Module -5

Aircraft Systems:
Mechanical systems and their components; hydraulic and pneumatic systems; oxygen
System; environmental Control System; fuel system. Electrical systems, flight deck and
cockpit systems; navigation system, communication system.

Aircraft systems (Mechanical) – hydraulic and pneumatic systems and their applications;
environment control system; fuel system, oxygen system.

Aircraft systems (Electrical) – flight control system, cockpit instrumentation and displays;
communication systems; navigation systems; power generation systems – engine driven
alternators, auxiliary power Module, ram air turbine; power conversion, distribution and
management.

Aircraft systems (Mechanical)

Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

The word hydraulics is based on the Greek word water, and originally meant the study of
the physical behavior of water at rest and in motion. The meaning has been expanded to include
physical behavior of all liquids, including hydraulic fluid.

Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic system liquids are used primarily to transmit and distribute forces to various
units to be actuated. Liquids are able to do this because they almost incompressible. Pascal's
Law states that pressure applied to any part of a confined liquid is transmitted with undiminished
intensity to every other part. Thus, if a number of passages exist in system, pressure can be
distributed through all by means of the liquid. Manufacturers of hydraulic devices usually
specify the type of liquid best suited for use with their equipment, in view of the working
conditions, the service required, temperatures expected inside and outside the systems, pressures
the liquid must withstand, the possibilities of corrosion and other conditions that must be
considered.
If incompressibility and fluidity were the only qualities required, any liquid not too thick
might be used in a hydraulic system. But a satisfactory liquid for a particular installation must
possess a number of other properties. Some of the properties and characteristics that must be
considered when selecting a satisfactory liquid for a particular system are discussed in the
following sections.

Properties
Viscosity
One of the most important properties of any hydraulic fluid is its viscosity. Viscosity is
internal resistance to flow. A liquid such as gasoline flows easily (has a low viscosity) while a
liquid such as tar flows slowly (has a high viscosity).Viscosity increases with temperature
decreases.
The viscosity of a liquid is measured with a viscosimeter or viscometer. There are several
types, but the instrument most often Used by engineers in the U.S. is the Say bolt universal
viscosimeter. This instrument measures the number of seconds it takes for a fixed quantity of
liquid (60 cc. (cubic centimeters)) to flow through a small orifice of standard length and
diameter at a specific temperature. This time of flow is taken in seconds, and the viscosity
reading is expressed as SSU (seconds, Say bolt universal). For example, a certain liquid might
have a viscosity of 80 SSU at 130°F.

Chemical Stability
Chemical stability is another property which is exceedingly important in selecting a
hydraulic liquid. It is the liquid's ability to resist oxidation and deterioration for long periods. All
liquids tend to undergo unfavorable chemical changes under severe operating conditions. This is
the case, for example, when a system operates for a considerable period of time at high
temperatures.
Excessive temperatures have a great effect on the life of a liquid. It should be noted that
the temperature of the liquid in the reservoir of an operating hydraulic system does not always
represent a true state of operating conditions. Localized hot spots occur on bearings, gear teeth,
or at the point where liquid under pressure is forced through a small orifice. Continuous passage
of a liquid through these points may produce local temperatures high enough to carbonize or
sludge the liquid, yet the liquid in the reservoir may not indicate an excessively high
temperature. Liquids with a high viscosity have a greater resistance to heat than light or low
viscosity liquids which have been derived from the same source. The average hydraulic liquid
has a low viscosity. Fortunately, there is a wide choice of liquids available for use within the
viscosity range required of hydraulic liquids.
Liquids may break down if exposed to air, water, salt, or other impurities, especially if
they are in constant motion or subject to heat. Some metals, such as zinc, lead, brass, and
copper, have an undesirable chemical reaction on certain liquids.
These chemical processes result in the formation of sludge, gums, and carbon or other
deposits which clog openings, cause valves and pistons to stick or leak, and give poor
lubrication to moving parts. As soon as small amounts of sludge or other deposits are formed,
the rate of formation generally increases more rapidly. As they are formed, certain changes in
the physical and chemical properties of the liquid take place. The liquid usually becomes darker
in color, higher in viscosity, and acids are formed.

Flash Point
Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to
ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. A high flash point is desirable for hydraulic
liquids because it indicates good resistance to combustion and a low degree of evaporation at
normal temperatures.

Fire Point
Fire point is the temperature at which a substance gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to
ignite and continue to burn when exposed to a spark or flame. Like flash point, a high fire point
is required of desirable hydraulic liquids.

Types of Hydraulic Fluids

To assure proper system operation and to avoid damage to non-metallic components of
the hydraulic system, the correct fluid must be used.
When adding fluid to a system, use the type specified in the aircraft manufacturer's maintenance
manual or on the instruction plate affixed to the reservoir or unit being serviced.
There are three types of hydraulic fluids currently being used in civil aircraft.

Vegetable Base Hydraulic Fluid

Vegetable base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-7644) is composed essentially of castor oil and
alcohol. It has a pungent alcoholic odor and is generally dyed blue. Although it has a similar
composition to automotive type hydraulic fluid, it is not interchangeable. This fluid is used
primarily in older type aircraft. Natural rubber seals are used with vegetable base hydraulic
fluid. If it is contaminated with petroleum base or phosphate ester base fluids, the seals will
swell, break down and block the system. This type fluid is flammable.

Mineral Base Hydraulic Fluid

Mineral base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-5606) is processed from petroleum. It has an odor
similar to penetrating oil and is dyed red. Synthetic rubber seals are used with petroleum base
fluids. Do not mix with vegetable base or phosphate ester base hydraulic fluids. This type fluid
is flammable

Phosphate Ester Base Fluids

Non-petroleum base hydraulic fluids were introduced in 1948 to provide a fire-resistant
hydraulic fluid for use in high performance piston engines and turboprop aircraft.
These fluids were fire-resistance tested by being sprayed through a welding torch flame
(6000°). There was no burning, but only occasional flash of fire. These and other tests proved
non-petroleum base fluids (Skydrol ®) would not support combustion. Even though they might
flash at exceedingly high temperatures, Skydrol ® fluids could not spread a fire because burning
was localized at the source of heat. Once the heat source was removed or the fluid flowed away
from the source, no further flashing or burning occurred.
Several types of phosphate ester base (Skydrol) hydraulic fluids have been discontinued.
Currently used in aircraft are Skydrol 500B— a clear purple liquid having good low temperature
operating characteristics and low corrosive side effects; and, Skydrol LD—a clear purple low
weight fluid formulated for use in large and jumbo jet' transport aircraft where weight is a prime
factor.

Intermixing of Fluids
Due to the difference in composition, vegetable base, petroleum base and phosphate ester
fluids will not mix. Neither are the seals for any one fluid useable with or tolerant of any of the
other fluids. Should an aircraft hydraulic system be serviced with the wrong type fluid,
immediately drain and flush the system and maintain the seals according to the manufacturer's
specifications.

Basic Hydraulic System

Regardless of its function and design, every hydraulic system has a minimum number of
basic components in addition to a means through which the fluid is transmitted.

Hand Pump System

Figure 2.1 shows a basic hydraulic system. The first of the basic components, the
reservoir, stores the supply of hydraulic fluid for operation of the system. It replenishes the
system fluid when needed, provides room for thermal expansion, and in some systems provides
a means for bleeding air from the system.

Figure 2.1 Basic Hydraulic Systems with Hand Pump

 A pump is necessary to create a flow of fluid. The pump shown is hand operated:
however, aircraft systems are, in most instances equipped with engine-driven or electric motor-
driven pumps.

Power Driven Pump System

Figure 2.2 shows a basic system with the addition of a power-driven pump and filter,
pressure regulator, accumulator, pressure gage, relief valve, and two check valves. The function
of each of these components is described in the following paragraphs.

Figure 2.2 Basic Hydraulic System with Power Driven Pump system
The filter removes foreign particles from the hydraulic fluid, preventing dust, grit, or
other undesirable matter from entering the system.
The pressure regulator unloads or relieves the power-driven pump when the desired
pressure in the system is reached. Thus, it is often referred to as an unloading valve. When one
of the actuating units is being operated and pressure in the line between the pump and selector
valve builds up to the desired point, a valve in the pressure regulator automatically opens and
fluid is bypassed back to the reservoir. This bypass line is shown in Figure 2.2 leading from the
pressure regulator to the return line.
Many hydraulic systems do not use a pressure regulator, but have other means of
unloading the Accumulator. The accumulator is a steel sphere divided into two chambers by a
synthetic rubber diaphragm. The upper chamber contains fluid at system pressure, while the
lower chamber is charged with air.

The function of an accumulator is to

 Dampen pressure surges in the hydraulic system caused by actuation of a unit and the
effort of the pump to maintain pressure at a preset level. Aid or supplement the power pump
when several units are operating at once by supplying extra power from its "accumulated" or
stored power. Store power for the limited operation of a hydraulic unit when the pump is not
operating.
Supply fluid under pressure to compensate for small internal or external (not desired)
leaks which would cause the system to cycle continuously by action of the pressure switches
continually "kicking in."

Diaphragm Accumulator
Diaphragm type accumulators consist of two hollow half-ball metal sections fastened
together at the centerline. One of these halves has a fitting for attaching the unit to the system;
the other half is equipped with an air valve for charging the unit with compressed air. Mounted
between the two halves is a synthetic rubber diaphragm which divides the tank into two
compartments. A screen covers the outlet on the fluid side of the accumulator. This prevents a
part of the diaphragm from being pushed up into the system pressure port and being damaged.
This could happen whenever there is an air charge in the unit and no balancing fluid pressure. In
some units, a metal disc attached to the center of the diaphragm is used in place of the screen.

Figure 2.3 Diaphragm Accumulator

Bladder-Type Accumulators
The bladder-type accumulator operates on the same principle as the diaphragm type. It
serves the same purpose, but varies in construction. This unit consists of a one-piece metal
sphere with a fluid pressure inlet at the top. There is an opening at the bottom for inserting the
bladder. A large screw-type plug at the bottom of the accumulator retains the bladder and also
seals the unit. The high-pressure air valve is also mounted in the retainer plug. A round metal
disc attached to the top of the bladder prevents air pressure from forcing the bladder out through
the pressure port. As fluid pressure rises, it forces the bladder downward against the air charge,
filling the upper chamber with fluid pressure.

Piston-Type Accumulators
The piston-type accumulator also serves the same purpose and operates much like the
diaphragm and bladder accumulators. It is a cylinder and piston assembly with openings on each
end. System fluid pressure enters the top port, and forces the piston down against the air charge
in the bottom chamber. A high-pressure air valve is located at the bottom of the cylinder for
servicing the unit. There are two rubber seals (represented by the black dots) which prevent
leakage between the two chambers. A passage is drilled from the fluid side of the piston to the
space between the seals. This provides lubrication between the cylinder walls and the piston.

Power Pack
A power pack is one in which most of the major components such as the reservoir; pump,
relief valves, etc. are included in a self-contained unit, which is shown in Figure 2.4. However,
actuators do not form part of the power pack unit. The system may operate on either the open
center or close center principle. It is widely used in light aircraft.
 Figure 2.4 Power Pack
Actuating Cylinders
An actuating cylinder transforms energy in the form of fluid pressure into mechanical
force or action, to perform work. It is used to impart powered linear motion to some movable
object or mechanism.
A typical actuating cylinder consists fundamentally of cylinder housing, one or more
pistons and piston rods, and some seals. The cylinder housing contains a polished bore in which
the piston operates, and one or more ports through which fluid enters and leaves the bore. The
piston and rod form an assembly. The piston moves forward and backward within the cylinder
bore and an attached piston rod moves into and out of the cylinder housing through an
opening in one end of the cylinder housing. Seals are used to prevent leakage between the
piston and the cylinder bore, and between the piston rod and the end of the cylinder. Both the
cylinder housing and the piston rod have provisions for mounting and for attachment to an
object or mechanism which is to be moved by the actuating cylinder.
Actuating cylinders are of two major types: (1) Single-action and (2) Double-action. The
single-action 2(single port) actuating cylinder is capable of producing powered movement in
one direction only. The double-action (two ports) actuating cylinder is capable of producing
powered movement in two directions.

Single-Action Actuating Cylinder

 A single-action actuating cylinder is illustrated in Figure 2.5. Fluid under pressure enters
the port at the left and pushes against the face of the piston, forcing the piston to the right. As
the piston moves, air is forced out of the spring chamber through the vent hole, compressing the
spring. When pressure on the fluid is released to the point that it exerts less force than is present
in the compressed spring, the spring pushes the piston toward the left. As the piston moves to
the left, fluid is forced out of the fluid port. At the same time, the moving piston pulls air into
the spring chamber through the venthole. A three-way control valve is normally used for
controlling the operation of a single-action actuating cylinder.

Figure 2.5 Single Action Actuating Cylinder

Double-Action Actuating Cylinder

A double-action (two-port) actuating cylinder is illustrated in Figure 2.6. The operation
of a double-action actuating cylinder is usually controlled by a four-way selector valve.
Operation of the selector valve and actuating cylinder is discussed [Link] the selector
valve in the '"on" position admits fluid pressure to the left-hand chamber of the actuating
cylinder. This results in the piston being forced toward the right.

Figure 2.6: Double Action Actuating Cylinder

 As the piston moves toward the right, it pushes return fluid out of the right-hand chamber
and through the selector valve to the reservoir.
Typical Workable System
A typical hydraulic system for a large aircraft (Figure 2.7) consists of a main hydraulic
system and auxiliary hydraulic system. Both the systems are independent of each other. The
main hydraulic systems are designated as system A and system B.

Figure 2.7 Hydraulic system for Large Aircraft

Hydraulic system A and B supply pressurized fluid to the following systems:
 Thrust reverser
 Power transfer unit pump and motor
 Landing gear extension and retraction
 Nose wheel steering
 Normal and alternate brake
 Ailerons
 Autopilots
 Elevators
 Elevator feel
  Flight and ground spoilers
 Rudder
 Trailing edge flaps
 Leading edge flaps and slats

The auxiliary hydraulic system is the standby hydraulic system. It is an alternative or

backup pressure source to hydraulic systems A and B and operates automatically or manually

Pneumatic System
These systems are primarily used as emergency sources of pressure for hydraulically
operated sub-systems. Some aircrafts use low pressure systems and some use high pressure
pneumatic systems. It supplies air for a) Air-conditioning b) Engine starting c) Anti-icing d)
Hydraulic reservoir pressurization e)emergency lowering of landing gear and braking f)
passenger doors g) Nose wheel steering etc..

Low Pressure System

The pneumatic system in large aircraft is used for engine starting, anti-icing/deicing, air-
conditioning and pressurization. Regulated pressure range is 45 to 50 psi. Engine bleed air,
Auxiliary power unit, Ground source are the sources of pneumatic power.

Engine Bleed Air

Each engine contains one bleed air system. It control bleed air temperature and pressure.
Auxiliary Power Unit is used to supply the bleed air to the pneumatic manifold. The pneumatic
manifold system gets bleed air from engines, APU and ground source. If anyone failed to supply
air, that one can’t cause a loss of pressure. Pressure regulator is used to get a constant pressure
air.
Bleed air regulator operates the pressure regulating shut-off valve. This valve controls
flow of bleed air from engine to the pneumatic manifold.

High Pressure Systems

 It consists of one or more high pressure air cylinders, pressure gauges and pressure
warning lights. This system is used to operate the landing gear, wheel brakes, flaps, doors, etc,.
The air is stored in metallic cylinders at pressure ranging from 1000 psi to 3000 psi. The
cylinder has two valves.
 Charging valve – It is connected to the ground source for filling air.
 Control valve – It acts as a shut off valve.

The cylinder must be filled with compressed air or nitrogen. Air compressor is used to
recharge the air cylinder. It is driven by a hydraulic motor.

Working principle of high pressure pneumatic system

The compressor is driven by an accessory gearbox of the engine. The output from the
compressor is directed to unloading valve. The unloading valve is used to maintain the system
pressure.
A shuttle valve is used to charge the system either by compressor or by the ground
source. A moisture separator is used to collect the moisture from the air. Then the output from
the moisture separator is directed to the desiccant or a chemical layer. It will remove the traces
of moisture also. Then the air is passed to a micron filter. So it will remove all the contaminants.
So the pure air is stored in the cylinder. A pressure reducing valve is used to reduce the
air pressure for normal operations which is installed near to the cylinder.

Pneumatic System Components

Pneumatic systems are often compared to hydraulic systems, but such comparisons can
only hold true in general terms. Pneumatic systems do not utilize reservoirs, hand pumps,
accumulators, regulators, or engine-driven or electrically-driven power pumps for building
normal pressure. But similarities do exist in some components, which is shown in Figure 2.8.
 Figure 2.8 Pneumatic System

Relief Valves
Relief valves are used in pneumatic systems to prevent damage. They act as pressure-
limiting units and prevent excessive pressures from bursting lines and blowing out seals.
At normal pressures, a spring holds the valve closed and air remains in the pressure
line. If pressure grows too high, the force it creates on the disk overcomes spring tension and
opens the relief valve. Then, excess air flows through the valve and is exhausted as surplus air
into the atmosphere. The valve remains open until the pressure drops to normal.

Control Valves
Control valves are also a necessary part of a typical pneumatic system. A valve is used
to control emergency air brakes. The control valve consists of a three port with two lobes.

Pneumatic system relief valve

The pressure relief valve (PRV) is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in
a system or vessel which can build up for a process upset, instrument or equipment failure, or
fire. The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurized fluid to flow from an auxiliary passage
out of the system, which is shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9 Pneumatic System Relief Valve

Check Valves
Check valves are used in both hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Figure 2.10 illustrates a
flap-type pneumatic check valve. Air enters the left port of the check valve, compresses a light
spring, forcing the check valve open and allowing air to flow out the right port. But if air enters
from the right, air pressure closes the valve, preventing a flow of air out the left port. Thus, a
pneumatic check valve is a one-direction flow control valve.

Figure 2.10 Flap Type Pneumatic Check Valve

Restrictors
 Restrictors are a type of control valve used in pneumatic systems. An orifice type
restrictor has a large inlet port and a small outlet port. The small outlet port reduces the rate of
airflow and the speed of operation of an actuating unit.

Variable Restrictor
It contains an adjustable needle valve, which has threads around the top and a point on
the lower end. Depending on the direction turned, the needle valve moves the sharp point either
into or out of a small opening to decrease or increase the size of the opening. Since air entering
the inlet port must pass through this opening before reaching the outlet port, this adjustment also
determines the rate of airflow through the restrictor.
Filters
Pneumatic systems are protected against dirt by means of various types of filters. A
micronic filter consists of housing with two ports, a replaceable cartridge, and a relief valve.
Normally, air enters the inlet, circulates around the cellulose cartridge, and then flows to the
center of the cartridge and out the outlet port. If the cartridge becomes clogged with dirt,
pressure forces the relief valve open and allows unfiltered air to flow out the outlet port.
A screen-type filter shown in figure 2.11, which is similar to the micronic filter but
contains a permanent wire screen instead of a replaceable cartridge. In the screen filter a handle
extends through the top of the housing and can be used to clean the screen by rotating it against
metal scrapers.

Figure 2.11 Screen Type Filter

Air Bottle
 The air bottle usually stores enough compressed air. If the main hydraulic braking system
fails, power brakes are usually equipped with some type of emergency pressurizing system for
stopping the aircraft. In many instances, these emergency systems for several applications of the
brakes. A high-pressure airline connects the bottle to an air valve which controls operation of the
emergency brakes.
If the normal brake system fails, place the control handle for the air valve in the "on"
position. The valve then directs high-pressure air into lines leading to the brake assemblies. But
before air enters the brake assemblies, it must first flow through a shuttle valve.

Brake Shuttle Valve

The valve consists of a shuttle enclosed by a four-port housing. The shuttle is a sort of
floating piston that can move up or down in the hollow housing. Normally, the shuttle is down,
and in this position it seals off the lower airport and directs hydraulic fluid from the upper port
into the two side ports, each of which leads to a brake assembly. But when the emergency
pneumatic brakes are applied, high-pressure air raises the shuttle, seals off the hydraulic line, and
connects air pressure to the side ports of the shuttle valve. This action sends high-pressure air
into the brake cylinder to apply the brakes.
After application and when the emergency brakes are released, the air valve closes,
trapping pressure in the air bottle. At the same time, the air valve vents the pneumatic brake line
to outside air pressure. Then as air pressure in the brake line drops, the shuttle valve moves to
the lower end of the housing, again connecting the brake cylinders to the hydraulic line. Air
pressure remaining in the brake cylinders then flows out the upper port of the shuttle valve and
into the hydraulic return line.

Lines and Tubing

Lines for pneumatic systems consist of rigid metal tubing and flexible rubber hose.

Typical Pneumatic Power System

A typical turbine-engine pneumatic power system supplies compressed air for various
normal and emergency actuating systems. The compressed air is stored in storage cylinders in
the actuating systems until required by actuation of the system. These cylinders and the power
system manifold are initially charged with compressed air or nitrogen from an external source
through a single air-charge valve. In flight, the air compressor replaces the air pressure and
volume lost through leakage, thermal contraction, and actuating system operation. The air
compressor is supplied with supercharged air from the engine bleed air system. This ensures an
adequate air supply to the compressor at all altitudes. The air compressor may be driven either by
an electric motor or a hydraulic motor. The system described here is hydraulically driven. The
following description is illustrated by the pneumatic power system shown in Figure.
The compressor inlet air is filtered through a high-temperature, 10-micron filter and the
air pressure is regulated by an absolute pressure regulator.

Brake System
Airplane brakes are located on the main wheels and are applied either by hand control or
foot pedals.

Single Disc Systems

It is used in modern light aircrafts. This system is having two large friction producing
calipers, on each wheel, and controlled by brake pedals. This system is simple and it contains
brake unit housing (made of Al or Mg alloy). The housing contains a steel disc which rotates
with the aircraft wheel.
The disc provides a gripping surface for the two brake linings (mounted in brake unit
housing). It evenly apply pressure to both sides of the disc. If you press the pedal, the pressure is
transmitted by the hydraulic fluid to the brake piston. The piston pushes a lining (movable).
This lining pushes the movable disc and the disc gets friction from both the linings. One lining is
stationary and another one is movable. The lining provides equal friction on both sides of the
disc.

Chromed Disk
These discs are designed to prevent from corrosion and rusting. The coefficient of
friction is same as the regular disc. And it has longer life, maintenance cost is less but little more
expensive.
Brake Fluid
It is used for transmitting pressure and energy. Light aircrafts are using mineral based
fluid which consist of high quality petroleum oil. It is less corrosive and also flammable. The
fluid must be free from contamination. Dust and dirt in the fluid leads to hydraulic system
failure.

Multiple Disk Brakes

These are heavy duty brakes designed for use with power brake control valves. It
consists of,
 Four rotating disks called rotor
 Three stationary disks called stator
 Circular actuating cylinder
 Automatic adjuster

Figure 2.12 Multi disc steel brake

The hydraulic pressure forces the annular piston to move outward which compresses the
rotating disks. These disks are attached to the wheel. This action also leads to compressing the
stators. The resulting friction causes braking action.

Air Cycle Cooling System

 As air cycle cooling system consists of an expansion turbine (cooling turbine), an air-to-
air heat exchanger, and various valves which control airflow through the system. The expansion
turbine incorporates an impeller and a turbine on a common shaft. High-pressure air from the
cabin compressor is routed through the turbine section. As the air passes through the turbine, it
rotates the turbine and the impeller. When the compressed air performs the work of turning the
turbine, it undergoes a pressure and temperature drop. It is this temperature drop which
produces the cold air used for sir conditioning.
Before entering the expansion turbine, the pressurized air is directed through an air-to-air
heat exchanger. This unit utilizes outside air at ambient temperature to cool the compressed air.
It should be evident that the heat exchanger can only cool the compressed air to the temperature
of the ambient air temperature. The primary purpose of the heat exchanger is to remove the heat
of compression so that the expansion turbine receives relatively cool air on which to start its own
cooling process.
The impeller is part of the expansion turbine can perform several functions. In some
installations the impeller is used to force ambient air through the heat exchanger. In this manner,
the efficiency of the heat exchanger is increased whenever the speed of the expansion turbine is
increased. Other installations use the impeller to further compress the cabin supercharger air as
an aid to forcing it through the heat exchanger and the turbine.
A valve controls the compressed airflow through the expansion turbine. To increase
cooling, the valve is opened to direct a greater amount of the compressed air to the turbine.
When no cooling is required, the turbine air is shut off. Other valves, operated in conjunction
with the turbine air valve, control the flow of ambient air through the heat exchanger. The
overall control effect of these valves is to increase the heat exchanger cooling airflow at the same
time increased cooling is obtained at the turbine.
The power required to drive the air cycle system is derived entirely from the cabin
supercharger compressed air. Use of the air cycle system, therefore, imposes an increased load
on the superchargers. As more cooling is demanded from the turbine, a greater back pressure is
placed on the superchargers, which must work harder to supply the air demands. It is often
necessary to make a choice between the desired amount of cooling and the desired degree of
cabin pressurization, and a compromise is made by reducing the demand for one or the other.
Maximum cooling and maximum pressurization cannot be obtained at the same time. Attempts
to obtain both will cause the supercharger to surge or operate in an otherwise unsatisfactory
manner.

System Operation
This description of the operation of an air conditioning system is intended to provide an
understanding of the manner in which the system is controlled, the functions of the various
components and subassemblies, and their effect on total system operation. Frequent reference to
the schematic should be made during study of the following operational description.
The system is composed of a primary heat exchanger, primary heat exchanger bypass
valve, flow limiters, refrigeration unit, main shutoff valve, secondary heat exchanger,
refrigeration unit bypass valve, ram-air shutoff valve, and an air temperature control system. A
cabin pressure regulator and a dump valve are included in the pressurization system.
Air for the cabin air conditioning and pressurization system is bled from the compressors
of both engines. The engine bleed lines are cross-connected and equipped with check valves to
ensure a supply of air from either engine.
A flow-limiting nozzle is incorporated in each supply line to prevent the complete loss of
pressure in the remaining system if a line ruptures, and to prevent excessive hot air bleed
through the rupture.
The initial input of hot air is indicated on the right-hand side. The flow is depicted across
the page through each unit, in turn, and back to the squares on the lower right-hand side which
represent the cockpit and cabin.
Air from the engine manifolds is ducted through a flow limiter to the primary heat
exchanger and its bypass valve simultaneously. Cooling air for the heat exchanger is obtained
from an inlet duct and is exhausted overboard.
The air supply from the primary heat exchanger is controlled to a constant temperature of
300°F. by the heat exchanger bypass valve. The bypass valve is automatically controlled by
upstream air pressure and a downstream temperature sensing element. These provide
temperature data to cause the valve to maintain the constant temperature by mixing hot engine
bleed air with the cooled air from the heat exchanger.
The cabin air is next routed through another flow limiter and a shutoff valve. The shutoff
valve is the main shutoff valve for the system and is controlled from the cockpit.
 From the shutoff valve, the air is routed to the refrigeration unit bypass valve, to the
compressor section of the refrigeration unit, and to the secondary heat exchanger. The bypass
valve automatically maintains compartment air at any preselected temperature between 60°F.
and 125°F. by controlling the amount of hot air which bypasses the refrigeration unit and mixes
with the refrigeration unit output.
Cooling air for the secondary heat exchanger core is obtained from an inlet duct. Some
installations use a turbine-driven fan to draw air through the heat exchanger; others use a
hydraulically driven blower. After cooling the cabin air, the cooling air is exhausted overboard.
As the cabin air leaves the secondary heat exchanger, it is routed to the expansion
turbine, which is rotated by the air pressure exerted on it in performing this function; the air is
further cooled before entering the water separator, where the moisture content of the air is
reduced. From the water separator the air is routed through the temperature sensor to the cabin.
Air enters the cabin spaces through a network of ducts and diffusers aim is distributed
evenly throughout the spaces. Some systems incorporate directional vents that can be rotated by
the cabin occupants to provide additional comfort.
An alternate ram-air system is provided to supply the cabin with ventilating air if the normal
system is inoperative or to rid the cabin areas of smoke, foul odors, or fumes which might
threaten comfort, visibility, or safety.
The air conditioning and the ram-air systems are controlled from a single switch in the
cockpit. This switch is a three-position switch for selecting off, normal, and ram. In the "off"
position (under normal conditions) all cabin air conditioning, pressurization, and ventilating
equipment is off. In the "normal" position (under normal conditions) the air conditioning and
pressurization equipment is functioning normally and ram air is off. In the "ram" position (under
normal conditions) the main shutoff valve closes, and the cabin air pressure regulator and the
cabin safety dump valve are opened. This allows ram air from the secondary heat exchanger
cooling air inlet duct to be routed into the cabin air supply duct for cabin cooling and ventilation.
With the air pressure regulator and the safety dump valve energized open, existing cabin
air and incoming ram air are constantly being dumped overboard, ensuring a steady flow of
fresh air through the cabin.
AIR CYCLE SYSTEM COMPONENT OPERATION
Primary Heat Exchanger
This unit reduces the temperature of engine bleed air or supercharger discharge air by
routing it through the veins in the core of the heat exchanger. During flight the core is cooled by
ram air. The amount of air to be cooled in the primary heat exchanger is controlled by the
primary heat exchanger bypass valve.

Primary Heat Exchanger Bypass Valve

The primary heat exchanger bypass valve is located in the high-pressure duct at the
primary heat exchanger outlet. As previously stated, it modulates and controls the flow of
primary heat exchanger air and primary heat exchanger bypass air to maintain a constant output
air temperature of 300°F. The unit consists essentially of a regulator body assembly which
contains a pressure regulator, a temperature control actuator, a solenoid valve, and a pneumatic
thermostat. The body assembly of the unit contains two inlet ports marked "hot" and the gas is
now allowed to expand to a lower pressure; this causes a drop in temperature that makes it
cooler than the air in the space to be cooled (heat source).
Heat will now flow from the heat source to the gas, which is then compressed again,
beginning a new cycle. The mechanical energy required to cause this apparent reverse flow of
heat is supplied by a compressor.
 Figure 4.1 Liquid Refrigerant Refrigeration Cycle

This refrigeration cycle (shown in Figure 4.1) is based on the principle that the boiling
point of a liquid is raised when the pressure of the vapor around the liquid is raised. The cycle
operates as follows: A liquid refrigerant confined in the receiver at a high pressure is allowed to
flow through the expansion valve into the evaporator. The pressure in the evaporator is low
enough so that the boiling point of the liquid refrigerant is below the temperature of the air to be
cooled, or heat source. Heat flows from the space to be cooled to the liquid refrigerant, causing it
to boil (to be converted from liquid to a vapor). Cold vapor from the evaporator enters the
compressor, where its pressure is raised, thereby raising the boiling point. The refrigerant at a
high pressure and high temperature flows into the condenser.
Here heat flows from the refrigerant to the outside air, condensing the vapor into a liquid.
The cycle is repeated to maintain the cooled space at the selected temperature.
Liquids that will boil at low temperatures are the most desirable for use as refrigerants.
Comparatively large quantities of heat are absorbed when liquids are changed to a vapor. For
this reason, liquid freon is used in most vapor cycle refrigeration units whether used in aircraft
or in home air conditioners and refrigerators.
Freon is a fluid which boils at a temperature of approximately 39°F. under atmospheric
pressure. Similar to other fluids, the boiling point may be raised to approximately 150°F. Under
a pressure of 96 psi. These pressures and temperatures are representative of one type of freon.
Actual values will vary slightly with different types of freon. The type of freon selected for a
particular aircraft will depend upon the design of the freon system components installed.
Freon, similar to other fluids, has the characteristic of absorbing heat when it changes
from a liquid to a vapor. Conversely, the fluid releases heat when it changes from a vapor to a
liquid. In the freon cooling system, the change from liquid to vapor (evaporation or boiling)
takes place at a location where heat can be absorbed from the cabin air, and the change from
vapor to liquid (condensation) takes place at a point where the released heat can be ejected to the
outside of the aircraft. The pressure of the vapor is raised prior to the condensation process so
that the condensation temperature is relatively high. Therefore, the freon, condensing at
approximately 150°F., will lose heat to the outside air which may be as hot as 100°F.
The quantity of heat that each pound of refrigerant liquid absorbs while flowing through
the evaporator is known as the "refrigeration effect" Each pound flowing through the evaporator
is able to absorb only the heat needed to vaporize it, if no superheating (raising the temperature
of a gas above that of the boiling point of its liquid state) takes place. If the liquid approaching
the expansion valve were at exactly the temperature at which it was vaporizing in the evaporator,
the quantity of heat that the refrigerant could absorb would be equal to its latent heat That is the
amount of heat required to change the state of a liquid, at the boiling point, to a gas at the same
temperature. When liquid refrigerant is admitted to the evaporator, it is completely vaporized
before it reaches.

Freon System Components

The major components of a typical freon system are the evaporator, compressor,
condenser, and expansion valve. Other minor items may include the condenser fan, receiver
(freon storage), dryer, surge valve, and temperature controls. These items are interconnected by
appropriate tubing to form a closed loop in which the freon is circulated during operation.
Freon System Operational Cycle Compressor
The principle of operation of the system can be explained by starting with the function
of the compressor. The compressor increases the pressure of the freon when it is in vapor form.
This high pressure raises the condensation temperature of the freon and produces the force
necessary to circulate the freon through the system.
 The compressor is driven either by an electric motor or by an air turbine drive
mechanism. The compressor may be a centrifugal type or a piston type. The compressor is
designed to act upon freon in a gaseous state and in conjunction with the expansion valve,
maintains a difference in pressure between the evaporator and the condenser. If the liquid
refrigerant were to enter the compressor, improper operation would occur. This type of
malfunction is called "slugging." Automatic controls and proper operating procedures must be
used to prevent slugging.

Vapor Cycle System (Freon)

Vapor cycle cooling system shown in Figure 4.2, which is used on several large transport
aircraft. This system usually has a greater cooling capacity than an air cycle system, and in
addition, can usually be used for cooling on the ground when the engines are not operating.
An aircraft freon system is basically similar in principle to the kitchen refrigerator or the
home air conditioner. It uses similar components and operating principles and in most cases
depends upon the electrical system for power.

Figure 4.2 Vapour Cycle Systems

Vapor cycle systems make use of the scientific fact that a liquid can be vaporized at any
temperature by changing the pressure acting on it. Water at sea level barometric pressure of 14.7
psia (per square inch absolute). Will boil if its temperature is raised to 212°F. The same water in
a closed tank under a pressure of 90 psia will not boil at less than 320°F. If the pressure is
reduced to 0.95 psia by a vacuum pump, the water will boil at 100°F. If the pressure is reduced
further, the water will boil at a still lower temperature; for instance, at 0.12 psia., water will boil
at 40°F. Water can be made to boil at any temperature if the pressure corresponding to the
desired boiling temperature can be maintained.

Aircraft Systems (Electrical)

Display Instruments
In 1970s aircraft used CRT displays. Present, newer generation Electronic Flight
Instrument System (EFIS) incorporates, twisted matrix active-matrix-liquid crystal displays,
which consume less power and the display is of exceptionally high quality.
The EFIS basically comprises:
 Primary Flight Display (PFD)
 Multi-Function Display (MFD)
 Engine Indicating and Crew Alert System
 Control Panels
 Data Processors including symbol generator unit

Figure 5.1 Cockpit Display Unit

Primary Flight Display (PFD)
PFD displays all vital information critical to flight like: air speed, altitude, heading,
attitude (pitch and roll), vertical speed and yaw. PFD is configured to enhance pilot’s situational
awareness, by fusing this information into a single display, instead of a number of analog
instruments; this minimizes the time to monitor the instruments, which becomes critical
particularly during emergency situations.
Multi-Function Display (MFD)
The MFD (multi-function display) displays navigational and weather information from
multiple systems. MFDs are most frequently designed as "chart-centric", where the aircrew can
overlay different information over a map or chart. Examples of MFD overlay information
include the aircraft's current route plan, weather information from either on-board radar or
lightning detection sensors or ground-based sensors, e.g., NEXRAD, restricted airspace and
aircraft traffic. The MFD can also be used to view other non-overlay type of data (e.g., current
route plan) and calculated overlay-type data, e.g., the glide radius of the aircraft, given current
location over terrain, winds, and aircraft speed and altitude.
Engine Indications and Crew Alert Systems (EICAS)
EICAS shows information regarding the aircraft’s systems such as fuel, electrical,
engines, etc. EICAS also alerts pilots of unusual or hazardous situations like low engine
lubricating oil pressure, engine overheat, autopilot malfunction, loss of emergency/utility power,
etc.
Control Panels
Pilots can select display range and mode as well he can enter data, using the control
panel.
Display Data Processors
The visual display of an EFIS is made possible through the Symbol Generator Unit (SGU
– called as display processor or display electronics unit), which gets data from the pilot, sensors
and format selected.
Advantages of EFIS are,
 The same display can be made to function as PFD, Navigation Display (ND), offering
versatility.
 Software upgradable to latest version without changing hardware.
  Should one of the display fail, the other can take over and thus act as a redundant
system.
 Any Line Replaceable Unit (LRU) can be plugged in any one of the five slots.

Navigation Introduction
Finding the way from one place to another is called navigation. Moving of an aircraft
from one point to another is the most important part for any kind of mission. The method of
navigation,
 Pilotage
 Dead Reckoning
 Radio

Pilotage or Piloting
It is the most common method of air navigation. This method, the pilot keeps on course
by following a series of landmark on the ground. Usually before take-off, pilot will making pre-
flight planning, the pilot will draw a line on the aeronautical map to indicate the desired course.
Pilot will notes various landmarks, such as highways, railroad tracks, rivers, bridges. As the pilot
flies over each of landmark, pilot will checks it off on the chart or map. If the plane does not
pass directly over the landmark, the pilot will know that he has to correct the course.

Dead Reckoning
It is the primary navigation method used in the early days of flying. It is the method on
which Lindberg relied on his first trans-Atlantic flight. A pilot used this method when flying
over large bodies of water, forest, deserts. It demands more skill and experience than pilotage
does. It is based on time, distance and direction only. The pilot must know the distance from
one point to the next, the magnetic heading to be flown. Pilot works on the pre-flight plan chart,
pilot plan a route in advance. Pilot calculates the time to know exactly to reach the destination
while flying at constant speed. In the air, the pilot uses compass to keep the plane heading in the
right direction. Dead reckoning is not always a successful method of navigation because of
changing wind direction. It is the fundamental of VFR flight.
Radio Navigation
It is used by almost all pilots. Pilots can find out from an aeronautical chart what radio
station they should tune to in a particular area. They can then tune their radio navigation
equipment to a signal from this station. A needle on the navigation equipment tells the pilot
where they are flying to or from station, on course or not. Pilots have various navigation aids
that help them takeoff, fly and land safely. One of the most important aids is a series of air route
traffic control operated throughout the world. Most of the traffic control uses a radar screen to
make sure all the planes in its vicinity are flying in their assigned airways. Airliners carry a
special type of radar receiver and transmitter called a transponder. It receives a radar signal from
control center and immediately bounces it back. When the signal got to the ground, it makes the
plane show up on the radar screen.
Pilots have special methods for navigating across oceans. Three commonly used
methods are:
 Inertial Guidance – This system has computer and other special devices that tell pilots
where are the plane located.
 LORAN – Long Range Navigation The Plane has equipment for receiving special
radio signals sent out continuous from transmitter stations. The signals will indicate
the plane location.
 GPS – Global Positioning System is the only system today able to show your exact
position on the earth anytime, anywhere, and any weather. The system receiver on
the aircraft will receive the signals from satellites around the globe.

Navigation Instruments
 VHF Omni range
 Instrument landing system
 Distance measuring equipments
 Automatic direction finders
 Doppler systems
 Inertial Navigation systems.

Instrument Landing System

 It operates in the VHF portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ILS can be
visualized as slide which was made of radio signals, (shown in Figure 5.3) with the help of ILS
the aircraft can be brought safely to the runway.
The system consists of,
 Runway localizer
 Glide slope signal
 Marker beacons for position location

The on-course signals result from equal reception of two signals, one contains 90 Hz
modulation and the other contains 150 Hz modulation. On one side of the runway center line the
radio Rx develops an output of 150 Hz tone. This area is called blue sector. On the other side of
the center line the Radio Rx develops 90 Hz output. This area is called yellow sector.

Figure 5.2 Lateral and Vertical Guidance

The glide slope is a radio beam which provides vertical guidance to the pilot(which is
demonstrated in Figure 5.2), and assists him in making the correct angle of descent to the
runway. This glide slope facility operates in the UHF ranges from 329.3 MHz to 335.0MHz.
 Figure 5.3 Instrument Landing System

Automatic Direction Finder

Figure 5.4 shows, ADF are radio receivers equipped with directional antennas. These
antennas are used to determine the direction. When an aircraft is within reception range of radio
station the ADF equipment fix the position with reasonable accuracy. It operates in the low and
medium frequency spectrum from 190 KHz to 1750 KHz. The direction to the station is
displayed on an indicator.

Figure 5.4 Automatic Direction Finder

Doppler Navigation System

 It uses continuous carrier wave transmission energy and determines the forward and
lateral velocity components of aircraft by using the principle called Doppler Effect.
The Doppler radar emits narrow beams of energy at one frequency and these waves of
energy strike the earth’s surface and are reflected. Energy waves returned from earth are spaced
differently and these waves are received by the Rx and compared with the outgoing Tx energy.
This difference is used to develop ground spaced and wind drift angle information.

Inertial Navigation System

The inertial navigation system is presently being used on large aircraft as a long-range
navigation aid. It is a self-contained system and does not require signal inputs from ground
navigational facilities. The system derives attitude, velocity, and heading information from
measurement of the aircraft's accelerations. Two accelerometers are required, one referenced to
north and the other to east. The accelerometers are mounted on a gyro-stabilized unit, called the
stable platform, to avert the introduction of errors resulting from the acceleration due to gravity.
An inertial navigation system is a complex system containing four basic components.
They are:
 A stable platform which is oriented to maintain accelerometers horizontal to the
earth's surface and provide azimuth orientation.
 Accelerometers arranged on the platform to supply specific components of
acceleration.
 Integrators which receive the output from the accelerometers and furnish velocity and
distance.
 A computer which receives signals from the integrators and changes distance traveled
to position in selected coordinates.

Initial conditions are set into the system and the navigation process is begun. In inertial
navigation, the term initialization is used to denote the process of bringing the system to a set of
initial conditions from which it can proceed with the navigation process. These conditions
include leveling the platform (explains in Figure 5.5), aligning the azimuth reference, setting
initial velocity and position, and making any computations required to start the navigation.
 Figure 5.5 Correction signal to level platform - Stabilized platform
A basic inertial navigation system
Although all inertial navigation systems must be initialized, the procedure varies
according to the equipment and the type aircraft in which it is installed. The prescribed
initialization procedures are detailed in the appropriate manufacturer's manuals.
From the diagram it can be seen that the accelerometers are maintained in a horizontal
position to the earth's surface by a gyro-stabilized platform. As the aircraft accelerates, a signal
from the accelerometer is sent to the integrators. The output from the integrators, or distance, is
then fed into the computer, where two operations are performed. First, a position is determined
in relation to the preset flight profile, and second, a signal is sent back to the platform to position
the accelerometer horizontally to the earth's surface. The output from high-speed gyros and
accelerometers, when connected to the flight controls of the aircraft, resists any changes in the
flight profile.

Communication System
The most common communication system in use today is the VHF system. In addition to
VHF equipment, large aircraft are usually equipped with HF communication systems. The basic
communication system components are shown in Figure 5.6.
 Figure 5.6 Basic Communication Equipment

Basic components of a communication system,

 Microphone – It converts the sound energy into corresponding electrical energy.
 Transmitter
 Transmitting Antenna – It is a special type of electrical circuit
 Receiving Antenna
 Receiver
 Power Supply

Traditional aircraft communications are based on analog voice on either a Very High
Frequency (VHF) or High Frequency (HF) radio waves. In the mid-1980s the use of data-based
communications became a reality. Airspace management is transcending into the computer age
and as new requirements evolve and the choice of communications technologies expand,
regulating the world’s air traffic flow can safely become more automated. Aircraft are currently
being equipped with communications technologies that transport data via satellite plus while they
are on the ground; mobile communication and in some cases broadband networks can receive or
broadcast strategic information regarding aircraft situation and even maintenance trends.
Frequency Bands are,
LF (Low Frequency) - 30 to 300 KHz
MF (Medium Frequency) - 300 to 3000 KHz
HF (High Frequency) - 3000 KHz to 30 MHz
 VHF (Very High Frequency) - 30 to 300 MHz
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) - 300 to 3000 MHz
SHF (Super High Frequency) - 3000 to 30000 MHz

Aircraft communications are being expanded; in fact, in recent years a new abbreviation
has surfaced. CNS ATM stands for “Communication, Navigation, and Surveillance and Air
Traffic Management” which was created to support modernization of the dated and overload
prone Air Traffic Control system.
Airborne communications systems vary considerably in size, weight, power
requirements, quality of operation, and cost, depending upon the desired operation.
Many airborne VHF and HF communication systems use transceivers. A transceiver is a
self-contained transmitter and receiver which share common circuits; i.e., power supply,
antenna, and tuning. The transmitter and receiver both operate on the same frequency, and the
microphone button determines when there is an output from the transmitter. In the absence of
transmission, the receiver is sensitive to incoming signals. Since weight and space are of great
importance in aircraft, the transceiver is widely used. Large aircraft may be equipped with
transceivers or a communications system that uses separate transmitters and receivers.
The operation of radio equipment is essentially the same whether installed on large
aircraft or small aircraft. In some radio installations the controls for frequency selection,
volume, and the "on-off" switch are integral with the radio main chassis. In other installations,
the controls are mounted on a panel located in the cockpit and the radio equipment is located in
racks in another part of the aircraft.
Because of the many different types and models of radios in use, it is not possible to
discuss the specific techniques- for operating each in this manual. However, there are various
practices of a nonspecific nature which apply to all radios. These general practices will be
described.

VHF (Very High Frequency) Communications

VHF airborne communication sets operate in the frequency range from 108.0 MHz to
135.95 MHz. VHF receivers are manufactured that cover only the communications frequencies,
or both communications and navigation frequencies. In general, the VHF radio waves follow
approximately straight lines. Theoretically, the range of contact is the distance to the horizon and
this distance is determined by the heights of the transmitting and receiving antennas. However,
communication is sometimes possible many hundreds of miles beyond the assumed horizon
range.

Ram Air Turbine

A ram air turbine (RAT) is a small turbine that is connected to a hydraulic pump, or
electrical generator, installed in an aircraft and used as a power source. The RAT generates
power from the airstream by ram pressure due to the speed of the aircraft.

Modern aircraft generally use RATs only in an emergency. In case of the loss of both
primary and auxiliary power sources the RAT will power vital systems (flight controls, linked
hydraulics and also flight-critical instrumentation). Some RATs produce only hydraulic power,
which is in turn used to power electrical generators. In some early aircraft (including airships),
small RATs were permanently mounted and operated a small electrical generator or fuel pump.

Modern aircraft generate power in the main engines or an additional fuel-burning turbine
engine called an auxiliary power unit, which is often mounted in the rear of the fuselage or in the
main-wheel well. The RAT generates power from the airstream due to the speed of the aircraft. If
aircraft speeds are low, the RAT will produce less power. In normal conditions the RAT is
retracted into the fuselage (or wing), and is deployed manually or automatically following
complete loss of power. In the time between power loss and RAT deployment, batteries are used.

Bus Bar - Introduction

In most of aircrafts, the output from the generating sources is coupled to one or more low
impedance conductors referred as bus bars. These are situated at central points within the
aircraft and provides positive supplies to various consumer circuits. In a very simple system a
bus bar can take the form of a strip of interlinked terminals while in complex system. Main bus
bars are thick metal strips or rods to which input and output supply connections can be made.

Bus Bar Systems Requirements:

 i) Power-consuming equipment must not be deprived of power in the event of power
source failures.
ii) Failure on the distribution system should have the minimum effect on system
functioning.
iii) Power consuming equipment faults must not endanger the supply of power to other
equipment.
Types of Consumer Services:

i) Vital Services:
These services are connected directly to the battery. For Example, during an emergency
wheels up landing emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers are
required.

ii) Essential Services:

Those are required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight emergency situation. They are
connected to dc or ac bus bars.

iii) Non-Essential Services:

These are isolated in an in-flight emergency for load shedding purposes.

Bus bar System:

From the below diagram 1.1 the power supplies are 28 volts dc from engine driven
generators, 115 volts 400 Hz ac from rotary inverters and 28 volts dc from batteries.
 Figure 1.1 Bus bar System

Each generator has its own bus bars to which are connected to the non-essential consumer
services. Both bus bars are connected to a single bus bar which supplies power to the essential
services. So, with both generators operating, all consumers requiring dc power are supplied.
The essential services bus bar is also connected to the battery bus bar.
In the event of one generator failure it is automatically isolated from its respective bus
bar and all bus bar loads are then taken over by the operative generator.
When both generator fails, non-essential customers can no longer be supplied, but the
batteries will supply power to the essential services, and keep them operating for a pre-
determined period.
The dc supplies for driving the inverters are taken from bus bars to supply the ac to the
consumers.
The essential ac consumers are operated by No 1 inverter and Non essential ac consumers are
operated by No 2 & 3 inverter, and they are powered by dc from the No 1 & No 2 bus bars.

Split Bus Bar System:

In this system the ac supply is the primary power source and dc supply via Transformer
Rectifier Units. (T.R.U) which is shown in figure 1.2.
The generator supplies three-phase power to the two main bus bars and these in turn,
supply the non-essential consumer loads and T.R.U’s.
The essential ac loads are supplied from the essential bus bar when under normal
operating conditions is connected via a change over relay to the No 1 bus bar.
The main bus bars are normally isolated from each other, but if the supply from either of
generator fails, the bus bars are automatically interconnected by the ‘bus-tie’ breaker and serve
as one and then maintaining supplies to all ac consumers, and both T.R.U’s.
If both the generator fails the non-essential services will be isolated and the changeover
relay between No 1 bus bar and the essential bus bar will de-energize and connect the essential
bus bar to a static inverter.
The supply of dc is derived from independent T.R.U and from batteries. The No 1 T.R.U
supplies essential loads & the No 2 unit supplies non essential loads connected to the main dc
bus bar.
In the event of both generators failure the main dc bus bar will be isolated from the
essential dc bus bar and then essential dc bus bars will be supplied from the batteries to maintain
operation of essential dc & ac consumers.
Figure 1.2 Split Bus Bar System
 Figure 1.3 B737 Split Bus Bar System

Special Purpose Cables:

For certain types of electrical systems, cables are required to perform a more specialized
function.
Types:
Ignition cables, Thermocouple cables, Co-axial cables.
Ignition cables are used for the transmission of high tension voltages in both piston
engine and turbine engine ignition systems, and are of single core standard type suitably
insulated, and screened by metal braided sheeting to prevent interference.
Thermocouple cables are used for the connection of cylinder head temperature indicators
and turbine engine exhaust gas temperature indicators to the thermocouple sensing elements.
Copper and constantan for cylinder head thermocouples, chromel and alumel for exhaust gas
thermocouples.
Co-axial cables contain two or more separate conductors. The innermost conductor may
be of solid or standard copper wire, silver plated or gold plated in some applications. The
remaining conductors are in the form of tubes (fine wire braid). The insulation is of
polyethylene or Teflon.
i) These cables are shielded against electrostatic and magnetic fields.
ii) Since co-axial cables don’t radiate, then won’t pick up energy or influenced by other
strong fields. Ex: Radio, Dish Antenna.