UNIVERSITY OF EMBU

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

MODULE 3

COURSE CODE: CSC 114 COURSE TITLE: Differential and integral Calculus

CHAPTER ONE

BASIC MATHEMATICS
1.2 Functions

A function is an association which to each number associates another number.

In other words, a function is a rule which maps a number to another unique number.

If we denote a function by f , then this association is denoted by x ↦ f (x ).

We call f (x) the value of the function at x , or the image of x under f .

Examples
1. The association f : x → x 2 is a function called the square. We have f ( 2 )=4 , f ( 3 )=9 ,
f (−1 )=1, etc.
2. The association g : x → x+ 1 is a function. We have g ( 1 )=2 , g (2 )=3, etc.
3. The association which to each number x associates a constant value, say c , is called the
constant function with value c , i.e. f : x → c for all numbers x .

Let f , g be functions defined on the same set S. We can define the sum f +g of the two functions
to be the function whose value at an element x of S is f ( x ) + g(x ).

Associativity for addition of numbers gives us associativity for addition of functions; namely, for
any functions f , g , h defined on S, we have ( f +g ) +h=f +(g+h).

Similarly, for commutativity, we have f +g=g+h .

Example
Let f ( x )=x 2 and g ( x )=sin(x ). Then

( f +g ) ( x ) =f ( x )+ g ( x ) =x2 +sin ( x) .

We also have the zero function, whose value at every element x of S is 0.

If f is a function defined on S, then we can define minus f , written −f to be the function whose
value at an element x of S is −f (x).

Thus, we see that functions satisfy the same basic rules for addition as numbers.

The same is true for multiplication. If f , g are functions defined on the same set S, we define
their product fg to be the function whose value at an element x of S is the product f (x) g(x ).

Thus, we have, by definition, ( fg )( x )=f ( x) g(x ). This product is commutative and associative.

Also, multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, because

( ( f + g ) h ) x=( f + g )( x ) ∙ h ( x )
¿ ( f (x )+g ( x )) h (x )
¿ f ( x ) h ( x )+ g ( x ) h ( x )
¿ ( fh ) ( x )+ ( gh )( x )
¿ ( fh+ gh ) x .

Thus, ( f +g ) h=fh+ gh.

A function is said to be an even function if f ( x )=f (−x ) for all numbers x . It is said to be odd
function if f ( x )=−f (−x ) for all x .

1.3 Trigonometry

Radian Measure

In a sense, the measurement of angles by degrees is not a natural measurement. It is much more
reasonable to take another measure as described below.

Let π be the numerical value of the area of a disc of radius 1. The approximate value for π is
3.14159 . . . .

Let A be an angle with vertex at P and let S be the sector determined by A in the disc D of
radius 1 centered at P. Let x be a number between 0 and 2 π . We say that A has x radians to
mean that
 Area of S x
= .
Area of D 2 π

Examples of Angles with Radian Measure

0 π
Degrees are related to radians. For instance, 3600 =2 π radians ; 1800=π radians ; 60 = radians,
3
etc.

In general,
π
x degrees= x radians .
180

Observe that the length of the circle of radius 1 is 2 π .

The angle A determines an arc on this circle, and radian measure is so adjusted that
 Length of this arc
˚ x .¿
Total length of ¿=
2π

Thus x is the length of arc determined by A .

Exercise
1. Give the following values of angles in radians:
a) 150 .
b) 750 .
c) 1050 .
d) 1500 .

2. Give the following values of angles in degrees:

−π
a) .
4
−8
b) π.
9
14
c) π.
3

Sine and Cosine

Consider a right-angled triangle:

Then,
Opposite side a
sin ( A ) = = ,
Hypotenuse c
And
Adjacent side b
cos ( A )= = .
Hypotenuse c
For any n ∈ Z and for any angle x ,
sin( x+2 nπ )=sin (x),
cos (x +2 nπ)=cos (x).

Sine and cosine satisfy a basic relation:

2 2
sin ( x )+ cos ( x )=1.

For all angles x ,

sin (−x )=−sin ( x ) ;
cos (−x ) =cos ( x ) .

Example

A boat B starts from a point P on a straight river and moves down the river. An observer O
stands at a distance of 1,000 ft from P, on the line perpendicular to the river passing through P.
After 10 minutes, the observer finds that the angle θ formed by P, himself, and the boat, is such
that cos (θ)=0.7 . What is the distance between the observer and the boat at that time?

Solution

Adjacent side 1000

cos (θ )=0.7= =
Hypotenuse c
1000 1000
⇒ =0.7 ⇒ c= ≈ 1428.6 ft .
c 0.7

1.4 Complex Numbers

Every complex number can be written in the form a+ bi where a , b are real numbers.

There exists a complex number i such that i 2=1.

Thus, in the complex numbers we can take a square root of −1.

Operations of Complex Numbers

Let z=x + yi and w=u+ vi be complex numbers. Then

z +w=( x +u ) + ( y + v ) i .

zw=( x + yi ) (u+ vi )
¿ xu+ xvi+uyi− yv
¿ ( xu− yv ) + ( xv +uy ) i .
Example

Find zw given that z=2+3 i and w=1−i .

Answer: zw=5+i .

Complex Conjugate

Let z=a+bi be a complex number. We define its complex conjugate (or simply its conjugate) to
be the complex number z=a−bi .

Thus if z=2+3 i , then z=2−3i . Similarly, if z=2−3i , then z=2+3 i.

Exercise

Verify that if z=a+bi, then z z =a2 +b 2.

Theorem:
Let z , w be complex numbers. Then
zw=z w ;
z +w=z +w ;
z=z .
Proof

Left as an exercise.

Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Number

Let z=x +iy be a complex number with real x , y . We call x the real part of z , and y the
imaginary part of z . These are denoted as ℜ(z) and ℑ(z), respectively.

Absolute Value of a Complex Number

We define the absolute value of a complex number z=x +iy to be |z|=√ x 2 + y 2.

Thus, the absolute value of z is simply the distance from the origin to the point (x , y ) in the
plane.
1.5 Analytic Geometry

Equation of a Straight Line

Consider an equation y=3 x or simply y−3 x=0. Its graph is given by

If we consider y=4 x , we will see that it is a line which slants more steeply.

In general, the graph of the equation y=ax , where a is a number, represents a straight line.

If a is positive, then the line slants to the right. If a is negative, then the line slants to the left.

Let a , b be numbers. The graph of the equation y=ax+ b is also a straight line, which is parallel
to the graph of the equation y=ax .

Examples

1. Draw the graph of y=2 x +1.

Solution
 2. Draw the graph of y=−2 x−5 .

Solution

If a line L is the graph of the equation y=ax+ b, then we call the number a the slope of the line.
For instance, the slope of the line whose equation is y=−4 x +7 is −4. The slope determines
how the line is slanted.

Let y=ax+ b be the equation of a line. The slope of this line can be obtained from two distinct
points on the line.

Let (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) be the two points. By definition, we know that

y 1=a x 1 +b ,
y 2=a x 2 +b .
Subtracting, we find y 2− y 1=a(x 2−x 1) .

If the two points are distinct, x 2 ≠ x 1, and we can divide by (x 2−x 1) to find
 y 2− y 1 ∆ y
a= ≡ .
x 2−x 1 ∆ x

This formula gives us the slope in terms of the coordinates of two distinct points.

Examples
1. Consider the line defined by the equation y=2 x +5. The two points (1 , 7) and (−1 , 3) lie
on the line. The slope is equal to 2. Notice that,

7−3 4
2= = =2.
1−(−1) 2
2. Find the equation of the line passing through the points (1 , 2) and (2 ,−1).

Solution

y 2− y 1
We first find the slope. It must be the quotient, which in this case is equal to
x 2−x 1
−1−2
=−3.
2−1

Thus, we know that our line is the graph of the equation y=−3 x +b for some number b ,
which we must determine.

We know that the line passes through the point (1 , 2). Hence
2=−3∙ 1+b ⟹ b=5.

Thus, the equation of the line is y=−3 x +5.

3. Find the equation of the line having slope −7 and passing through the point (−1 , 2) .

Solution

The equation must be of the form y=−7 x +b with some number b .

Furthermore, when x=−1, the corresponding value of y must be 2. Hence

2= (−7 ) (−1 )+ b ⇒ b=−5.

Hence the equation of the line is y=−7 x −5.

4. Find the points of intersection of the line and the circle given by the following equations:
2 2
y=3 x +2∧x + y =1.

Solution
 To do this, note that a point (x , y ) lies on the intersection if and only if y=3 x +2 and
2 2
x +(3 x +2) =1.

Thus, we must solve for x in this last equation, which is equivalent to

2 2 2
x + 9 x +12 x+ 4=1 ⇒ 10 x +12 x+ 3=0.

Using quadratic formula,

−12± √ 144−(4 ×10 × 3) −6 ± √ 6
x= = .
20 10

These two possible values for x give us the two points of intersection.

The y -coordinates can be found by the expression y=3 x +2, and hence the points of
intersection are

(
−6+ √ 6 2+3 √ 6
10
,
10
∧ )(
−6−√ 6 2−3 √ 6
2
,
10
. )
Exercise

Find the points of intersection (if any) of the line and the circle given by the following equations:
2 2
y=x +5∧x + y =1.