Module 2

Basic principles of flight – significance of speed of sound; airspeed and groundspeed;

standard atmosphere; Bernoulli’s theorem and its application for generation of lift and
measurement of airspeed; forces over wing section, aerofoil nomenclature, pressure
distribution over a wing section. Lift and drag components – generation of lift and drag;
lift curve, drag curve, types of drag, factors affecting lift and drag; centre of pressure and
its significance; aerodynamic centre, aspect ratio, Mach number and supersonic flight
effects; simple problems on lift and drag.

Speed of Sound

Speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave as it propagates
through an elastic medium. The speed of sound in air depends on the type of gas and the
temperature of the gas. An analysis based on conservation of mass and momentum shows that
the speed of sound a is equal to the square root of the ratio of specific heat times the gas constant
times the temperature.

a = √𝛾𝑅𝑇

Airspeed

Airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air. Among the common conventions
for qualifying airspeed are: indicated airspeed (“IAS”), calibrated airspeed (“CAS”), true
airspeed (“TAS”), equivalent airspeed (“EAS”) and density airspeed.

Indicated airspeed means the speed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static airspeed
indicator calibrated to reflect standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow at sea level
uncorrected for airspeed system errors. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is indicated airspeed
corrected for instrument errors, position error (due to incorrect pressure at the static port) and
installation errors. Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is defined as the speed at sea level that would
produce the same incompressible dynamic pressure as the true airspeed at the altitude at which
the vehicle is flying. True airspeed is the speed of the aircraft relative to the atmosphere. The
true airspeed and heading of an aircraft constitute its velocity relative to the atmosphere.

Ground speed

Ground speed is the speed of the aircraft relative to the ground rather than through the air,
which can itself be moving relative to the ground.

Standard Atmosphere

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric model of how the pressure,
temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change over a wide range of
altitudes or elevations. It has been established to provide a common reference for temperature
and pressure and consists of tables of values at various altitudes, plus some formulas by which
those values were derived. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) publishes
the ISA as an international standard, ISO 2533:1975. For purposes of pressure altimeter
calibrations, aircraft and rocket performance and their design, and so forth, knowledge of the
vertical distribution of such quantities as pressure, temperature, density, and speed of sound is
required. Since the real atmosphere never remains constant at any particular time or place, a
hypothetical model must be employed as an approximation to what may be expected. This model
is known as the standard atmosphere. The air in the model is assumed to be devoid of dust,
moisture, and water vapor and to be at rest with respect to the Earth (that is, no winds or
turbulence).
Bernoulli’s Theorem

Bernoulli's theorem in its simplest form:

“When the speed of a fluid increases the pressure decreases”. This is a statement about
the relationship between the change in speed of a fluid parcel and the change in its pressure.

Measurements made by attaching pressure sensors to the top and bottom of a wing show
that the pressure is reduced at the top of the wing and that the pressure either remains at
atmospheric pressure, or is above atmospheric pressure, on the bottom of the wing depending on
the angle of the wing with respect to the direction of motion of the wing through the air, the
angle of attack.

Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem in generating Lift

Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the behaviour of
the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if the air flowing past the top
surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface, then
Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above
than below. This pressure difference results in an upwards lifting force.

 The carburettor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a region of
low pressure to draw fuel into the carburettor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air.
The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the
narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
 An injector on a steam locomotive (or static boiler).
 The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the aircraft.
These two devices are connected to the airspeed indicator, which determines the dynamic
pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference
between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the
airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed appropriate to the dynamic
pressure.
 The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or
an orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a
horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible fluid, the
reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently Bernoulli's
principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced diameter
region. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi effect.
 The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be calculated
directly from Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to the square root of the
height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that Torricelli's law is
compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers this drain rate. This is reflected in the
discharge coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number and the shape of the
orifice.

 The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a non-contact adhesive force between a
surface and the gripper.

Generation of Lift

Air flows over an airplane wing that is convex on the top and flat below. The flat bottom
of the wing is parallel to the velocity of the airplane. The air a great distance in front of the
airplane is at atmospheric pressure. The air speeds up as it flows over the top of the wing. The
same amount of air must flow through every cross sectional area so when the air flows through a
smaller area over the top of the wing it must speed up. The wing its pressure must drop. Thus the
air flowing over the wing has lower than atmospheric pressure. The air flowing along the bottom
of the wing travels at the same speed and so remains at atmospheric pressure. The combination
of atmospheric pressure below the wing and lower pressure above leads to a net upward force
called lift.

Airfoil Nomenclature
 • Mean Chamber Line: Set of points halfway between upper and lower
surfaces
– Measured perpendicular to mean chamber line itself
• Leading Edge: Most forward point of mean chamber line
• Trailing Edge: Most reward point of mean chamber line
• Chord Line: Straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges
• Chord, c: Distance along the chord line from leading to trailing edge
• Chamber: Maximum distance between mean chamber line and chord line
– Measured perpendicular to chord line

Types of Airfoils
Symmetrical
 Each chamber on each side
 Each half mirror image of other
 Mean chamber line and chord line are coincidental
 Produces zero lift at zero angle of attack
 Constant center of pressure with varying angles of attack
Nonsymmetrical

 Greater curvature above the chord line then below

 Chord and chamber line are not coincidental
 Produces useful lift even at negative angles of attack
 Produces more lift at a given angle of attack than symmetrical
 Better stall characteristics than symmetrical
 Good lift to drag ratio
 Limited to low relative wind velocity, <300 knots
 Excessive center of pressure travel up to 20% of chord line

NACA
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) did systematic
tests on various shaped airfoils in order to generate a data base for aircraft design.
Although performed a long time ago, these data are still used when designing
certain appendages of the aircraft. The system consists of series of 4, 5, and 6 digit
airfoils.
4-digit airfoils (e.g. NACA 2415):
2 – maximum camber is 0.02% over the chord
4 – the location of the maximum camber along the chord line given as
0.4c
15 – the maximum thickness, here 0.15c
5-digit airfoils (e.g. NACA 23021):
2 – maximum camber is 0.02% over the chord
30 – the location of the maximum camber along the chord line/2, here
0.15c
 21 – the maximum thickness, here 0.21c

6-digit airfoils (e.g. NACA 632215):

6 – series designator
3 – maximum pressure location, here, 0.3 c
2 – minimum drag at design lift coefficient, ±0.2
2 – design lift coefficient, here 0.2
15 – the maximum thickness, here 0.15c

Typically, tail surfaces of an aircraft are symmetric and are made with thin
airfoils such as an NACA 0012. (zero camber, 12% thick)

Angle of Attack

The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the average
relative wind. Greater angle of attack creates more lift (up to a point).

Aspect Ratio
 In aeronautics, the aspect ratio is equal to the square of the wingspan divided
by the wing area. Thus, a long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a
short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio.
𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑆

Lift
Lift is generated by the motion of air passing over the aircraft’s wings. The direction of lift is
always perpendicular to the flight direction (and its magnitude depends on several factors,
including the shape, size and velocity of the aircraft.
 Lift is an aerodynamic force
 Lift must exceed weight for flight
 Generated by motion of aircraft through air
 Created by the effects of airflow past wing
 Aircraft lift acts through a single point called the Centre of Pressure.

Drag
Drag is simply resistance of the aircraft against the air. There are many types of drag, but each is
a force opposing thrust.

Lift and Drag Curve for the wing

The chart below is typical for the wing section for general aviation aircraft. It depicts the
coefficients of Lift and Drag against Angle of Attack. There are three curves on this chart. The
curve labeled CLis the lift coefficient. The curve labeled CD is the drag coefficient. The third
curve is the ratio of lift coefficient to the drag coefficient. This curve is labeled L/D. The
coefficients CL and CD are simply dimensionless numbers that when multiplied by the square of
the velocity, the density of air and the wing area give the result in Lift or Drag in Pounds of
Force.
Types of Drag

 Parasite drag
 Form drag or pressure drag
 Skin friction drag
 Profile drag
 Interference drag
 Lift induced drag
 Wave drag

Detailed explanation of each type of drag is given below

Parasite drag

Parasite drag is drag produced due to motion of object through fluid. In a case of aviation
object is our aircraft & fluid is atmospheric air. Parasite drag induces due to air molecules.
Parasite drag consists of form drag or pressure drag, skin friction drag, interference drag.

Form drag or pressure drag

 Form drag is produced due to shape of object moving in fluid. It depends on longitudinal
cross section of object. Object with larger cross section & blunt shape will have larger form drag
where as object with small cross section area & sharp shape will have less form drag.

How form drag is reduced?

Using small cross section area for making wings, Using aerodynamic shape for aerofoil.

Skin friction drag

Skin friction drag is simply drag produced due to friction between object (aircraft) &
fluid (atmospheric air).Rough surface will have high skin friction drag & conversly smooth
surface will have less skin friction drag.
How skin friction drag is reduced?

Making aircraft skin smooth which will reduce skin friction.

Profile drag

Profile drag is simply sum of form drag & skin friction drag.

Interference drag
 Interference drag is produced due to interference of two or more airflows having different
speed & produced at various aircraft components. Such as due to mixture of airflow around wing
& airflow around fuselage.

How interference drag is reduced?

Keeping angle between wing & fuselage acute angle(less than 90°)

Lift Induced drag

Lift is another one aerodynamic force. It is a force which keeps aircraft in air & equal to
weight of aircraft in stable flight with direction vertically upward. Lift induced drag is as name
suggests a drag produced along with lift. At slower speed & higher angle of attack aircraft will
have more lift. But as angle of attack inreases air flow pushes aircraft in backward direction. So
lift increased but along with that drag is also increased.
Other type of induced drag is due to mixture of airflow above wing & below wing at
wing tip. We know that speed of airflow above the wing is higher than speed of airflow below
wing as airflow above wing has to travel longer distance as compared to airflow below wing. At
the wing tips this two variable speed airflow get mixed with each other which produces vortices
at wing tips as high pressure airflow applies torque on low pressure airflow. In such a way lift
induced drag is produced along with lift.

How lift induced drag is reduced?

 Using winglet or sharklets at wingtips.

Wave drag

Wave drag is generally produced at transonic speed (speed approximately equals to speed
of sound) & Supersonic speed (speed greater than speed of sound). It is generally produced
propellers & wings tips. Due to high speed of airflow shock waves are produced which causes
turbulence in air which causes wave drag. Sonic boom production in supersonic aircraft is due to
shock waves only.

How wave drag is reduced?

Shock wave drag is one of the reason that at present time there are no supersonic
passenger aircraft. Hence scientist are looking way to reduce shock wave drag. NASA is trying
to reduce shock wave drag by making aircraft nose sharp. NASA's quite spike F-15 is aircraft
with somewhat reduced shockwave drag.

Resolving the Aerodynamic Force

• Relative Wind: Direction of V∞
 – We used subscript ∞ to indicate far upstream conditions
• Angle of Attack, a: Angle between relative wind (V∞) and chord line
• Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved into two force components
• Lift, L: Component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to relative wind
• Drag, D: Component of aerodynamic force parallel to relative wind
• Aerodynamic force, R, may also be resolved into components perpendicular
and parallel to chord line
• Normal Force, N: Perpendicular to chord line
• Axial Force, A: Parallel to chord line
• L and D are easily related to N and A
• For airfoils and wings, L and D most common
• For rockets, missiles, bullets, etc. N and A more useful

Centre of Pressure
 We can characterize the pressure variation around the surface as a function p(x) which
indicates that the pressure depends on the distance x from a reference line usually taken as the
leading edge of the object. If AOA changes, the pressure at every point on the airfoil
changes. And, therefore, the location of the center of pressure changes as well. if the angle
of attack is increased, the center of pressure moves forward.
The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a
body. In aerospace, this is the point on the airfoil (or wing) where the resultant vector (lift and
drag) acts.

Aerodynamic Centre
 The location where the aerodynamic moment remains constant is denoted as
the aerodynamic centre (ac) of the airfoil.

Mach number
The Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity
past a boundary (V) to the local speed of sound (c).
𝑽
𝑴=
𝒄