Module -4

Aircraft Stability :
Forces on an aircraft in flight; static and dynamic stability; longitudinal, lateral and roll
stability; necessary conditions for longitudinal stability; basics of aircraft control systems.
Effect of flaps and slats on lift, control tabs, stalling, gliding, landing, turning, aircraft
manoeuvres; stalling, gliding, turning. Simple problems on these. Performance of aircraft –
power curves, maximum and minimum speeds for horizontal flight at a given altitude;
effect of changes in engine power and altitude on performance; correct and incorrect
angles of bank; aerobatics, inverted manoeuvre, manoeuvrability. Simple problems.

Forces on an aircraft

Weight
Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth. The magnitude of
the weight depends on the mass of all the airplane parts, plus the amount of fuel, plus any
payload on board (people, baggage, freight, etc.). The weight is distributed throughout the
airplane. But we can often think of it as collected and acting through a single point called the
center of gravity. In flight, the airplane rotates about the center of gravity.

Lift
To overcome the weight force, airplanes generate an opposing force called lift. Lift is
generated by the motion of the airplane through the air and is an aerodynamic force. "Aero"
stands for the air, and "dynamic" denotes motion. Lift is directed perpendicular to the flight
direction. The magnitude of the lift depends on several factors including the shape, size, and
velocity of the aircraft.
Drag
As the airplane moves through the air, there is another aerodynamic force present. The air
resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance force is called drag. Drag is directed along
and opposed to the flight direction. Like lift, there are many factors that affect the magnitude of
the drag force including the shape of the aircraft, the "stickiness" of the air, and the velocity of
the aircraft.

Thrust
To overcome drag, airplanes use a propulsion system to generate a force called thrust.
The direction of the thrust force depends on how the engines are attached to the aircraft.

Stability of the Aircraft

The stability of an aircraft relates to its response to disturbances from equilibrium
conditions, which arise at random from external media (e.g. gusts). Thus stability is the tendency
of a system to return to its equilibrium condition after being disturbed from that point.

There are two types of stability: static and dynamic. They can be visualized
as follows.
Static stability
Static stability relates to the nature of the initial tendency of the response
following a disturbance. The response can take one of the following three forms:

Consider a marble on a curved surface, such as a bowl. Imagine that the

bowl is upright and the marble is resting inside. The marble is stationary; it is in a
state of equilibrium, which means that the moments acting on the marble are zero.
If the marble is now disturbed (moved to one side) and then released, it will roll
back toward the bottom of the bowl, that is, toward its original equilibrium
position. Such a system is statically stable. In general, it states that, If the forces
and moments on the body caused by a disturbance tend initially to return the body
toward its equilibrium position, the body is statically stable. The body has positive
static stability.
If the marble is placed precisely at the crest, the moments will be zero, and
the marble will be in equilibrium. However, if the marble is now disturbed, it will
tend to roll down the side, away from its equilibrium position. Such a system is
statically unstable. In general, it states that, If the forces and moments are such that
the body continues to move away from its equilibrium position after being
disturbed, the body is statically unstable. The body has negative static stability.
Finally, imagine the marble on a flat horizontal surface. Its moments are
zero; it is in equilibrium. If the marble is now disturbed to another location, the
moments will still be zero, and it will still be in equilibrium. Such a system is
neutrally stable. This situation is rare in flight vehicles.
 Dynamic Stability

The time history of the movement of a body in response to its static

stability following an initial disturbance from equilibrium position is called its
dynamic stability. If a body possesses positive static stability, its dynamic behavior
may be stable, unstable or neutral. In response to its positive static stability –
a) If a body returns to equilibrium position by performing single motion or
by performing a series of damped oscillations, it is said to possess
positive dynamic stability.

b) If a body tends to return to equilibrium position but overshoots and

continues to perform oscillations of equal amplitude, it is said to possess
neutral dynamic stability.

c) If a body performs oscillations of increasing amplitude, it is said to be

dynamically unstable or to possess dynamic instability.
A body that is statically unstable will perform a continuous divergence away from
the equilibrium position and will have no oscillatory behavior. As such it will be
dynamically unstable. It, therefore, follows that to have a dynamic or oscillatory
characteristics, a body must be statically stable.

Effects of Flaps and Slats on Lift

Slats are on the front part or Leading Edge of a wing. Flaps are on the back part or
Trailing Edge. Both change the shape of the wing (size) and in curvature to increase the amount
of lift generated by the wing. Since lift is one of the four forces in flight, loft is necessary to keep
an airplane flying. By changing the size and shape of the wing and increasing lift an airplane can
fly at slower speeds (less airflow over the wing). Lift is a function of speed (airflow over the
wing) and the size and shape of the wing (coefficient of lift x the wing surface area) the larger
the wing the greater the lift, the faster the airflow the greater the lift. Slats and flaps are used to
increase lift without increasing airspeed so aircraft can take off and land at slower air
speeds. AOA or Angle of Attack is the difference of angle between the airflow hitting the
leading edge of the wing and the wing itself. The critical AOA is the point at which the wing is
no longer able to produce lift (stall). Slats and flaps can increase the critical AOA by allowing
the wing to continue to create lift even at lower air speeds and at higher AOA. An aicraft can
make a slower and steeper approach due to this.

Control Tabs
Trim Tabs

Trim tabs are small movable surfaces that attach to the trailing edge of flight controls. These tabs
can be controlled from the flight deck, and their purpose is to create an aerodynamic force that
keeps the flight control in a deflected position. Trim tabs can be installed on any of the primary
flight controls.

Anti-Servo Tab

To reduce the sensitivity, a full length anti-servo tab is installed on the trailing edge of the
stabilator. As the trailing edge of the stabilator moves down, the anti-servo tab moves down and
creates a force trying to raise the trailing edge. With this force acting against the movement
of the stabilator, it reduces the sensitivity to pilot input.

Balance Tab

On some airplanes, the force needed to move the flight controls can be excessive. In these cases,
a balance tab can be used to generate a force that assists in the movement of the flight control.
Just the opposite of anti-servo tabs, balance tabs move in the opposite direction of the flight
control’s trailing edge, providing a force that helps the flight control move.

Servo Tab

On large airplanes, because the force needed to move the flight controls is beyond the capability
of the pilot, hydraulic actuators are used to provide the necessary force. In the event of a
hydraulic system malfunction or failure, some of these airplanes have servo tabs on the trailing
edge of the primary flight controls. When the control wheel is pulled back in an attempt to
move the elevator, the servo tab moves and creates enough aerodynamic force to move the
elevator. The servo tab is acting like a balance tab, but rather than assisting the normal force that
moves the elevator, it becomes the sole force that makes the elevator move. Like the balance tab,
the servo tab moves in the opposite direction of the flight control’s trailing edge.

Stalling
 A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack increases
beyond a certain point such that the lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is
called the critical angle of attack. Air flow separation begins to occur at small angles of attack
while attached flow over the wing is still dominant. As angle of attack increases, the separated
regions on the top of the wing increase in size and hinder the wing’s ability to create lift. At the
critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that further increases in angle of attack
produce less lift and vastly more drag. The so called spoilers that raises on the upper part of a
wing at landing cause basically a controlled stall of the wing such that the airplane will be
maintained firmly on ground.

A fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting or a change in attitude.

Most aircraft are designed to have a gradual stall with characteristics that will warn the pilot and
give the pilot time to react. For example, an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall may have
an audible alarm or a stick shaker installed to simulate the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick
fore and aft. The “buffet margin” is, for a given set of conditions, the amount of ‘g’, which can
be imposed for a given level of buffet. The critical angle of attack in steady straight and level
flight can be attained only at low airspeed. Attempts to increase the angle of attack at higher
airspeeds can cause a

Depending on the aircraft’s design, a stall can expose extremely adverse properties of
balance and control, in particular in a prototype. The deep stall affects aircraft with a T-tail
configuration.

A deep stall (or super-stall) is a dangerous type of stall that affects certain aircraft
designs, notably those with a T-tail configuration. In these designs, the turbulent wake of a
stalled main wing “blankets” the horizontal stabilizer, rendering the elevators ineffective and
preventing the aircraft from recovering from the stall.
Turning

An aircraft turns by banking the wings in the direction of the desired turn at a specific angle.
This angle is referred to as the bank angle. When flying straight and level, the wings of an
aircraft produce the force of lift in an upward direction, perpendicular to the wing. However,
when a pilot banks the wing, this force is then divided into vertical and horizontal components. It
is this horizontal component of the produced lift force, that turns the aircraft. This force, in
actuality, acts as a centripetal force, trying to maintain the circular movement of the aircraft.

In order to turn an aircraft in an efficient and fully-coordinated manner, it is necessary that all the
four primary controls are available. You need ailerons (rectangular flaps at the back of the wing)
to bank and hence initiate the turn, the elevator to maintain your altitude during the turn, the
rudder to coordinate the movement of the nose and of course the throttle to increase/decrease
thrust while turning, thereby affecting the radius of the turn.

Airplane turns are generally categorized into three types:

  Planes make shallow turns when the bank angle is less than 20 degrees.
 A turn is “medium” when the bank angle is between 20 to 45 degrees.
 Steep turns produce a bank angle greater than 45 degrees.

Maneuvering

There are four fundamentals of flight upon which all maneuvers are based: straight-and-
level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All controlled flight maneuvers consist of one or more of
the four fundamentals of flight. If a student pilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the
student’s proficiency is based on accurate “feel” and control analysis rather than mechanical
movements, the ability to perform any assigned maneuver is only a matter of obtaining a clear
visual and mental conception of it. The flight instructor must impart a good knowledge of these
basic elements to the student, and must combine them and plan their practice so that perfect
performance of each is instinctive without conscious effort. The importance of this to the success
of flight training cannot be overemphasized. As the student progresses to more complex
maneuvers, discounting any difficulties in visualizing the maneuvers, most student difficulties
are caused by a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the principles of one or more of
these fundamentals.

Guidelines
Good practices to follow during maneuvering flight include:
1. Move the cyclic only as fast as trim, torque, and rotor can be maintained. When entering a
maneuver and the trim, rotor, or torque reacts quicker than anticipated, pilot limitations have
been exceeded. If continued, an aircraft limitation will be exceeded. Perform the maneuver with
less intensity until all aspects of the machine can be controlled. The pilot must be aware of the
sensitivity of the flight controls due to the high speed of the main rotor.

2. Anticipate changes in aircraft performance due to loading or environmental condition. The

normal collective increase to check rotor speed at sea level standard (SLS) may not be sufficient
at 4,000 feet pressure altitude (PA) and 95 °F.

3. Anticipate the following characteristics during aggressive maneuvering flight, and adjust or
lead with collective as necessary to maintain trim and torque:
 Left turns, torque increases (more antitorque). This applies to most helicopters, but not
all.
 Right turns, torque decreases (less antitorque). This applies to most helicopters, but not
all.
 Application of aft cyclic, torque decreases and rotor speed increases.
 Application of forward cyclic (especially when immediately following aft cyclic
application),
 torque increases and rotor speed decreases.
 Always leave a way out.
 Know where the winds are.
 Engine failures occur during power changes and cruise flight.
 Crew coordination is critical. Everyone needs to be fully aware of what is going on, and
each
 crewmember has a specific duty.
 In steep turns, the nose drops. In most cases, energy (airspeed) must be traded to maintain
 altitude as the required excess engine power may not be available (to maintain airspeed in
a 2G/60° turn, rotor thrust/engine power must increase by 100 percent). Failure to
anticipate this at low altitude endangers the crew and passengers. The rate of pitch
change is proportional to gross
 weight and density altitude.
 Many overtorques during flight occur as the aircraft unloads from high G maneuvers.
This is
 due to insufficient collective reduction following the increase to maintain consistent
torque and
 rotor rpm as G-loading increased (dive recovery or recovery from high G-turn to the
right).
 Normal helicopter landings usually require high power settings, with terminations to a
hover
 requiring the highest power setting.
 The cyclic position relative to the horizon determines the helicopter’s travel and attitude.
Performance of Aircraft – Power Curves

The power curve is a display of energy requirements at different airspeeds. It is the result
of multiplying drag (or thrust) by airspeed and completing a unit conversion to get numbers in
horsepower. When we are “on the power curve”, we are producing exactly the amount of power
required, and the aircraft remain at a constant speed at a constant altitude. When more power is
being produced than is required, we are on above the power curve and the aircraft will either
accelerate or climb. When less power is being produced than is required, we are below the power
curve and the aircraft will either decelerate or descend.

Aerobatics

Aerobatics is the practice of flying maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in
normal flight. Aerobatics are performed in airplanes and gliders for training, recreation,
entertainment, and sport. Additionally, some helicopters, such as the MBB Bo 105, are capable
of limited aerobatic maneuvers. An example of a fully aerobatic helicopter, capable of
performing loops and rolls, is the Westland Lynx. The term is sometimes referred to as
acrobatics, especially when translated.

Most aerobatic maneuvers involve rotation of the aircraft about its longitudinal (roll) axis or
lateral (pitch) axis. Other maneuvers, such as a spin, displace the aircraft about its vertical (yaw)
axis. Maneuvers are often combined to form a complete aerobatic sequence for entertainment or
competition. Aerobatic flying requires a broader set of piloting skills and exposes the aircraft to
greater structural stress than for normal flight. In some countries, the pilot must wear a parachute
when performing aerobatics. Aerobatic training enhances a pilot's ability to recover from unusual
flight conditions, and thus is an element of many flight safety training programs for pilots.