Module-2

Electrically Activated Materials: Piezoelectricity, Piezoresistivity, Ferroelectricity, Piezoelectric

materials- piezoelectric effect, Piezoceramics, Piezopolymers, Piezoelectric materials as sensors,
Actuators and bimorphs, nanocarbon tubes

Electrically Activated Materials

An Electro-active polymer (EAP) is a polymer that exhibits a change in size or shape when
stimulated by an electric field. A typical characteristic property of an EAP is that they will
undergo a large amount of deformation while sustaining large forces.

The most common applications of this type of material are in actuators and sensors. One of the
most common applications for EAPs is in the field of robotics in the development of artificial
muscles; thus, an electroactive polymer is often referred to as an artificial muscle.

Most actuators are made of ceramic piezoelectric materials, as these materials are able to
withstand large forces and can exhibit up to a 380% strain,

EAP can have several configurations, but are generally divided in two principal classes:
Dielectric and Ionic.
1. Dielectric EAPs are materials in which actuation is caused by electrostatic forces between
two electrodes which squeeze the polymer.

Dielectric elastomers are capable of very high strains and are fundamentally a capacitor that
changes its capacitance when a voltage is applied by allowing the polymer to compress in
thickness and expand in area due to the electric field. This type of EAP typically requires a large
actuation voltage to produce high electric fields (hundreds to thousands of volts), but very
low electrical power consumption.

Dielectric EAPs require no power to keep the actuator at a given position.

Examples are electrostrictive polymers and dielectric elastomers.

[ Electrostriction is a property of all electrical non-conductors, or dielectrics, that causes them to change their shape under the
application of an electric field.]
2. Ionic EAPs are polymers in which actuation is caused by the displacement of ions inside the
polymer.

Ionic electroactive polymers (IEAPs) are a category of intelligent soft materials exhibiting large
displacement under electric excitation, based on inner ion or solvent transport.

Only a few volts are needed for actuation, but the ionic flow implies a higher electrical power
needed for actuation, and energy is needed to keep the actuator at a given position.

Examples of ionic EAPS are conductive polymers, ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs),
and responsive gels. Yet another example is a Bucky gel actuator, which is a polymer-supported
layer of polyelectrolyte material consisting of an ionic liquid sandwiched between
two electrode layers consisting of a gel of ionic liquid containing single-wall carbon nanotubes.
The name comes from the similarity of the gel to the paper that can be made by filtering carbon
nanotubes, the so-called buckypaper (thin sheet made from an aggregate of carbon nanotubes).

Piezoelectricity

Piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure and latent heat.

When a piece of piezoelectric material is mechanically deformed, e.g. compressed, a current will
flow and charge its faces and vice versa, it will be deformed when exerted to an electrical field.

When piezoelectric material is placed under mechanical stress, a shifting of the positive and
negative charge centers in the material takes place, which then results in an external electrical
field. When reversed, an outer electrical field either stretches or compresses the piezoelectric
material.
This effect is explained by the displacement of ions in materials that have a nonsymmetrical unit
cell. When the material is compressed, the ions in each unit cell are displaced, causing an
electric polarization of the unit cell.

It is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials — such as crystals,
certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and various proteins — in response
to applied mechanical stress.

Piezoelectric systems are an increasingly popular method of energy generation due to their
ability to convert mechanical motion into electricity without the need for a power source. This
type of system is highly efficient, with some estimates suggesting it can generate up to
70% efficiencies in energy conversion.

So in order to achieve higher voltages, the piezoelectric crystals can be arranged in cascading
manner, that is, in series. The energy thus obtained is stored in Lithium batteries or capacitors.
What makes a piezoelectric?

The piezoelectric effect results from the linear electromechanical

interaction between the mechanical and electrical states in crystalline
materials with no inversion symmetry.

The common characteristic of piezoelectric materials is that their

crystalline structures contain crystal lattices that lack center
symmetry. Piezoelectric properties include the direct piezoelectric effect and the reversed
piezoelectric effect.

When piezoelectric material is

placed under mechanical stress, a
shifting of the positive and
negative charge centers in the
material takes place, which then
results in an external electrical
field. When reversed, an outer
electrical field either stretches or
compresses the piezoelectric material.

A commonly known piezoelectric material is quartz.

The piezoelectric effect has been exploited in many useful applications, including the production
and detection of sound, piezoelectric inkjet printing, generation of high voltage electricity, as a
clock generator in electronic devices, in microbalances, to drive an ultrasonic nozzle, medical
imaging and also industrial nondestructive testing (NDT).
Types of Piezoelectric Materials

1).Natural Existing

These crystals are anisotropic dielectrics with non-centrosymmetric

crystal lattice. Crystal materials like Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz,
Tourmaline-group minerals, and some organic substances as silk,
wood, enamel, bone, hair, rubber, dentin comes under this category.

2). Manmade Synthetic Materials

Materials with ferroelectric properties are used to prepare piezoelectric materials. Manmade
materials are group into five main categories – Quartz analogs, Ceramics, Polymers,
Composites, and Thin Films.
  Polymers: Polyvinylidene difluoride, PVDF or PVF2.

 Composites: Piezocomposites are the upgrade of piezopolymers. They can be of two

types:
Piezo polymer in which piezoelectric material is immersed in an electrically passive
matrix.
Piezo composites that are made by using two different ceramics example BaTiO3
fibers reinforcing a PZT matrix.

 Manmade piezoelectric with crystal structure as perovskite: Barium titanate, Lead

titanate, Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), Potassium niobate, Lithium niobate, Lithium
tantalate, and other lead-free piezoelectric ceramics.

Properties of Different Piezoelectric Materials

The properties of different piezoelectric materials include the following.

1. Quartz: Quartz is the most popular single crystal piezoelectric material. Single crystal
materials exhibit different material properties depending on the cut and direction of the bulk
wave propagation. Quartz oscillator operated in thickness shear mode of the AT-cut are used in
computers, TV’s and VCR’s

2. Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate

 These materials are composed of oxygen octahedron.

 Curies temperature of these materials is 1210 and 6600c respectively.

 These materials have a high electromechanical coupling coefficient for surface acoustic
wave.

3. Barium Titanate

 These materials with dopants such as Pb or Ca ions can stabilize the tetragonal
phase over a wider temperature range.
  These are initially used for Langevin -type piezoelectric vibrators.

4. Lead Titanate Ceramic

 These can produce clear ultrasonic imaging because of there extremely low planar
coupling.

 Recently, for ultrasonic transducers and electromechanical actuators single crystal

relaxor ferroelectrics with morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) are being developed.

Applications

Piezoelectric Polymers

 Small piezoelectric d constant which makes them a good choice for the actuator.

 Large g constant which makes them a good choice as sensors.

 These materials have good acoustic impedance matching with water or human body due
to their light weight and soft elasticity.

 Broad resonance bandwidth due to low QM.

 These materials are highly-opted for directional microphones and ultrasonic

hydrophones.

Piezoelectric Composites

 Piezoelectric composites made up of piezoelectric ceramic and polymer phases form

excellent piezoelectric materials

 High coupling factor, low acoustic impedance, mechanical flexibility characterizes these
materials.

 These materials are especially used for underwater sonar and medical diagnostic
ultrasonic transducer applications.
  Thin films

 For bulk acoustic and surface acoustic wave devices thin films of ZnO are widely used
because of there large piezoelectric coupling.

Piezoelectric Effect

Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to
applied mechanical stress.

When a piezoelectric material is placed under mechanical stress, there is a shift of the positive
and negative charge centers in the material, which then results in an external electric field.

A crystal is any solid with atoms or molecules that are arranged in a very orderly way based on
repetitions of the same basic atomic building block (the unit cell).

In most crystals (such as in metals), the unit cell is symmetrical; in piezoelectric crystals, it isn't.

Normally, piezoelectric crystals are electrically neutral. The atom arrangement may not be
symmetrical, but the electrical charges are perfectly balanced: a positive charge in one
place cancels out a negative charge nearby.
However, stretching or squeezing a piezoelectric crystal deforms the structure, pushing some of
the atoms closer together or further apart. This upsets the balance of positive and negative,
and causes net electrical charges to appear. This effect continues through the whole crystal
structure so net positive and negative charges appear on opposite, outer faces of the crystal.

1. Normally, the charges in a piezoelectric crystal are exactly balanced, even if they're not
symmetrically arranged. The forces (electric dipole moments) of the charges exactly
cancel out, leaving no net charge on the crystal faces.

2. When the crystal is stretched or compressed, this pushes the charges out of balance.

3. Now the dipole moments no longer cancel one another out and net positive and negative
charges appear on opposite crystal faces. By subjecting the piezoelectric crystal to
physical stress, a voltage is produced across its opposite faces.
Piezoresistivity

Piezoresistivity is defined as change of resistance of semiconductors from the applied

mechanical stress.

Piezoelectric is the property of a material to generate a voltage when mechanical force is applied
to it. In contrast, the piezoresistive effect is the property of a material's resistivity to change
when subjected to a mechanical force.

In conducting and semi-conducting materials, changes in inter-atomic spacing resulting from

strain affect the energy gap, making it easier (or harder depending on the material and strain) for
electrons to be raised into the conduction band. This results in a change in resistivity of the
material. Within a certain range of strain this relationship is linear, so that the piezoresistive
coefficient is constant.

The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length so stretching increases the resistance.
As the conductor is stretched, its cross-sectional area is reduced, which also increases the
resistance. The inherent resistivity of some materials increases when it is stretched.

 The resistance change in metals is mostly due to the change of geometry resulting from
applied mechanical stress. However, even though the piezoresistive effect is small in those
cases it is often not negligible.
 In platinum alloys, piezoresistivity is more than two to three times larger due to geometry
effects alone.
 The piezoresistive effect of semiconductor materials can be several orders of magnitudes
larger than the geometrical effect.
The piezoresistive effect causes a change only in electrical resistance, not in electric potential.

Depending on the application, different types of silicon materials can be used as piezoresistive
element such as P-type and N-type silicon semiconductors.

The piezoresistive effect of semiconductor materials can be several orders of magnitudes larger
than the geometrical effect and is present in materials like germanium, polycrystalline silicon,
amorphous silicon, silicon carbide, and single crystal silicon.

Moreover, there are some piezoresistive materials such as graphene and carbon nanotube (CNT)
that have widely been used in other applications.

Types: Materials in which the piezoresistive effect occurs are silicon carbide, germanium,
crystal silicon, and both polycrystalline and amorphous silicon.

Ferroelectricity

Ferroelectricity is the ability of the material to have a spontaneous electric polarization. This
polarization can be reversed by the application of an external electric field in the opposite
direction (figure 1 below).
The reversal of polarity of a ferroelectric material via the application of an external electric field
is called “switching”.

Ferroelectric materials can maintain the polarisation even once the electric field is removed.

By inverting the direction of the applied electrical field, the direction of polarization can be
inverted or changed.

Thus, we can say that the polarization will depend on the present and the previous condition of
the electric field. The hysteresis loop is obtained as in figure below.

The properties of these materials exist only below a definite phase conversion temperature.
Above this temperature, the material will become paraelectric materials. That is, loss in
spontaneous polarization. This definite temperature is called Curie temperature (TC).

Poly-vinylidene-fluoride, PVDF, and P(VDF-co-TrFE) copolymers (where TrFE stands for

trifluoroethylene) are among the polymers with the
highest ferroelectric and piezoelectric activity, making them suitable to be integrated into a
variety of flexible electrical devices.

PVDF is a semicrystalline polymer that can exist in five different crystalline polymorphs,
namely, α, β, γ, δ, and ε
Examples of Ferroelectric Materials Include:

 Lead titanate, (PbTiO3)

 Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)

 Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT)

Ferroelectric Properties

There are two types of properties that are exhibited by the ferroelectric compounds:

1. Pyroelectric Properties and Spontaneous Polarisation:

All ferroelectric materials are pyroelectric in nature, however pyroelectric materials are not
ferroelectric.

“Pyroelectricity” term describes the ability of certain materials/polymers to generate a temporary

voltage upon exposure to heating or cooling conditions. “

Below a transition temperature called the Curie temperature, the ferroelectric and the
pyroelectric materials are polar and possess an electric dipole moment that is also known as
spontaneous polarization.

But this polarity can be re-oriented or reversed partially or fully by the application of an electric
field with ferroelectric materials. Complete reversal of the spontaneous polarization is known as
“switching”. The non-polar phase that can be encountered above the Curie Temperature is
known as the paraelectric phase.

The direction of this spontaneous polarization conforms to the crystal symmetry of the material.
The re-orientation of the spontaneous polarization occurs as a result of atomic displacements.
The magnitude of the electric dipole moment is greatest at a temperature below the Curie
temperature and approaches zero as the temperature is nearer to the Curie temperature.

2. Piezoelectric Properties:

Due to the reason that all the pyroelectric materials are piezoelectric, this means that the
ferroelectric materials are inherently piezoelectric. This means that in response to an applied
mechanical load, the material is capable of producing an electric charge that is proportional
to the load.

Similarly, in response to the applied voltage, the material will produce a mechanical
deformation.

Properties including the piezoelectric, dielectric, and electro-optic coefficients may vary by
several orders of magnitude in the narrow temperature band around the Curie
temperature.

Especially the changes to these coefficients are much more gradual when these are compared to
other temperature ranges. The piezoelectric coefficient is much greater in the region of CT. Other
properties such as dielectric strength and electro-optic properties also change more markedly in
the region of the Curie temperature when compared to other temperature ranges.

Ferroelectricity Applications

 The nonlinear nature of the ferroelectric materials is often required for the purpose to
make capacitors with adjustable capacitance. Typically, a ferroelectric capacitor
simply consists of a pair of electrodes that are sandwiching a layer of ferroelectric
material. The permittivity of these ferroelectrics is not only adjustable but is commonly
also very high. This happens especially when the phase of the temperature changes.
Because of this reason, the ferroelectric capacitors are small in physical size when
compared to dielectric capacitors of comparable capacitance.

 The spontaneous polarization of ferroelectric materials, when plotted on the graph, leads
to a hysteresis effect which may be used as a memory function. Ferroelectric capacitors
are sometimes required to make ferroelectric RAM that is used for computers and
RFID cards. In these applications, a thin film of ferroelectric materials is typically used.
Due to the reason that this allows the required field to switch in between the polarization
that has to be achieved with a moderate voltage. However, while using thin films an
excellent deal of attention must be paid to the interfaces, electrodes, and sample quality
for devices to figure out the reliability.
 Ferroelectric materials are piezoelectric and pyroelectric. These combined properties of
piezoelectricity, memory, and pyroelectricity make the ferroelectric capacitors very
useful for example in sensor applications. Ferroelectric capacitors are utilized in medical
ultrasound machines, top-quality infrared cameras, in different sensors such as vibration
sensors, fire sensors, sonar, and even in the fuel injectors on diesel engines.

 The recent interest is the ferroelectric tunnel junction (FTJ) during which a contract is
formed by a nanometer-thick ferroelectric film that is placed in between the metal
electrodes. The thickness of the ferroelectric layer is enough to permit the tunnelling of
electrons. The piezoelectric and the interface effects are also because the depolarization
field may cause an enormous electroresistance (GER) switching effect.

 Another burgeoning application is multiferroics. In this, the researchers are looking for
ways to couple the magnetic and ferroelectric ordering within a material or
heterostructure.

 The catalytic properties found in ferroelectrics have been studied since 1952. It was
observed by Parravano, in the anomalies of oxidation rates of CO over the ferroelectric
sodium and potassium niobates near the Curie temperature of those materials. The
surface-perpendicular component of the ferroelectric polarization can dope polarization-
dependent charges on the surface of the ferroelectric materials. This opens the possibility
of performing catalysis beyond the limits of the Sabatier principle. On the other hand,
ferroelectric polarization-dependent chemistry can offer the possibility of switching the
surface of adsorbate interaction from strong adsorption to strong desorption. Hence a
compromise between desorption and adsorption is not needed. Ferroelectric polarization
can also act as an energy harvester.
Piezoceramics

Piezoceramics, a significant group of piezoelectric materials, are ferroelectric materials with

polycrystalline structures (peroskite, tetragonal/rhombohedral crystals).

Above the Curie temperature, these crystals exhibit simple cubic symmetry in structure. There
are no dipoles present in this state, as the positive and negative charge sites are coincident due to
the centrosymmetric structure.

However, this symmetry is no longer present below the Curie temperature, where the charge sites
are no more coinciding.

Consider a single crystallite (small single crystal less than 100µm in average diameter) from a
polycrystalline ceramic. This crystal is made up of negatively and positively charged atoms
occupying specific positions in a repeating unit or cell. The specific symmetry of the unit cell
determines the possibility of piezoelectricity in the crystal.
Piezoelectric ceramic is the general designation of ferroelectric ceramics with a piezoelectric
effect through the polarization treatment of polycrystals made by mixing oxide (zirconia, lead
oxide, titanium oxide, etc.) with high-temperature sintering and solid reaction.

The piezoelectric ceramic material used in the piezoelectric actuator generates electrical energy
when it is subjected to mechanical energy (piezoelectric effect) and generates mechanical energy
when it is subjected to electrical energy (inverse piezoelectric effect) (Fig.5.2).

"Poling" is a commonly used method to orient the domains by polarizing the ceramic through
the application of a static electric field. The electrodes are applied to the ceramic and a
sufficiently high electric field is applied such that the domains rotate and switch in the direction
of the electric field. During this process, there is a small expansion of the material along the
poling axis and a contraction in both directions perpendicular to it
With good mechanical and stable piezoelectric properties, piezoelectric ceramics have been
widely used in sensors, the ultrasonic transducer, microdisplacement device, and other
electronic components, etc. as an important force, heat, electricity, light-sensitive functional
material.

With the continuous research and improvement of materials technology, and the rapid
development of electronic, information, aerospace and other high-tech fields, the production
technology and application development of piezoelectric ceramic with high intelligent materials
has become a hot topic.

The fabrication of most bulk piezoelectric ceramics starts

with powder preparation. The powder is then pressed to the
required shapes and sizes, and the green shapes are in turn
processed to mechanically strong and dense ceramics. The
more important processes that influence the product
characteristics and properties are powder preparation,
powder calcining and sintering. The next steps are
machining, electroding and poling: application of a DC field
to orient the dipoles and induce piezoelectricity.
Some of the most typical piezoceramics are:

 Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate (BaTiO3),

 lead titanate (PbTiO3), potassium niobate (KNbO3),
 lithium niobate (LiNbO3), lithium titanate (LiTaO3),
 sodium tungstate (Na2WO3) and zinc oxide (ZnO)

Of these, PZT is the most widely used due to its superior performance. However, the toxicity of
lead has raised concerns over the use of PZT. A restriction on the amount of lead present has
been placed and is focused at eliminating its use eventually. Nevertheless, PZT has no rival at
present.

Characteristics of Piezoelectric Ceramic

1. Dielectricity: The dielectric (non-conducting) properties of piezoelectric ceramics reflect the

degree of response of the ceramic material to an external electric field.

2. Elasticity: The elastic coefficient of piezoelectric ceramics is a parameter that reflects the
relationship between the deformation of the ceramics and the applied force.

3. Piezoelectricity: The biggest characteristic of piezoelectric ceramics is piezoelectricity,

including positive piezoelectricity and inverse piezoelectricity.

Positive piezoelectricity refers to the relative displacement of positive and negative charge
centers in some dielectrics under the action of external mechanical force, resulting in
polarization, which leads to the appearance of bound charges with opposite signs on the surfaces
of the dielectrics.

Application of Piezoelectric Ceramic

1. Voice changer: Piezoelectric ceramics can be used as sound transducers for pickups,
microphones, headphones, buzzers, ultrasonic sounders, sonar, and ultrasonic flaw detectors for
materials.

Piezoelectric ceramics can generate vibrations of different frequencies through the control of
electronic circuits, thereby emitting various sounds.
For example, electronic music greeting cards convert AC audio signals into sound signals
through the inverse piezoelectric effect.

2. Piezo Detonator: In order to fight against tanks, an anti-tank gun was invented.

The armor-piercing projectile it fired would explode immediately when it touched the tank,
blowing the tank to pieces. This is because the warhead is equipped with piezoelectric ceramics,
which can convert the strong mechanical force when they collide into an instantaneous high
voltage, and explode a spark to detonate the explosive.

3. Piezo lighter: This is a new type of electronic lighter used on gas stoves. Just press the
ignition button, and the piezoelectric ceramics on the lighter can generate high voltage to form
electric sparks and ignite the gas. Piezo lighters are not only easy to use, safe and reliable, but
also have a long service life.

4. Nuclear safety goggles: When the optical radiation generated by the nuclear explosion
reaches a dangerous level, the goggles made of transparent piezoelectric ceramics will convert it
into instantaneous high-voltage electricity, which can reduce the light intensity to only 1/10000
in 1/1000 s. And it can return to its original state after the explosion. The goggles have a simple
structure, weigh only a few tens of grams, and are very convenient to carry when mounted on a
nuclear-proof goggle helmet.

Piezoelectric materials as sensors [4]

A piezoelectric sensor senses mechanical changes in the environment and produces a useable
electrical signal output, which can be used to measure the mechanical changes or generate
displacement with the electrical output. Piezo sensors take on two forms to accomplish this:
active and passive.

Active PZT sensors, also known as transducers, use a transmitter-receiver system releasing
intermittent ultrasonic pulses to gauge the environment.

Passive PZT sensors, wait for a signal, like a microphone, and convert that into output.

These piezo sensors operate below their resonant frequency for maximized range.
Piezoelectric sensors are mostly used in measuring vibrations, acceleration, strain, force, and
movement. They are utilized for infinite applications across a broad range of industries due to
their ability to both operate in confined spaces and high temperatures, and yield high frequency
response, transient response, and output.

A piezoelectric sensor can be used to measure the displacement, pressure, temperature, force,
and strain. These sensors operate according to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoelectric effect is
the formation of electric potential in a crystal if it is subjected to mechanical pressure. The
crystals that are mostly used will be quartz, and barium titanate. The electric charge which is
created will be proportional to the mechanical stress.

The major function of a piezoelectric sensor is to convert the physical parameters such as
acceleration or pressure into an electric signal.

In some sensors, the physical parameters would directly act on the piezoelectric element while in
the other device an acoustical signal establishes vibrations in the element and this vibration
would be converted into an electric sign

Piezoelectric sensors are self-contained and can detect low and high-frequency tensile stresses
with a detection range of 0.5% to 100%. It also has a highly reliable output response, which is
helpful for various applications

Two main sensing materials used for piezoelectric sensors are piezoelectric ceramics (such as
PZT ceramic) and single-crystal materials (such as quartz). The sensitivity of ceramic materials
is higher than that of natural single-crystal materials, but their high sensitivity degrades over
time.

1. Piezoelectric pressure sensors are used to measure dynamic changes in pressure, typically
liquid or gaseous pressure changes.

Pressure piezo sensors are commonly used in measuring explosions, blasts, turbulence, and
engine combustion.

2. Force piezoelectric sensors measure dynamic force along a single axis. Dynamic force can
include compression, tensile, shear, and torque force.

3. A piezoelectric accelerometer converts changes in mechanical acceleration, vibration, or shock

into a measurable electrical output.

4. Ultrasonic piezoelectric sensors are often used to measure distance, liquid levels, and flow.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Sensors

1. Piezoelectric sensors have the natural advantage of high elasticity, which is comparable
to some metals. This allows for a highly linear relationship between input and output over
a wide range, while maintaining high reaction speeds.
2. Piezoelectric sensors are very versatile and can withstand various environmental
extremes, such as high temperatures (up to their Curie point), magnetic fields, and
radiation, which would otherwise compromise sensory data.
3. They are very rugged in construction, making them the ideal sensor for tough
environments where non-piezo sensors would intermittently fail.
4. Piezo sensors have very high response time to rapidly changing parameters, high
transient response to detect those changes, and thus, high output to be measured.
5. Their ability to self-generate voltage and harvest energy from mechanical impacts also
eliminates the need for an external power source.
 6. Some key characteristics of these PZT sensors include high voltage output, elastic
compliance, wide frequency measuring range, overload stability, and impact and
environmental resistance.
7. Their ability to detect minute disturbances in virtually any environment makes
piezoelectric sensors ideal in many applications.

The main restriction on piezoelectric sensors is their inability to operate in static environments.
With minimal environmental change around a sensor it begins to lose its charge (this occurs at
low frequency changes and high temperatures as well), causing decreased signals and corrupt
data.

What are the advantages of piezo-electric sensor?

 This sensor doesn’t need any external power source

 Wide amplitude range

 There are no moving parts so no wear

 Wide frequency range

 Highly sensitive

 It is compact

 Good linearity over the dynamic range

 Low output noise

What are the disadvantages of piezo-electric sensor?

 This sensor is not capable to measure the static position

 Temperature variation in the crystal could affect the measurement

 Displacement is limited

 It needs high impedance amplification of the signal

  If it operates over long cables then it could affect the frequency response and it could
create noise and distortion

What are the applications of a piezo-electric sensor?

 It is used in accelerometers

 Sonar

 Ultrasonic actuator

 Traffic sensors

 Machine monitoring

 Thread break sensor

 Engine testing combustion and dynamic stressing

Piezoelectric materials as Actuators [4]

The piezoelectric actuator changes an electrical signal into an exactly

controlled physical displacement. These actuators generate a small
displacement through a high force capacity once voltage is applied.

The important specifications of piezoelectric actuators mainly include

force, displacement, & operating voltage.

The factors that need to consider while using these actuators are capacitance, stiffness &
resonant frequency.

The term stiffness is used to describe the energy required to attain a certain deformation of an
arrangement.

For piezoelectric actuators, stiffness is the energy required to extend the device through a certain
quantity, usually stated in terms of Newtons for each micrometer.
The capacitance is a task of the excitation voltage frequency and resonance is the frequency
where the piezoelectric actuators react with the highest o/p amplitude.

The most commonly used piezo actuator materials are modified lead zirconate titanate
ceramics.

Two parameters considered in piezo actuators are blocking force (Fb) & free deflection (Xf).

 Blocking force is the highest force that can be produced once the maximum voltage is
applied & the actuator is not permitted to move.
 Similarly, free deflection is the movement attained once the maximum voltage is applied
& no force is generated.

 This is used to control hydraulic valves, operate like a special-purpose motor or a small-
volume pump, and is used in applications where force or movement is required.
 These are used in many applications like handling & generation of high pressures or
forces within dynamic and static situations and ultra-precise positioning, etc.

Types of Piezo Actuators

1. Piezo Stack Actuators

A Piezo stack actuator is used to provide a low stroke through a high blocking energy.
This type of actuator is either discrete or co-fired.

 If it is certainly discrete, then its complex structures are designed by using discs or
individually stacking finished piezoelectric ceramic rings & metal electrode foil through
an adhesive. The typical operating voltage ranges from 500V to 1,000V.
 If the actuators are co-fired stack actuators then these are also known as monolithic stacks
which do not use adhesives. But, they use high-temperature sintering of the ceramic pile
& complete electrode. The operating voltage of these can be 200 volts.

In any case, co-fired or discrete, it is feasible to insulate them protectively from mechanical
stresses & environmental impacts. Attaining this normally involves coating materials, bare
stacks, or covering them within stainless steel.

2. Stripe Actuators

The Stripe Actuator is known as a bending actuator, used to generate a large mechanical
deflection reasonably in response to an electrical signal. In sequence, this deflection gives a big
stroke through the least blocking force as compared to the stack actuator.

This type of actuator uses two thin piezoelectric ceramic layers that are connected. They are
usually in the coinciding polarization direction through an electrically parallel connection. Once
we apply an electrical input, one ceramic layer bonds whereas the other one enlarges so that the
actuator will bend.

3. Longitudinal Actuators

Longitudinal actuators are also known as piezo stacks which are formed by coating several piezo
elements on top of each other so that each element’s expansion effect will generate a useful force
& movement. These types of actuators use the piezoelectric effect for generating linear
displacements which range from 0.1 – 0.15% of the length of the actuator. The force density of
these actuators is high typically 30 N/mm^2 range and also high resonant frequencies so that
these actuators are used in dynamic applications.

4. Shear Actuators
These types of actuators are related to longitudinal type actuators because they have multiple
piezo elements layers but they vary in how the voltage is applied & the type of motion formed.
In shear piezo actuators, the different elements are horizontally polarized & the electrical field
can be applied orthogonally.

The resulting displacement takes place within the horizontal plane so that a shear-type motion
can be created. These actuators’ height is restricted through bending & shear stresses, although
they are frequently merged within multi-axis systems by longitudinal actuators.

5. Tube Actuators

Tube actuators include radial polarization & also use the transverse piezoelectric effect to make
displacement. These types of actuators experience radial, axial, or lateral motion based on the
voltage applied which is relative to the electrodes. These actuators are not appropriate for
generating forces; however, they supply micron-level travel for pumping, nanoliter dosing &
scanning microscopes applications.

6. Contracting Actuators

Flat actuators including two piezo elements can generate contracting motion once both elements
operate mutually. These types of actuators utilize the transverse piezoelectric effect to generate
motion in one direction only. Contracting piezo actuators have little displacement up to 20
microns however can produce 100’s of Newton’s force.

Once this type of actuator is mounted to a substrate or a base, then a bending actuator can be
created. In a bending type actuator, the voltage applied can cause one piezo element to increase
whereas the other contracts.

Applications of piezoelectric actuators:

1. A piezoelectric actuator is used to adjust different types of equipment like lenses,

machining tools, mirrors, etc.

2. These are used in various precision motion control-based applications.

 3. These actuators are also used to control hydraulic valves which work like a special-
purpose motor or a small-volume pump

4. These are used in applications where force or movement is required.

5. These are used in different industries like aviation, automotive, consumer electronics,
medical, aerospace due to many benefits.

6. Piezo actuators are used in braille & precision knitting machines.

7. Piezo actuators are used in mobile phones and video cameras equipped with microphones
due to silent drive characteristics.

8. These actuators don’t need lubrication to function, so used in vacuum & cryogenic
environments.

Advantages of piezoelectric actuators

1. Simple design

2. Least moving parts,

3. High-reliability characteristics

4. These are simply optimized for particular applications like a non-magnetic, cryogenic,
ultra-high vacuum & high stiffness.

5. High force for each unit areaResolution is unlimited

6. Vacuum &Clean Room Compatible

7. Generation of High Force

8. No Wear & Tear

9. Energy consumption is low

10. No Magnetic Fields

11. Quick Response

12. Operates at Cryogenic Temperatures

Piezoelectric materials as bimorphs [5]

A bimorph is a cantilever used for actuation or sensing which consists of two active layers. It can
also have a passive layer between the two active layers.

Piezoelectric bimorph consists of two piezoelectric layers and one substrate (base material on
which processing is conducted) layer. As shown in Figure below, the polarization direction of the
two piezoelectric materials is the same. The same voltage signal is connected to the upper and
lower surfaces, and the substrate is grounded.

The two piezoelectric layers extend and contract respectively so that the bimorph can deform in
two directions. If a mechanical device is added at the end of the structure, the bimorph will
become an actuator of the servo system.
  In actuator applications, one active layer contracts and the other expands if voltage is
applied, thus the bimorph bends. This physical deformation can be used to generate
displacement.
 In sensing applications, bending the bimorph produces voltage which can be used to
measure displacement or acceleration. This mode can also be used for energy harvesting.
 In transducer applications, the piezoelectric bimorph can receive either electrical or
mechanical inputs and produce either electrical or mechanical outputs depending on the
desired results.

While a single piezoelectric crystal can only shrink or expand by a few millimeters at most,
bimorphs can bend well over ten or a hundred times that range at the same voltage. These
designs are extremely common in sound production; one can often find a piezoelectric bimorph
in fire alarms, buzzers, and other sound producing devices.

The bimorphs (a) and (b) have no electrode between the upper and lower piezoelectric elements,
and the electric field that drives the bimorph is generated by the top and bottom electrodes. This
electric field is equal to the voltage of the source V divided by the total distance 2t between the
electrodes.
The bimorph (c) has an intermediate electrode which is connected to one of the poles of the
voltage source. The electric field across the piezoelectric elements is now equal to the voltage V
divided by the electrode distance t, and is therefore twice the field of the bimorphs of type (a) or
(b).

The type (a) and type (b) bimorph is often called a series bimorph, while type (c) is called a
parallel bimorph.

Type (d) consists of a piezoelectric element between electrodes joined over its entire length to a
non-piezoelectric element. This is often a metal or a dielectric such as glass.

Applications of Piezoelectric bimorphs

1. In industrial applications, piezo bimorph actuators are utilized in automatic lubrication

systems, opening and closing valves, and operating pumps.
 2. Piezo bimorphs are responsible for triggering a mechanical response after they are
activated by an electrical charge.
3. Commercial and industrial controllers, switches, and machinery also use bimorph piezo
actuators to generate precise results.
4. In household applications, piezo bimorph actuators are responsible for sound generation
in microwaves, alarms, buzzers, and speakers.

Advantages of Piezoelectric bimorphs

Bimorph piezo actuators are extremely versatile with fast response times and low power
consumption.

Carbon Nano Tubes

A carbon nanotube (CNT) also called buckytube,is a tube made of carbon with a diameter in
the nanometer (1×10−9 m), range (nanoscale).

Carbon is capable of forming many allotropes (structurally different forms of the same element)
due to its valency.

Allotropes - ball shapes such as buckminsterfullerene (cage like fused ring structure) and
sheets such as graphene.
Well-known forms of carbon include diamond and graphite.
Larger-scale structures of carbon include nanotubes, nanobuds and nanoribbons.

Carbon nanotubes with various structures are mainly categorized as single-walled (SWNTs) and
multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs).

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have diameters around 0.5–2.0 nanometers, about
100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. They can be idealized as cutouts from a
two-dimensional graphene sheet rolled up to form a hollow cylinder.

A SWCNT can be described as a long tube formed by wrapping a single graphene sheet into a
cylinder with diameter of about 1 nanometer, the ends of which are capped by fullerene cages.
The fullerene structures, with alternating structures of five hexagons adjacent to one pentagon,
form the surface with desired curvature to enclose the volume. The sidewalls of carbon
nanotubes are made of graphene sheets consisting of neighboring hexagonal cells.
Other polygon structures, such as pentagons and heptagons, constitute defects of sidewalls. The
cylindrical sidewalls can be produced from different rolling directions to make SWNTs with
distinct structures and properties.

Due to cylindrical symmetry, there are only a handful of methods that are effective in making
seamless cylinders, and they are characterized by the chiral vectors with integer indices (n, m).
To establish the chiral vector, two atoms in the graphene sheet are selected, with one serving as
the origin of the vector pointing toward the other atom.

The graphene sheet is then rolled in a way that allows the two atoms to coincide. Under these
circumstances, the chiral vectors form a plane perpendicular to the longitude direction of
nanotubes and the lengths of the chiral vectors are equal to the circumference. Three different
types of SWNTs are distinctly characterized, named “zigzag” (m = 0), “armchair” (n = m), and
“chiral.” These structural variations result in differences in electrical conductivity and
mechanical strength.

Properties of Single-walled Carbon Nanotubes are:

 The diameter of Single-walled Carbon nanotubes is 2nm.

 The length of Single-walled Carbon nanotubes is around 2 micrometers.

 They exist in a one-dimensional structure. Therefore, it is also known as a nanowire.

 Electronics can be miniaturized by using a Single-walled Carbon nanotube.

 Their band gap varies from 0-2 electron volts (eV).

 They show conductivity like a semiconductor. Therefore, they exhibit both metallic and
semiconductivity behavior.

The most important feature that distinguishes SWCNTs is that the wall of the nanotube consists
of the only one graphene layer. In other words, single-walled carbon nanotubes can be
described as graphene sheets seamlessly rolled up to form hollow cylinders. That is why they
often referred to as graphene nanotubes (GNTs).
Unlike a single-walled nanotube, a multi-walled carbon nanotube can be viewed as a concentric
arrangement of SWCNTs, i.e. consisting of multiple layers of graphene rolled up seamlessly
into a tube shape.

These differences between single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotubes result in

substantially different properties and corresponding impacts on materials after their introduction.

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) consist of nested single-wall carbon nanotubes in a

nested, tube-in-tube structure. Double- and triple-walled carbon nanotubes are special cases of
MWCNT.

MWNTs are concentrically aligned SWNT assemblies with different diameters. The distance
between adjacent shells is about 0.34 nanometer. MWNTs differ from SWNTs not only in their
dimensions, but also in their corresponding properties.
Various techniques have been developed to produce carbon nanotubes in sizable quantity, high
yield, and purity, while maintaining a reasonable cost. Well-developed techniques include arc
discharge, laser ablation, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and most processes involve
costly vacuum conditions.

Properties of Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes are given below:

 The outer diameter of Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes is around 2-20 nanometres.

 The inner diameter of Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes is 1-3 nm.

 The length of Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes is around 5-6 micrometers.

Carbon Nanotubes Properties

1. Carbon nanotubes are stiff. They are as stiff as a diamond (the hardest natural material in
nature).

2. The gravitational weight of the nanotube is very low.

3. The density of the carbon nanotubes is one-fourth of that of steel.

4. Carbon nanotubes are stronger than steel. They exhibit extraordinary mechanical
properties. Carbon nanotubes are ten times stronger than steel.
5. Carbon nanotubes have a high thermal capacity. Generally, it is twenty times stronger
than steel. Therefore, it does not expand on heating like that of steel. Therefore carbon
nanotubes uses in making bridges and aircrafts material

6. In carbon nanotubes, each carbon atom is surrounded by three other carbon atoms
through covalent bonds. These carbon-carbon covalent bonds form lattices in the shape of
hexagons.

7. The crystalline structure of carbon nanotubes exists in the form of regular hexagons.

8. Carbon nanotubes are elastic.

9. Carbon nanotubes are good conductors of heat.

10. Carbon nanotubes have good electrical conductivity.

11. The young's modulus is high. The young modulus of carbon nanotubes is around 1 terra
pascal which makes carbon nanotubes ten times stronger than steel.

12. Carbon nanotubes are chemically neutral. So, they are chemically stable. Therefore,
carbon nanotubes resist corrosion.

1. Electrical Conductivity – Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are electrically and thermally

conductive and have a high mechanical strength. Parallel arrays of multi-walled carbon
nanotubes (CNT forests) can be drawn into electrically conductive continuous length
webs.

2. Strength And Elasticity – In terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus, carbon
nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet found.

3. Thermal Conductivity And Expansion – The carbon bond’s rigidity aids in the
transmission of vibrations throughout the nanotube, resulting in excellent heat
conductivity. Because each carbon atom is connected to three other carbon atoms by
strong covalent bonds, carbon nanotubes have an extremely high melting point. This also
 leaves a spare electron on each carbon atom, resulting in a sea of delocalized electrons
within the tube, allowing nanotubes to conduct electricity.

4. Electron Emission – Because each carbon atom is connected to three other carbon atoms
by strong covalent bonds, carbon nanotubes have an extremely high melting point. This
also means that each carbon atom has an extra electron, forming a sea of delocalized
electrons within the tube, allowing nanotubes to conduct electricity.
Carbon Nanotubes Applications

1. Carbon nanotubes are utilized in energy storage, device modelling, automotive parts, boat
hulls, sporting goods, water filters, thin-film electronics, coatings, actuators, and
electromagnetic shields.

2. Because of their large surface area, CNTs have been successfully used in pharmacy and
medicine to adsorb or conjugate a wide range of medicinal and diagnostic substances.

3. CNTs have a number of unique chemical, size, optical, electrical, and structural
properties that make them appealing as drug delivery and biosensing platforms for the
treatment of a variety of diseases and noninvasive monitoring of blood levels and other
chemical properties of the human body, respectively.

4. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique qualities, such as high surface-to-volume ratios,
increased conductivity and strength, biocompatibility, ease of functionalization, optical
properties, and so on.

5. Composite materials containing carbon nanotubes are being used in sporting goods.
6. Carbon nanotubes are used to make bullet- proof jackets.
7. Carbon nanotubes can be used to make aircraft and spacecraft bodies.
8. Carbon nanotubes can be used to build high-performance nanoscaled thin-film transistors
to replace silicon-based transistors because of the semiconducting properties of carbon
nanotubes.
9. Carbon nanotubes can be used to make biosensors and electrochemical sensors.
10. Carbon nanotubes are used in making electrodes to study electrochemical reactions
because of their excellent electrical properties.

References:

1. [Link]
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3. [Link]
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4. [Link]
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5. [Link]

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