Chapter 2 Complex Numbers
Definition
A complex number 𝑧 is a pair (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℝ2 which we will denote by 𝑎 + 𝑖 𝑏, where:
𝑎 is the real part of 𝑧, Re(𝑧)
𝑏 is the imaginary part of 𝑧, Im(𝑧)
𝑖 is an imaginary number that satisfies the relation 𝑖 2 = −1.
Complex number 3 + 3𝑖
Remarks
We denote by ℂ the set of complex numbers.
If 𝑏 = 0, (Im(𝒛) = 𝟎), In this case we will say that 𝑧 is real.
If 𝑎 = 0, (𝐑𝐞(𝒛) = 𝟎), In this case we will say that 𝑧 is pure imaginary.
The arithmetic operations in ℂ are the same as in ℝ, taking into account 𝑖 2 = −1.
Operations
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑧 ′ = 𝑎′ + 𝑖𝑏′ then:
1. 𝑧 + 𝑧 ′ = (𝑎 + 𝑎′) + 𝑖(𝑏 + 𝑏′)
2. 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ = (𝑎 − 𝑎′) + 𝑖(𝑏 − 𝑏′)
3. 𝑧𝑧 ′ = (𝑎𝑎′ − 𝑏𝑏′) + 𝑖(𝑎𝑏′ + 𝑏𝑎′)
Remarks
𝑧 = 𝑧 ′ ⇔ (𝑎 = 𝑎′) ∧ (𝑏 = 𝑏′)
𝑧 = 0 ⇔ (𝑎 = 0) ∧ (𝑏 = 0)
There is no natural order on ℂ, so one should never write 𝑧 ⩾ 0 or 𝑧 ⩽ 𝑧′.
Conjugate complex number
Definition
The conjugate of the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖 𝑏 is the complex number 𝑧,
̅ such
that 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑖 𝑏.
Examples:
𝑧 = 3 − 2𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧̅ = 3 + 2𝑖
𝑧 = 4 ⇒ 𝑧̅ = 4
𝑧 = 3𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧̅ = −3𝑖
Properties
1. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅
𝑧 + 𝑧′ = 𝑧̅ + 𝑧′
2. 𝑧̿ = 𝑧
3. ̅̅̅̅
𝑧𝑧′ = 𝑧̅𝑧̅′
̅̅̅̅
1 1
4. (𝑧) = 𝑧̅ , 𝑧 ≠ 0.
5. 𝑧 real ⟺ 𝑧̅ = 𝑧
6. 𝑧 pure imaginary ⟺ 𝑧̅ = −𝑧
7. 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ = 2𝑎 = 2Re(𝑧)
8. 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ = 2𝑖𝑏 = 2 𝑖. Im(𝑧)
9. 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Geometric representation of a complex number
Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 be a complex number, the point 𝐴(𝑎, 𝑏) is called image or affix of 𝑧 in the
plane. For example:
𝑧 = 1 − 2𝑖 ⟶ 𝐴(1, −2)
𝐴(3, 5) ⟶ 𝑧𝐴 = 3 + 5𝑖
Geometric representation of 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.
Modulus of complex numbers
Definition
The modulus of complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is the positive real |𝑧| such that |𝑧| = √𝑧𝑧̅ or
|𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
Remark
Let 𝐴(𝑎, 𝑏) be an affix of 𝑧𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, The length of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 is called the modulus of
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑧, where 𝑂(0, 0). (𝑂𝐴 = |𝑧𝐴 |)
In the general case if : 𝐴(𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝐵(𝑐, 𝑑) then 𝐴𝐵 = |𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 |
Examples:
𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖 ⟹ |𝑧| = 5.
𝑧 = 3 − 4𝑖 ⟹ |𝑧| = 5.
𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 ⟹ |𝑧| = √2.
Properties
1. |𝑧| = 0 ⟺ 𝑧 = 0
2. 𝑧 = 𝑧 ′ ⇒ |𝑧| = |𝑧′|, the opposite is not true.
3. |𝑧𝑧′| = |𝑧||𝑧′|
4. |𝑧 2 | = |𝑧|2
5. |𝑧 𝑛 | = |𝑧|𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
6. |𝑧 + 𝑧′| ≤ |𝑧| + |𝑧′|, (The triangular inequality)
𝑧 |𝑧|
7. |𝑧′| = |𝑧′|, 𝑧′ ≠ 0
8. |𝑧| = |𝑧̅|
Examples:
We have |1 + √3𝑖| = |√2 + √2𝑖| = 2 but 1 + √3𝑖 ≠ √2 + √2𝑖.
Let 𝑧 ∈ ℂ such that |1 + 𝑖 𝑧| = |1 − 𝑖 𝑧|, show that 𝑧 ∈ ℝ.
Remarks
The writing 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is called the algebraic form of the complex number 𝑧.
𝑧
To write the complex number 𝑧′ , 𝑧′ ≠ 0 in algebraic form we use the conjugate of
the denominator.
Example:
1+𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)(1 − √3𝑖) 1 − √3𝑖 + 𝑖 + √3 1 + √3 1 − √3
𝑧= = = 2 = +𝑖 .
1 + √3𝑖 (1 + √3𝑖)(1 − √3𝑖) (1)2 + (√3) 4 4
Square roots of a complex number
Definition
Let 𝑧 be a complex number, we say that 𝜔 is a square root of 𝑧, if is only if, 𝜔2 = 𝑧.
Example:
1 + 𝑖, −1 − 𝑖 are two square roots of 2𝑖 because (1 + 𝑖)2 = (−1 − 𝑖)2 = 2𝑖.
Proposition
Let 𝑧 be a complex number, then 𝑧 admits two square roots – 𝜔 and 𝜔.
Proof.
Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 be a complex number, assume that 𝜔 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 a square roots of 𝑧, then
𝜔2 = 𝑧 ⟺ (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
⟺ 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖(2𝑥𝑦) = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 𝑎
⟺{
2𝑥𝑦 = 𝑏
Since 𝜔 is a square roots of 𝑧, so 𝜔2 = 𝑧 ⟹ |𝜔2 | = |𝑧| that’s to say 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
Finally, we obtain the following equations system
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 … … … … … . . (1)
𝜔2 = 𝑧 ⟺ { 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝑏 … … … … … … . … (2)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 … … (3)
By adding the first and third equations, we get 𝑥, then we substitute 𝑥 into the second
equation we get 𝑦.
Example:
Find the square roots of the complex number 𝑧 = −5 + 12𝑖.
Second degree equation (Quadratic equations)
Proposition
The second degree equation 𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑏𝑧 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℂ and 𝑎 ≠ 0, has two
solution 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ.
Let ∆ = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 be the discriminant and 𝛿 ∈ ℂ a square root of ∆. Then the solutions are
−𝑏 + 𝛿 −𝑏 − 𝛿
𝑧1 = and 𝑧2 =
2𝑎 2𝑎
Examples:
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13 = 0
𝑧 2 − (4 + 𝑖)𝑧 + 5 + 5𝑖 = 0
The trigonometric form of a complex number
Argument of a complex number
Definition
Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 be a complex number and let 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) be the image of 𝑧 in the plane.
The angle 𝜃 between the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 and the axis (𝑂𝑋) is called the argument of the
number 𝑧, we write 𝜃 = arg(𝑧).
𝜃: Argument of 𝑧.
Remark
𝑂𝐴 𝑎
cos 𝜃 = 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟
From the triangle 𝑂𝐴𝑃 we have, { , where 𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
𝐴𝑃 𝑏
sin 𝜃 = 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟
From this remark we have, 𝑎 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑏 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃, by substitution in 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 we find
that 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃).
Definition
The writing 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), 𝑟 > 0 is called the trigonometric form of the complex
number 𝑧.
Examples:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 = √2 (cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4 )
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 2𝑖 = 2 (cos 2 + 𝑖 sin 2 )
𝑧 = −1 = 1(cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)
Table of some usual angles
𝜃 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
6 4 3 2
sin 𝜃 𝟎 𝟏 √𝟐 𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏
𝟐 =
𝟐 √𝟐 𝟐
cos 𝜃 𝟏 √𝟑 √𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
= 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 √𝟐
cos 𝜋 = −1
sin 𝜋 = 0
Quadrant Sign of 𝒂 and 𝒃 Argument
I (1) 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 𝜃
II (2) 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 > 0 𝜋−𝜃
III (3) 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 < 0 𝜋+𝜃
IV (4) 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 < 0 −𝜃
Circle trigonometry
Example:
𝑧 = −√3 − 𝑖
2
𝑟 = √(−√3) + (−1)2 = 2
−√3
cos 𝜃 = <0
2 𝜋
⇒𝜃=𝜋+ + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
6
−1
{ sin 𝜃 = 2 < 0
7𝜋
𝜃= + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
6
7𝜋 7𝜋
𝑧 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
Exponential form of a complex number
Definition
Let 𝑧 be a complex number such that, |𝑧| = 𝑟 and arg(𝑧) = 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋.
The writing 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 is called Exponential form of 𝑧.
Example:
𝜋
𝑧 = 1 + √3𝑖 = 2𝑒 𝑖 3
Proposition
Let 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 two complex numbers such as
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ), 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) then:
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 (cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )) = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖(𝜃1 +𝜃2 )
𝑧1 𝑟 𝑟
= 𝑟1 (cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )) = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
𝑧2 2 2
1 1 1
= 𝑟 (cos(−𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(−𝜃2 ))=𝑟 𝑒 𝑖(−𝜃2 )
𝑧2 2 2
𝑧̅1 = 𝑟1 (cos(𝜃1 ) − 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 )) = 𝑟1 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
Moivre's formula
Proposition
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 be a complex number, then, for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ;
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃) = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 .
Remark
If 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 then 𝑧 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 .
Example:
If 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 find 𝑧 2024
𝜋 𝜋
We have 𝑧 = √2 (cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4 ) we apply Moivre's formula we obtain
2024 𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 2024 = √2 (cos 2024 + 𝑖 sin 2024 ) = 22012 (cos 506𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 506𝜋)
4 4
𝑧 2024 = 22012 .
Remarks
cos 2𝑘𝜋 = 1, cos(2𝑘 + 1) 𝜋 = −1
sin 𝑘𝜋 = 0
cos 𝑘𝜋 = (−1)𝑘 , 𝑘 ∈ ℤ.
(2𝑘+1)𝜋
cos 2 = 0
(2𝑘+1)𝜋
sin =0
2
Euler's formulas
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
If we have: { , then for all 𝜃 ∈ ℝ:
−𝑖𝜃
𝑒 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
cos 𝜃 =
2
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
{ sin 𝜃 = 2𝑖
Example:
Write in linear form (cos 𝜃)2 and (sin 𝜃)2
We have
2
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −2𝑖𝜃 +2 2 cos 2𝜃+2
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ (cos 𝜃)2 = ( ) = =
2 2 4 4
1 1
(cos 𝜃)2 = + cos 2𝜃.
2 2
Similarly we find
1 1
(sin 𝜃)2 = − cos 2𝜃.
2 2
nth roots of a complex number
Definition
For 𝑧 ∈ ℂ and 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, a nth root is a number 𝜔 ∈ ℂ such that 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑧.
Proposition
There are 𝑛 n-th roots 𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , . . . , 𝜔𝑛−1 of 𝑧 = 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , these are:
𝟏 𝒊𝜽+𝒊𝟐𝒌𝝅
𝝎𝒌 = 𝝆𝒏 𝒆 𝒏 ,𝒌 = 𝟎, 𝟏, … , 𝒏 − 𝟏.
Example:
Solve the equation: 𝑧 5 = 1.
Assume that 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , on the other hand we have 1 = 1𝑒 𝑖(0)
𝑧 5 = 1 ⇒ 𝑟 5 𝑒 𝑖5𝜃 = 1𝑒 𝑖(0) by identification we find
𝑟5 = 1 𝑟=1
{ ⇒{ 2𝑘𝜋
5𝜃 = 0 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃= 5
2𝑘𝑖𝜋
then 𝑧𝑘 = 𝑒 5 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … ,4.
So the solutions of the equation 𝑧 5 = 1 are:
𝑧0 = 1 2𝑖𝜋 4𝑖𝜋 6𝑖𝜋 8𝑖𝜋
𝑧1 = 𝑒 5 𝑧2 = 𝑒 5 𝑧3 = 𝑒 5 𝑧4 = 𝑒 5
5th roots of 1.