relatively large with
wide distribution of grains
➢ Normalizing is used to refine the grains i.e. decrease the average grain size and
produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution
➢ Produced fine-grained pearlite steels are tougher than coarse-grained ones
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Full anneal
➢ Full anneal is often utilized in low- and medium carbon steels that experience
extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation
➢ Heating to a desired temperature and followed by cooling
➢ Slow cooling in the furnace is followed
➢ Recovery is the main mechanism
➢ Produce coarse pearlite that is relatively soft and ductile
➢ The full anneal process is time consuming – but beneficial in the form of small
grains and a uniform grain structure
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
➢ Plastic deformation of polycrystalline at specific temperature –
A change in grain shape
Strain hardening
An increase in dislocation density
➢ Some fraction of the energy is stored in metal as strain energy
➢ The strain energy is associated with various lattice defects, mainly the dislocations.
➢ Retained energy – depends on composition of materials, and rate and temperature of
deformation
➢ Lowering the deformation temperature and changing from pure metal to an alloy, the
amount of stored energy increases
➢ Release of strain energy by recovery process – annihilating excess dislocations
➢ Large energy release with the formation of strain free crystals – recrystallization
➢ Followed by grain growth
➢ Function of strain, strain rate and temperature 14
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
✓ Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth occur - during annealing after cold deformation
or during hot working of metals
✓ Recrystallization occurs - nucleation and growth of grains
✓ Key mechanism to control microstructure evolution during hot working and subsequent heat
treatment
- dynamic recovery, dynamic recrystallization, static recovery, static recrystallization,
and grain growth
Dynamic recovery: Static recrystallization occurs after
✓ Occurs at high temperature the deformation, mostly in cold
✓ Movement of dislocations to grain forming process
boundary
✓ Lowers the strain energy Dynamic recrystallization occurs
✓ Lowers the effective rate of work during deformation process, mostly
hardening in hot forming process 15
Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Formation of nuclei:
✓ Favorable positions are high lattice strain energy such as slip-line intersections,
twin intersections and grain boundaries
✓ The growth rate and nucleation rate is difficult to measure
Grain growth: Grain boundary energy and the curvature of the boundary
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷 1
∝𝜌 = 𝑘. 𝜌 - curvature
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐷
𝐷𝑛 − 𝐷0𝑛 = 𝑘𝑡
2
𝐷 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
k, n – time independent constants
2
𝐷 − 𝐷02 = 𝑘𝑡 and n ≥ 2
If D0 is very small, 𝐷2 = 𝑘𝑡 𝐷 = 𝑘′ 𝑡
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Recrystallization kinetics: Impingement
Nucleation period = 𝑡0
N = Rate of nucleation X Growth
R = Mean radius of spherical grain
R = G(t - t0) Nucleation
𝑑𝑅
G = Growth rate = 𝑑𝑡 t
Johnson-Mehl equation:
Recrystallized volume fraction, 𝜋
𝑡
4 𝑋 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 4
𝑋 = න 𝑁 𝑑𝑡. 𝜋𝑅 3 3
𝑡0 3
𝑡 Assumptions:
4 𝜋
= න 𝑁 𝜋𝐺 3 𝑡 − 𝑡0 3 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 − 𝑡0 4 ✓ Grains are spherical
𝑡0 3 3 ✓ Rate of growth and nucleation are
𝜋 constant
If nucleation time t0 is very small 𝑋 = 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 4
3 ✓ Nucleation time is small and randomly
This is valid if 𝑋 ≪ 1 distributed
Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
➢Higher temperature of working, lower strain energy stored, which will lead to a
higher recrystallization temperature
➢The rate of recrystallization is an exponential function of temperature. Since
recrystallization process is a complex one - the activation energy for
recrystallization cannot be treated as a fundamental constant.
➢Rate of recrystallization increases with amount of cold work
➢It require a critical amount of cold work to cause recrystallization
➢Recrystallization is easier in pure metals than in alloys and occurs at lower
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temperature.
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
➢ Recrystallization temperature depends on many variables and is not a fixed
temperature like melting temperature
➢ A smaller original cold-worked grain size reduces the recrystallization
temperature
➢ Increasing the annealing time reduces the recrystallization temperature
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Super plastic deformation
Flow stress: To describe the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation at any stage of
plastic strain
Strain-rate dependence of flow stress
Superplasticity: Necks are extremely gradual like chewing gum
Effects: Grain growth may occurs
Low flow stress and high elongations
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Thank you
for your kind attention
End of Module 3
Metal Forming
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