HARDWARE

Refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major
functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output, secondary
storage (for data and programs), and communication.

Hardware categories
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and
information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device. There
are five main hardware components in a computer system: the central processing unit (CPU); primary
storage (main memory); secondary storage; and input and output devices.
Basic elements of hardware
The basic elements that make up a computer system are as follows:

a) Input
Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human communication such as speech or
hand-written documents. It is necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer in a way that
provides easy conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is commonly achieved by
typing data using the keyboard or using an electronic mouse or any other input device.

Keyboard can be connected to a computer system through a terminal. A terminal is a form

of input and output device. A terminal can be connected to a mainframe or other types of
computers called a host computer or server. There are four types of terminals namely
dumb, intelligent, network and Internet.

Dumb Terminal
- Used to input and receive data only.
- It cannot process data independently.
- A terminal used by an airline reservation clerk to access a mainframe computer
for flight information is an example of a dumb terminal
Intelligent Terminal
- Includes a processing unit, memory, and secondary storage.
- It uses communications software and a
telephone hookup or other communications link.
- A microcomputer connected to a larger computer by a modem or network link is
an example of an intelligent terminal.
Network Terminal
- Also known as a thin client or network computer.
- It is a low cost alternative to an intelligent terminal.
- Most network terminals do not have a hard drive.
- This type of terminal relies on a host computer or server for application or system
software.
Internet Terminal
- Is also known as a web terminal.
- It provides access to the Internet and displays web pages on a standard television
set.
- It is used almost exclusively in the home.
 Direct data entry devices – Direct entry creates machine-readable data that can go directly to
the CPU. It reduces human error that may occur during keyboard entry. Direct entry devices
include pointing, scanning and voice-input devices.

Pen input devices e.g. Lightpen

Pen input devices are used to select or input items by touching the screen with the pen. Light pens
accomplish this by using a white cell at the tip of the pen. When the light pen is placed against the
monitor, it closes a photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit identifies the spot for entering or
modifying data. Engineers who design microprocessor chips or airplane parts use light pens.

Touch sensitive screen inputs

Touch sensitive screens, or touch screens, allow the user to execute programs or select menu items by
touching a portion of a special screen. Behind the plastic layer of the touch screen are crisscrossed
invisible beams of infrared light. Touching the screen with a finger can activate actions or commands.
Touch screens are often used in ATMs, information centres, restaurants, and or stores. They are
popularly used at gas stations for customers to select the grade of gas or request a receipt at the pump
(in developed countries), as well as in fast-food restaurants to allow clerks to easily enter orders.
ii. Scanning Devices
Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and character data directly into
a computer. The scanner digitises the data into machine-readable form.
iii. The scanning devices used in direct-entry include the following:
• Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic signals.
• Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image into format that can be sent
over telephone lines.
• Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads vertical striped marks printed
on items.
• Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning devices used to read marks
on documents.

Character and Mark Recognition Device Features

• Can be used by mainframe computers or powerful microcomputers.
• There are three kinds of character and mark recognition devices:
- Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)
Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to read the numbers printed
at the bottom of checks in special magnetic ink. These numbers are an example of data
that is both machine readable and human readable. The use of MICR readers increases the
speed and accuracy of processing checks.
- Optical-character recognition (OCR)
Read special preprinted characters, such as those on utility and telephone bills.

- Optical-mark recognition (OMR)

Reads marks on tests – also called mark sensing. Optical mark recognition readers are
often used for test scoring since they can read the location of marks on what is sometimes
called a mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized tests, such as the
KCPE, SAT or GMAT are scored.
 iv. Voice–input devices
Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer. Speech recognition can be
used for data input when it is necessary to keep your hands free. For example, a doctor may use
voice recognition software to dictate medical notes while examining a patient. Voice recognition
can also be used for security purposes to allow only authorized people into certain areas or to use
certain devices.

• Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code.

• The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone.
• A microphone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition system.

Note:
Point-of-sale (POS) terminals (electronic cash registers) use both keyboard and direct entry.
• Keyboard Entry can be used to type in information.
• Direct Entry can be used to read special characters on price tags.

Point-of-sale terminals can use wand readers or platform scanners as direct entry devices.
• Wand readers or scanners reflect light on the characters.
• Reflection is changed by photoelectric cells to machine-readable code.
• Encoded information on the product’s barcode e.g. price appear on terminal’s digital display.

b) Storage
Data and instructions enter main storage, and are held until needed to be worked on. The instructions
dictate action to be taken on the data. Results of the action will be held until they are required for output.

c) Control
Each computer has a control unit that fetches instructions from main storage, interprets them, and issues
the necessary signals to the components making up the system. It directs all hardware operations
necessary in obeying instructions.
d) Processing
Instructions are obeyed and the necessary arithmetic and logic operations are carried out on the data.
The part that does this is called the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

Processing devices (i) The CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) controls the processing of instructions. The CPU produces
electronic pulses at a predetermined and constant rate. This is called the clock speed. Clock speed is
generally measured in megahertz, that is, millions of cycles per second.

It consists of:

o Control Unit (CU) – The electronic circuitry of the control unit accesses program
instructions, decodes them and coordinates instruction execution in the CPU.
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical calculations and logical
comparisons.
 o Registers – These are high-speed storage circuitry that holds the instruction and the
data while the processor is executing the instruction. o Bus – This is a highway
connecting internal components to each other.

(ii) Main Memory

Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is closely related to the
CPU. Main memory holds program instructions and data before and after execution by the CPU. All
instructions and data pass through main memory locations. Memory is located physically close to the
CPU to decrease access time, that is, the time it takes the CPU to retrieve data from memory. Although
the overall trend has been increased memory access time, memory has not advanced as quickly as
processors. Memory access time is often measured in milliseconds, or one thousandths of a second.

e) Output
Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This may be a printer, in which case
the information is automatically converted to a printed form called hard copy or to a monitor screen for
a soft copy of data or information.

Output devices
Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the computer’s CPU into
meaningful output (information). Output devices translate the machine-readable information into
human-readable information.
• Punched cards: characters are coded onto an 80-column card in columns by combining
punches in different locations; a special card reader reads the cards and translates them into
transactions for the computer. These are now used only for older applications.

• Paper tape punch

Printers
– Outputs printout on paper often referred to as hard-copy output. Categorized
according to:

(i) Printing capacity

o Character printers – Print one character at a time. o Line printers – Print one line at
a time. o Page printers – Print a whole page at a time.

(ii) Mode of printing o Dot matrix printers

Forms images via pins striking a ribbon against a paper. The print head typically have 9 or 24 pins.
The images are relatively of poor quality since dots are visible upon close inspection. Though
inexpensive compared to other types, they are noisy and low-end models are slow (speed varies with
price).

o Ink jet printers

Forms images by “shooting” tiny droplets of ink on paper. They offer relatively good image quality
with so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are relatively
quiet compared to dot matrix and most can print colour images.
 o Laser jet printers

Forms images using copier technology – a laser/LED (Light Emitting Diode) lights up dots to be
blackened and toner sticks to these dot positions on the paper. They have excellent image quality – so
many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are quieter than ink jet
printers.

o Thermal Printers

Forms images using heat elements and heat – sensitive paper. It is very quiet and not widely used by
home PC users. Some very expensive colour models are available. “Ink” in these computers is wax
crayons.

Plotters
Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose output devices used to produce
charts, maps, architectural drawings and three-dimensional representations. They can produce high-
quality multi-colour documents or larger size documents. Plotters produce documents such as
blueprints or schematics.
Monitors
– Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output which lasts as long as the
monitor’s power is on). They are the most frequently used output devices. Some are used on the
desktop; others are portable. Two important characteristics of the monitor are size and clarity.

Voice-output devices
• Voice-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech.
• Voice-output devices use prerecorded vocalized sounds to produce output.
• The computer “speaks” synthesized words.
• Voice output is not as difficult to create as voice input.
• Most widely used voice-output devices are stereo speakers and headphones.
• Devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit.
• Sound card is used to capture sound as well as play it back.

Examples of voice output uses:

• Soft-drink machines, the telephone, and in cars.
• Voice output can be used as a tool for learning.
• Can help students study a foreign language.
• Used in supermarkets at the checkout counter to confirm purchases. Most powerful
capability is to assist the physically challenged.

Auxiliary/Secondary Storage devices

Secondary storage devices store a larger amount of data or instructions than does main memory, on a
more permanent basis. On a per megabyte basis, secondary storage is also cheaper than primary
storage. Secondary storage is also infinitely extendable, unlike main memory, which is finite.
Secondary storage is not volatile. Secondary storage is also more portable than primary storage – that
is, it is possible to remove it from a computer and use the device and its contents in another.
Types of secondary storage devices
Magnetic disks – Stores bits as magnetic spots. Magnetic disks are similar to magnetic tapes
in that areas are magnetized to represent bits. However the disks’ read/write head can go
directly to the desired record, allowing fast data retrieval. Magnetic disks can range from small
and portable, such as diskettes with 1.44MB of storage capacity, to large capacity fixed hard
disks, which are more expensive and less portable.

o Floppy disks (diskettes)

▪ 5 ¼ floppy disks
▪ 3 ½ floppy disks – The most common size with a capacity of 1.44 MB.
They are not very fast and durable.
o Hard disks/Fixed disks – Also called hard drives. Their capacity range from 20 to
120 GB. They are fast and durable though not foolproof. Most are internal, but
disks that use removable cartridge are available. Disk compression can be used to
increase capacity but slows performance.

• Optical Disks – Store bits as “pits” and “lands” on surface of disk that can be detected
(read) by a laser beam.

o CD-ROM (Compact-Disk Read Only Memory) – Only read and cannot be

erased for rewriting. Has a capacity of 650 MB
o CD-R (Compact-Disk Recordable) / WORM (Write Once, Read Many) –
Usually blank at first and can be written only once. Has a capacity of 650
MB
o CD-RW (Compact Disk ReWritable) – Can written and read more than once.
Has a capacity of 650 MB. o DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disks) – They are
similar to CDs except that it has high quality sound and high-resolution video.
Has a normal capacity of 4.7 GB and up to 17 GB if double-sided with double
layering. Uses laser technology. They are a relatively new technology usually
used in the entertainment industry.

• Magnetic Tapes – Magnetic tape is similar in composition to the kind of tape found
in videotapes and audiotapes. A plastic film is coated with iron oxide, which is
magnetized to represent bits.

o Tape cartridges – Used in personal computers. Has up to 20 GB per tape

(probably even more). o Tape reels – Used in minicomputers and mainframes.

Other Backup Options

o Zip drive/disk – Uses special diskettes that hold 100 MB, 250 MB or 750
MB
o SyQuest drive – Uses special cartridges that hold 200 MB

• RAID - RAID stands for redundant arrays of independent or inexpensive disks.

RAID technology is fault tolerant; that is, it allows data to be stored so that no data or
transactions are lost in the event of disk failure. RAID involves using multiple hard
 disks in a special controller unit and storing data across all the disks in conjunction
with extra reconstruction information that allows data to be recovered if a hard disk
fails.

• Storage Area Network (SAN) – A storage area network connects servers and storage
devices in a network to store large volumes of data. Data stored in a storage area
network can be quickly retrieved and backed up. The use of storage area networks is
likely to increase in the near future.
• Computer Output Microfilm (COM) -Companies that must store significant
numbers of paper documents often use computer output microfilm. These devices
transfer data directly from the computer onto the microfilm, thus eliminating the
intermediate step of printing the document on paper. Newspapers and journals
typically archive old issues in this manner, although some are now using optical
storage devices.

Storage capacity abbreviations

• KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand)

• MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million)
• GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)
• TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)

Communication devices
• Modem - Modems allow computers (digital devices) to communicate via the phone system
(based on analog technology). It turns the computers digital data into analog, sends it over the
phone line, and then another modem at the other end of the line turns the analog signal back
into digital data.

• Fax/modem - basic digital/analog modem enhanced with fax transmission hardware that
enables faxing of information from computer to another fax/modem or a fax machine (NOTE:
a separate scanner must be connected to the computer in order to use the fax/modem to
transfer external documents)

Computer Memory
Memory capability is one of the features that distinguish a computer from other electronic devices.
Like the CPU, memory is made of silicon chips containing circuits holding data represented by on or
off electrical states, or bits. Eight bits together form a byte. Memory is usually measured in megabytes
or gigabytes.

A kilobyte is roughly 1,000 bytes. Specialized memories, such as cache memories, are typically
measured in kilobytes. Often both primary memory and secondary storage capacities today contain
megabytes, or millions of bytes, of space.
 Types of Memory
Volatile Non Volatile
Memory types

RAM ROM

DRAM SDRAM PROM EPROM

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also referred to as main
memory, primary storage or internal memory. Its content can be read and can be changed and
is the working area for the user. It is used to hold programs and data during processing. RAM
chips are volatile, that is, they loose their contents if power is disrupted. Typical sizes of RAM
include 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB and 512MB.
a. DRAM – Dynamic RAM
b. SDRAM – Synchronous

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and cannot be changed. ROM
chips is non-volatile, so the contents aren’t lost if the power is disrupted. ROM provides
permanent storage for unchanging data & instructions, such as data from the computer maker.
It is used to hold instructions for starting the computer called the bootstrap program.

ROM: chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit states, are set by the
manufacturer and cannot be changed. States are permanently manufactured into the chip.

PROM: the settings must be programmed into the chip. After they are programmed, PROM
behaves like ROM – the circuit states can’t be changed. PROM is used when instructions will
be permanent, but they aren’t produced in large enough quantities to make custom chip
production (as in ROM) cost effective. PROM chips are, for example, used to store video
game instructions.

Instructions are also programmed into erasable programmable read-only memory. However,
the contents of the chip can be erased and the chip can be reprogrammed. EPROM chips are
used where data and instructions don’t change often, but nonvolatility and quickness are
needed. The controller for a robot arm on an assembly line is an example of EPROM use.

a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is written onto only once using
special devices. Used mostly in electronic devices such as alarm systems.
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –Can be written onto more
than once.

3. Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor can access more
quickly than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored in cache since they can be retrieved
 more quickly, improving the overall performance of the computer. Level 1 (L1) cache is
located on the processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located between the processor and RAM.
4. BUBBLE MEMORY
This represents data and instructions in terms of magnetic principles called bubbles where
presence of a bubble represents’ 1’ and its absence represents ‘0’. This memory is
convenient and easy to develop. It can withstand adverse weather conditions such as dust.
Bubble memory is suitable when the internal memory id to be expanded limitlessly i.e.
where high speed access is necessary for transferring small manageable data in form of
segments. The memory cells do not lose data when they are deenergized by switching off
the power However, it is very expensive.

5. OPTICAL/HOLOGRAPHIC MEMORY
This type of memory uses the principle of light to store data or information. The data or
information is stored in the form of dots on a light sensitive plate. This memory is non-
volatile and has a vast storage capacity.

6. CORE MEMORY
This is an internal store made up of small magnetic rings which are magnetized by wires
threaded on them. The memory cells are the basis of storage. The polarity of the magnetic
rings are set using currents to represent data, instructions or or information in binary logics,
0’s and1’[Link] memory stores data, information or programs more permanently and the set
of polarities do not change even if the power goes off (it is nonvolatile). However, it is
expensive and reading is achieved through a sense of wire which is used to determine the
polarity of the desired chores.

7. SEMI-CONDUCTOR MEMORY
This memory is faster and cheaper than magnetic core memory and is used in all modern
computers. Semi-conductor memory consists of electronic circuits (flipflop/ storage cell)
prepared on silicon chips. The physical size of this memory is very small. The major
drawback of this memory is that it is volatile in that it loses its contents on case of power
failure but this drawback can be overcome by having a back-up power unit. Semi-conductor
memories has gained popularity over the core memories due to the following:

They are small and occupy less space.

They have a vast storage capacity.
They are fast since they operate purely on electronic principles and hence are reliable.
They are cheap to produce.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE.
All computers work under special instructions called software. Software is a set of instructions
that help in running and managing computer resources enabling the computer to operate
effectively. The computer software makes the computer to work i.e. it helps in running the
computer hardware. It instructs the computer on what to do and how to do it. There are two
categories of computer software.

1. System software.
2. Application software.
 SYSTEMS SOFTWARE
This is a set of instructions or programs developed and installed in the computer system
designed to manage and control the computer resources hence enhancing the functional
capabilities of the computer system. It is used within the computer for organizing internal
functions of the system. System software are developed by the manufacturers of computer
hardware
Systems software can be divided into
three:
• Operating system
• Utility programs
• Translation programs
OPERATING SYSTEM
This is an integrated collection of programmers that manage the operations of the C.P.U, other
peripheral and hardware. Operating system therefore manages the computer resources to
enhance the optimum utilization and efficiency of the computer.

Example of operating system:

MS DOS, - Microsoft

Windows - Microsoft

UNIX

Linux – open source

Solaries – Sun Systems

Mac OSX - apple

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Job scheduling- This is the process of lining up jobs particularly where such jobs have to pass
through several devices, for example several jobs awaiting printing. The operating system
performs job scheduling thus ensuring that the CPU time is not dedicated to one job only; the
CPU idle time is therefore reduced to a great extent. The jobs may be lined up in order of
priority, order of complexity etc.

Peripheral devices/ input- output control- It monitors the flow of data between the
input/output devices and the CPU. Peripheral devices are the physical elements of the
computer system which are connected to the system to enhance its usage. By regulating the
speed imbalance between the peripheral devices and the CPU, the operating system facilitates
optimum utilization of the CPU time.
 Memory management- The operating system allocates memory location to data, ensuring
that programs are transferred into the available memory location from the external store. It
defines the available, occupied and the damaged memory which can no longer hold data.
File management- The operating system normally arranges the stored data and allows the users
to perform file related activities such as creation and deletion of files, file interrogation, file
dumping among others. It also allows for the protection of files from accidental or deliberate
corruption (file security)

Error reporting- In the event that errors occur during program execution, the operating
system will send diagnostic messages to the user so that the program execution can stop for
the user’s corrective responses. Thus it does not take long before the user realizes that errors
have occurred. Indeed, a good operating system should offer automatic recovery from error
situations.

Logging and accounting. The system accounts for who logged in i.e., who gained access to
the computer at a given time. It keeps the records of the jobs created, indicating which jobs
were created when and by who.

Enhancing systems security- The operating system allows the users to use passwords
through which they can be recognized as legitimate users. This ensures that data stored in the
computer at a given time is not subjected to any sort of deliberate or accidental corruption.

Interface between the users and the computer system- It enables the users to access the
computer system to issue the instructions for the processing tasks to be performed. The form
of ‘conversion is therefore established between the operating system and the operator, usually
through console in multi-user system. Console is when the keyboard is used together with the
visual display unit.

CATEGORIES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

i) Single user operating system – This operating system allows one program to be executed
at a time. It can only be used by one user. ii) Single user multitasking operating system -
This is a program which allows one user to perform several tasks at the same time.
iii) Multi-user multitasking operating system – This is sometimes referred to
concurrent operating system. It allows the computer to carry out several tasks at
the same time while being used by different users.
iv) Time sharing operating system – This allows multiple users to access a single
computer by supervising the clockwise rotation from one user to the other. The
attention of the C.P.U is switched among users on a timed basis controlled by the
operating systems.

Characteristics of an operating system.

An OS should have the following characteristics:

a). Reliable.
 The OS should be at least as reliable as the hardware on which it runs. If a software or
hardware error occurs, the system should be able to detect the error and either try to correct
the problem or try to minimize the damage to the users of the system from the error.

b). Protected.

A user doesn’t want other users to interfere with him. Therefore, the system should protect
users from being affected both by errors of other users and by malicious attempts at
tampering.

c). Efficient.

The OS is usually a complex program that uses a large part of the hardware resources for
its own functions. The resources consumed by the OS are not available for users.
Therefore, the system itself should be very efficient, & should manage user’s resources to
minimize their idle time.

d). Convenient.

Systems should be designed keeping users in mind.

Therefore, an OS should be flexible & convenient to use. In addition, in order to allow the
sharing of resources, the OS must be in complete control of the allocation of the computer
resources.
e). Predictable.

User demands on the system are generally unpredictable. At the same time, users prefer to
get service that does not vary widely over extended periods of time. An estimate as to
when the user will get his input should be given.

Revision Questions

1. Name two major reasons why it became necessary to use an Operating system.
2. (a). Identify FOUR resources that the Operating system should manage.
(b). What function should the Operating system perform to manage each of the resources
above?
3. List and explain any five general functions of an operating system.
4. What is meant by the term Job in computer studies?
5. Name four examples of operating systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.

The OS determines determine the type of processing that a computer system is able to perform,
since it controls the allocation & use of the computer resources.
Operating systems can be classified according to:

1. Number of tasks that the system can perform concurrently.

• Single-tasking (program) operating system.
• Multi-tasking operating system.

2. Number of users the system can support at the same time.

• Single-user operating systems.
• Multi-user operating systems.

3. Human Computer interface (i.e., how the user & the computer interact).
• Command line.
• Menu driven interface.
• Graphical user interface (GUI).

Classification according to tasks handled concurrently.

Single-tasking OS.

Single-tasking OS allows only one user-program in the main memory to be processed at a

particular time.

This means that, the user can only run one interactive program at a time. The user must then exit
from the program before loading & running another program.

Example of a single user OS;

− MS-DOS.

Multi-tasking (Multiprogramming) OS.

A Multi-tasking OS allows a single CPU to execute/process more than one program, all of which
are in memory, at the same time.

Each program is allocated a time-slice. In this case, the programs take turns at short intervals of
processing time. The CPU switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for
processing, executing statements from one program, and then from another.

The programs to be run are loaded into the memory and the CPU begins execution of the first
one. When the request is satisfied, the second program is brought into memory and execution
starts on the second program, and so on.

Note. In multi-programming, the computer is able to work on several programs at the same time.
It works on the programs on sequence, one after the other, and that at any given instant it
executes instructions from one program only. However, the computer works so quickly that it
appears to be executing the programs simultaneously.

Classification according to number of users.

Single-user OS.

A single-user OS is designed to be used by only one person. It allow only one user/person to
operate the machine at a time in an interactive, conversational mode, and runs only one user
program at a time, e.g. MS-DOS.

Multi-user (or multi access) OS.

A multi-user OS allows more than one user ( many people) to interactively use/access the
computer at the same time.

Examples;

− UNIX,
− Novell Netware,
− Ms-Windows 2000,
− Ms-Windows NT,
− Linux, etc

Classification according to Human Computer Interface (HCI).

The term Human Computer Interface (HCI) refers to the method of interaction between the
computer & the user, and determines how easily the user can operate the computer.

The HCI enables communication to & from between the user and the computer.

User-friendliness.

HCI is expected to be “user-friendly”, i.e., it should be one that the end-user finds helpful, and
easy to learn & use.

Features/characteristics of a user-friendly HCI.

i). It should be relatively easy for the user to try to start using the system.

ii). The system should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into accessing manuals.

iii). The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get the system complete
required tasks should be minimal.
iv). The system should be robust & reliable, i.e., the user should be protected from unexpected
system actions, including system failures.

v). The system should be able to adjust to different levels of expertise between users & also as
users grow in competence.

vi). The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.

vii). The system should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling the user to reason
about what is going on and apply what has been learned.

Types of User interfaces.

There are different types of Human Computer Interfaces: -

1. Command driven interface.

2. Menu driven interface.
3. Graphical User Interface (GUI).

Command driven interface.

This is an interaction between the user & the computer that requires the use of commands

The user types a command at the prompt found on a command line. The computer then reads
instructions from the command line and executes them.

Example;

To copy a file called [Link] from Hard disk C to Floppy disk A using MS-DOS; type

C:\ >COPY [Link] A:\ (press the Enter key for the command to be executed).

Commands enable the user to quickly instruct the computer what to do.

Command-driven software is more flexible, but it is more difficult to learn. The user must know
what commands are available, what they do & how they should be typed. For this reason,
commands are most popular with experienced technical persons, such as computer Operators,
Programmers or in situations where the end-user continually works with the same program and
has therefore mastered the commands.

To make commands more user-friendly, the following points need to be observed: -

1. The command words used should be descriptive VERBS that clearly convey the intended
action, e.g., PRINT, COPY, RENAME, DELETE, etc.

2. Unique abbreviations should be provided for more experienced users, e.g., PRI, COP, REN,
DEL, CHKDSK, etc.

3. Multiple items on a single command line should ALWAYS be separated by blank spaces.

E.g., PRINT can be used in the following ways: -

 PRINT Report1 – prints the named document on the default printer.

 PRINT Report1 Report2 Report3 – prints the three documents on the default printer.

Examples of Command line interfaces:

− MS-DOS,
− Early versions of PC-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.

Disadvantages of using command driven interfaces

− They are more difficult to learn.

− The user must know the command to type.
− It is less user-friendly.
− It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to master the command format/syntax.

Menu driven interface.

This type of interface provides the user with a list of program commands displayed on the screen
to choose from & a simple means of selecting between them.

To activate a choice in the menu, one can use the Enter key, or move the cursor until it is
positioned at the desired choice & then press the activation key so that the system can start acting
upon the information given.

This interface is suitable for beginners and infrequent users who may have difficulties in
remembering commands.

There are 2 types of menus: -

(a) Pull-down menus – are special types of menu used mostly in Windows.
(b) Pop-up menus & Pop-down menus. These menus are made to appear above or below an
item on the screen in order to elicit/obtain a choice from a user.

Later versions of DOS have a menu driven interface called the DOS Shell or DOS Editor.
Advantages of Menu driven interfaces
− Menus provide many options to select from.
− The user is presented with a choice and therefore, does not need to master any commands.
− They are easier to use.

Graphical User Interface (GUI).

This is an interaction between the user & computer that involves issuing of commands to the
computer by activating certain small graphic images displayed on the screen called Icons.

To issue a command, the icons can be selected using a pointing device like a Mouse.

GUI is mostly found on Workstations or PCs fitted with graphic adapters able to support high-
resolution graphics.

Examples of GUI based OS;

− Presentation manager of OS/2,

− Ms-Windows,
− Linux,
− Apple Macintosh.

Features of a graphical user interface. (2 marks)

− Programs are represented graphically by use of Icons.
− Commands are selected and issued using pointing devices, e.g., Mouse, trackball.
− There is use of pull-down menus.
− Programs open by displaying windows.

Advantages of using GUI based OS

− They are user friendly.

− Easy to learn & use.

Revision Questions

1. What criteria are used to classify types of operating systems?

2. (a) Differentiate between multi-user and multitasking operating systems.
(b) State any computer software that can be classified as a Multi-user operating system.
3. Name three types of user interfaces employed by different commercial Operating systems.
4. (a) Differentiate between command-line interface and graphical user interface operating
systems based on the way commands are entered.
(b) State two main advantages of GUI interfaces.

Factors to consider when choosing an operating system.

The following factors should be considered when choosing an operating system for a computer;

1. Hardware configuration of the computer, e.g., RAM memory size, hard disk capacity, type of
processor, etc.

2. Basic design of the computer, - i.e., is it an IBM or IBM compatible, or an Apple computer?

3. Hardware compatibility.

4. User needs (requirements), i.e., the applications intended for the computer.

5. User friendliness or Human computer interface, i.e., is it Command line based, Menu-driven
or a Graphical user interface?

6. Availability in the market, e.g. Microsoft Windows based OS are very common.

7. Portability.

8. Cost – how expensive the OS is.

9. Reliability, i.e., can it run without crashing or hanging (stop responding to commands).

10. The method of communication with the computer, e.g. the number of peripherals.
11. The method of operating the computer.

UTILITY PROGRAMS/ SERVICE PROGRAMS

These are programs used to carry out routine tasks such as merging, sorting, dumping among
others. They are normally supplied by the manufacturers to make the computer work
efficiently. Utility programs are said to be more efficient than the operating system. If the
programs which are performed by every computer were to be written separately for each
installation, there could be a lot of programmers’ time wasted, hence the manufacturers have
to provide a wide range of programs for performing routine tasks which will eventually meet
the users’ requirements.. The most commonly used utility programs include:
Editors- This is a utility program used to create and manipulate text information using the
computer. The users can therefore make any alterations to the text documents to meet
their needs or even make changes to programs. This editing is carried out by using the
edit keys found on the keyboard or by using a series of commands. Character, line and
page editors can be used for this purpose.
Debuggers- A bug is a program error. Debuggers are therefore used to remove errors from
programs during program development. Debugging adjusts the program to remove
variances between actual and expected output. However, it does not point out logical or
arithmetic errors.
 Sort utility- Sorting is the process of arranging records in a file so that they can be read
in a particular predetermined sequence for example on ascending or descending order.
Sort ulility facilitates the sorting process
Merge utility- This combines two or more related files into a single file.
Dump utility- This facilitates copying the contents of the main memory onto external
storage devices such as magnetic disks for security purposes. Computers and related
facilities are prone to security threats such as theft and fire outbreaks and in the event of
such threats which may lead to loss of data from the main memory, the lost data can be
recovered from the external storage facilities.
Anti-virus utility-This scans the computer’s hard disk and the external storage devices to
detect virus. A virus is a malicious program that has the capability of deleting other
programs and files present in a computer system
Data compression utility- This removes redundant elements from or unnecessary data
from the computer memory.
Print utility – for managing the printing process by arranging the printing tasks in a given
order.

TRANSLATION PROGRAMS
These are programs that convert the source code instructions (instructions written in 2nd, 3rd,
4th and 5th generation languages) into machine code i.e. O’S and I’S.
There are 3 types of translation programs:
i) Assemblers: These are translators which transform programs written in 2nd
generation into machine codes.
ii) Compilers: These are translators which transform programs written in high level
languages into machine codes several statements at a time. iii) Interpreters: These
are translators which transform programs written in high level language into
machine code one statement at a time.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is a set of instructions used to accomplish specific tasks other than just
running the computer system; they are designed to help the users solve specific problems.
Application software can be bought off- shelf or can be developed in-house depending on the
needs of organization. An advantage of acquiring a suite of programs rather than individual
programs is that it will be cheaper. A suite is a set of applications put together. Application
software are normally designed to solve particular problems and they can be categorized into
two; -
i) Off shelf packages ii) Tailor-made/in-
house/bespoke packages.
OFF- SHELF PACKAGES
These are standardized ready made programs that can be bought directly from the
manufacturers. They are designed to solve a particular problem but are not meant for a
particular user.

They are suitable under the following circumstances:

i) When problem to be solved is of general nature.
ii) When the programmers are not available in the organization.
iii) When cheaper to buy them than develop them in-house.
iv) When the problem at hand is urgent.
Examples:
i) Accounting Packages
These are application programs designed to help accountants solve their day to day problems
such as preparation of financial statements and bank reconciliation Examples include
QuickBooks, Sage and Pastel.
ii) Spreadsheets.
They allow users to create tables and prepare schedules by allowing data to be displayed in
rows and in columns on the visual display unit. A spreadsheet is simply a grid of rows and
columns used by accountants and others to produce financial reports and projections. An
electronic spreadsheet allows users to create tables by entering data in the section of a row
and a column referred as a cell. Typically an electronic spreadsheet offers the following
facilities:

1. Graphics
It allows users to display numerical data in a variety of forms such as bar graphs and file
charts. 2. Consolidation.
This feature allows the users to merge several worksheets and give a summery sheet while
keeping the original sheet intact.
3. Functions.
Spreadsheets offer various functions include summation average, subtraction and any other
function used in mathematical and statistical analysis. 4. Formatting
This allows the users to improve on the appearance of the spreadsheet e.g. changing colour,
style e.t.c
5. Windows- A spreadsheet provides the users with several working areas thus
allowing for multitasking.

iii)Text manipulation packages.

a) Word processing packages.
These are application packages designed to allow users create, manipulate, format, merge, edit
and save text documents. They are commonly used for preparation of business documents
such as letters, reports, notices, memos, circulars e.t.c. Examples include: Microsoft word,
WordPerfect and word star.

b)
Desktop publishing (graphic packages)
These are application packages that allow users to carry out some amount of text manipulation
and also carry out design work. They are enhanced word processors. Organizations commonly
use desk-top publishing for designing reports, adverts, press releases, business cards,
publications and business logos.
 Sources of software
Application
Software

Proprietary Off-the-shelf
/tailor-made

In - house Contract Customized Standard

developed package Package

In – house Contract
customized customization

ADVANTAGES OF APPLICATION PACKAGES

i) They are portable i.e. most of them can be run on a variety of computers and different
hardware.
ii) They are developed by experts and therefore tested and likely to be free from errors.
iii) They are cheap since they are produced in large quantities and the cost of
developing can be distributed to customers.
iv) They are readily available and therefore it takes a short time to implement them. v)
They are user friendly (easy to learn and use) vi) They are well documented i.e.
they are accompanied by well-designed user manuals.

DISADVANTAGES OF OFF-SHELF SOFTWARE

i) Since they are not tailor-made, they may not solve the unique problems of the users. ii) The
user does not have ownership rights and therefore cannot modify or sell the packages. iii)
They require regular training especially every time a new version comes into the market.
iv) Since they need regular maintenance and are subject to frequent obsolescence due to rapid
technological development, they become out of date very fast.
TAILOR MADE/INHOUSE/BESPOKE PACKAGES
These are programs designed to meet the unique needs of the users. They are developed to
solve a specific problem and are suitable under the following circumstances:
i) When problem at hand is not urgent since they take long to implement.
ii) When users problem is unique and cannot be solved using readily available
standardized packages.
iii) When there is availability of programmers to develop the packages internally. iv)
When it is cheaper to develop them in-house in comparison to acquiring them from
the manufacturer.

ADVANTAGES OF IN-HOUSE PACKAGES

i) They are tailor made and therefore are capable of solving the users’ specific problems. ii)
They require less training because users are involved in developing them.
iii) The user develops them and therefore he acquires the ownership right which allows
for modification.
iv) Security- only users within the organization have knowledge of the way the software
operates and therefore outsiders may not have access to how the packages operate.

DISADVANTAGES OF IN-HOUSE
PACKAGES
i) Require a lot of time to implement.
ii) They are not highly portable i.e they are machine specific. iii) Most of them may not be
documented as compared to off- shelf packages. iv) They are usually costly because the user
has to meet all the expenses of development testing and maintenance.
v) They are likely to have errors due to improper testing.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OFFSHELF PACKAGES AND TAILORMADE
PACKAGES
PARAMETER OFF- SHELF TAILOR-MADE
User needs General purpose Specific purpose
Cost Cheaper due to cost sharing Expensive since the user
meets development, testing
and maintenance costs.
Portability Portable Machine specific
Security Less secure More secure
Training Requires more training Requires less straining due to
user involvement
Documentation Well documented May not be well documented
Implementation time Take a short time to Takes a long time
implement to implement.
When choosing a software package for a given application the following factors should be
considered:
User friendliness- The software should not be complex; it should be easy to learn and use.
User friendliness of a package can be enhanced through the provision for help facilities
such as screen formatting facilities
Cost- There are normally costs associated with acquiring software. Such costs should not
outweigh the benefits that would accrue from its use. The software should be cost
effective
Compatibility- a software is said to be compatible if it can fit into the existing technology.
It should not be obsolete.
 Flexibility- The software should have allowances for the users’ changing needs; it should
meet not only the current user requirements but also the future requirements.
Vendor support- Is there maintenance support from the manufacturer?
Portability- The software should be capable of running in on different computer families
User requirements- Before buying a particular package, its current users should be
interviewed to find out whether the package is likely to be successful or not depending
on their requirements
Documentation- they should be accompanied by descriptions or narrations which
highlight how to use and maintain them (user guides)
Reliability- The software should be capable of running with minimal failure rates
Security- They should not be easily defrauded

Programming Languages
Programming languages are collections of commands, statements and words that are
combined using a particular syntax, or rules, to write both systems and application software.
This results in meaningful instructions to the CPU.
Generations of programming languages
Machine Language (1st Generation Languages)
A machine language consists of binary digit, that is, zeroes and ones. Instructions and
addresses are written in binary (0,1) code. Binary is the only “language” a CPU can
understand. The CPU directly interprets and executes this language, therefore making it fast
in execution of its instructions. Machine language programs directly instructed the computer
hardware, so they were not portable. That is, a program written for computer model A could
not be run on computer model B without being rewritten. All software in other languages must
ultimately be translated down to machine language form. The translation process makes the
other languages slower.

Advantage
The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no
translation program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages
• It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know
details of hardware to write program.
• The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program, which results in
program errors.
• It is difficult to debug the program.
Assembly Language (2nd Generation languages)
Uses symbols and codes instead of binary digits to represent program instructions. It is a
symbolic language meaning that instructions and addresses are written using alphanumeric
labels, meaningful to the programmer.

The resulting programs still directly instructed the computer hardware. For example, an
assembly language instruction might move a piece of data stored at a particular location in
RAM into a particular location on the CPU. Therefore, like their first generation counterparts,
second generation programs were not easily portable.

Assembly languages were designed to run in a small amount of RAM. Furthermore, they are
low-level languages; that is the instructions directly manipulate the hardware. Therefore,
programs written in assembly language execute efficiently and quickly. As a result, more
systems software is still written using assembly languages.
The language has a one to one mapping with machine instructions but has macros added to it.
A macro is a group of multiple machine instructions, which are considered as one instruction
in assembly language. A macro performs a specific task, for example adding, subtracting etc.
A one to one mapping means that for every assembly instruction there is a corresponding
single or multiple instructions in machine language.
An assembler is used to translate the assembly language statements into machine language.

Advantages:
▪ The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves
a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
▪ It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
▪ Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level
language. Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program
and its corresponding machine language program.

Disadvantages:
▪ One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A
program written for one computer might not run in other computers with different
hardware configuration.

High-level languages (3rd generation languages)

Third generation languages are easier to learn and use than were earlier generations. Thus
programmers are more productive when using third generation languages. For most
applications, this increased productivity compensates for the decrease in speed and efficiency
of the resulting programs. Furthermore, programs written in third generation languages are
portable; that is, a program written to run on a particular type of computer can be run with
little or no modification on another type of computer. Portability is possible because third
generation languages are “high-level languages”; that is instructions do not directly
manipulate the computer hardware.
Third generation languages are sometimes referred to as “procedural” languages since
program instructions, must still the computer detailed instructions of how to reach the desired
result.
High-level languages incorporated greater use of symbolic code. Its statements are more
English –like, for example print, get, while. They are easier to learn but the resulting program
is slower in execution. Examples include Basic, Cobol, C and Fortran. They have first to be
compiled (translated into corresponding machine language statements) through the use of
compilers.

Advantages of High Level Languages

▪ Higher-level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages
that higher-level languages are easy to learn and use.
▪ Are portable

Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

Fourth generation languages are even easier to use, and more English-like, than are third
generation languages. Fourth generation languages are sometimes referred to as
“nonprocedural”, since programs tell the computer what it needs to accomplish, but do not
provide detailed instructions as to how it should accomplish it. Since fourth generation
languages concentrate on the output, not procedural details, they are more easily used by
people who are not computer specialists, that is, by end users.

Many of the first fourth generation languages were connected with particular database
management systems. These languages were called query languages since they allow people
to retrieve information from databases. Structured query language, SQL, is a current fourth
generation language used to access many databases. There are also some statistical fourth
generation languages, such as SAS or SPSS.

Some fourth generation languages, such as Visual C++, Visual Basic, or PowerBuilder are
targeted to more knowledgeable users, since they are more complex to use. Visual
programming languages, such as visual basic, use windows, icons, and pull down menus to
make programming easier and more intuitive.

Object Oriented Programming

First, second, third and fourth generation programming languages were used to construct
programs that contained procedures to perform operations, such as draw or display, on data
elements defined in a file.
Object oriented programs consist of objects, such as a time card, that include descriptions of
the data relevant to the object, as well as the operations that can be done on that data. For
example, included in the time card object, would be descriptions of such data such as
employee name, hourly rate, start time, end time, and so on. The time card object would also
contain descriptions of such operations as calculate total hours worked or calculate total pay.

Language translators
Although machine language is the only language the CPU understands, it is rarely used
anymore since it is so difficult to use. Every program that is not written in machine language
must be translated into machine language before it can be executed. This is done by a category
of system software called language translation software. These are programs that convert the
code originally written by the programmer, called source code, into its equivalent machine
language program, called object code.
There are two main types of language translators: interpreters and compilers.

Interpreters
While a program is running, interpreters read, translate, and execute one statement of the
program at a time. The interpreter displays any errors immediately on the monitor. Interpreters
are very useful for people learning how to program or debugging a program. However, the
line-by-line translation adds significant overhead to the program execution time leading to
slow execution.

Compilers
A compiler uses a language translation program that converts the entire source program into
object code, known as an object module, at one time. The object module is stored and it is the
object module that executes when the program runs. The program does not have to be
compiled again until changes are made in the source code. Software trends and issues
Open source software coming to the scene. This is software that is freely available to anyone
and can be easily modified. The use of open source software has increased dramatically due
to the World Wide Web. Users can download the source code from web sites. Open source
software is often more reliable than commercial software because there are many users
collaborating to fix problems. The biggest problem with open source software is the lack of
formal technical support. However, some companies that package open source software with
various add-ons and sell it with support are addressing this. An example of this is Red Hat
Linux operating system.