Loyola Jesuit College

Abuja

SS 1
Term 1

Compiled by:
Mr. Kayode Emmanuel
&
Mr. Onoja Emmanuel
Contents
Scheme Outline ................................................................................................................................................................. 6

EARLY COMPUTING DEVICES ............................................................................................................................................ 9

The Abacus (Counting Frame) ................................................................................................................................... 9

Napier’s rod (bone) ................................................................................................................................................... 9

Slide Rule William Oughtred (1574 – 1660) ............................................................................................................ 10

Pascaline (Pascal calculator) ................................................................................................................................... 10

Stepped Reckoner ................................................................................................................................................... 10

Jacquard’s Loom...................................................................................................................................................... 11

Difference Engine .................................................................................................................................................... 11

The Analytical Engine .............................................................................................................................................. 11

Herman Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine ................................................................................................................. 12

Burroughs Machine ................................................................................................................................................. 12

COMPUTING DEVICES FROM THE 20TH CENTURY TO DATE INCLUDES ..................................................................... 12

1. ENIAC............................................................................................................................................................... 12

2. EDVAC ............................................................................................................................................................. 13

3. EDSAC .............................................................................................................................................................. 13

4. UNIVAC ............................................................................................................................................................ 13

5. Desktop PC ...................................................................................................................................................... 14

6. Laptop and Notebook computer..................................................................................................................... 14

7. Palmtop computers......................................................................................................................................... 15

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER ..................................................................................................................................... 16

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE ...................................................................................................... 16

Supercomputers ...................................................................................................................................................... 16

Mainframe computer .............................................................................................................................................. 16

Minicomputers ........................................................................................................................................................ 18

Microcomputers...................................................................................................................................................... 18

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON TYPES ................................................................................................... 20

Analog Computer .................................................................................................................................................... 20

Digital Computer ..................................................................................................................................................... 20

Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital) ........................................................................................................................ 20

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 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE/ FUNCTIONALITY ................................................................................... 21

General purpose Computers ................................................................................................................................... 21

Special purpose Computers .................................................................................................................................... 21

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON GENERATION ....................................................................................... 21

First generations of computers (From 1940s-1950s):............................................................................................. 21

Second generations of computers (From 1950s-1960s): ........................................................................................ 22

Third generations of computers (From 1960s-1970s): ........................................................................................... 22

Fourth generations of computers (From 1970s-1980s): ......................................................................................... 22

Fifth generations of computers (From 1980 - Now): .............................................................................................. 23

IMPACT OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................................................................................... 23

Virtual Reality technology ....................................................................................................................................... 24

LOGIC CIRCUITS ............................................................................................................................................................... 25

Types of Logic Gates.................................................................................................................................................... 25

AND gate ................................................................................................................................................................. 25

OR gate .................................................................................................................................................................... 26

NOT gate ................................................................................................................................................................. 26

NAND gate............................................................................................................................................................... 26

NOR gate ................................................................................................................................................................. 26

EXOR gate ................................................................................................................................................................ 27

EXNOR gate ............................................................................................................................................................. 27

Uses of Logic Gate ....................................................................................................................................................... 28

THE MAIN HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM ................................................................................. 29

Construction of simple comparator ............................................................................................................................ 29

Von Neumann architecture ........................................................................................................................................ 29

Memory vs. storage .................................................................................................................................................... 29

Control Unit............................................................................................................................................................. 31

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).............................................................................................................................. 31

Main Memory Unit (Registers)................................................................................................................................ 31

Input/output Devices .............................................................................................................................................. 31

Buses ....................................................................................................................................................................... 31

How does computer memory work? .......................................................................................................................... 32

RAM......................................................................................................................................................................... 33

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 Read-only memory .................................................................................................................................................. 33

Parameters for RAM and ROM Usage..................................................................................................................... 34

COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ...................................................................................................................... 37

COMPUTER HARDWARE ............................................................................................................................................. 37

The System Unit ...................................................................................................................................................... 37

Peripheral ................................................................................................................................................................ 37

COMPUTER SOFTWARE............................................................................................................................................... 38

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE ........................................................... 39

OPERATING SYSTEM........................................................................................................................................................ 40

Command line Interface (CLI) and Graphical user Interface(GUI) .............................................................................. 40

History and features of CLI...................................................................................................................................... 40

An explanation of a shell ......................................................................................................................................... 40

Prompts and commands ......................................................................................................................................... 40

CLI versus GUI ............................................................................................................................................................. 41

CLI advantages and disadvantages ............................................................................................................................. 42

DATA AND INFORMATION .............................................................................................................................................. 43

DATA ........................................................................................................................................................................... 43

EXAMPLES OF DATA ................................................................................................................................................ 43

INFORMATION ............................................................................................................................................................ 44

EXAMPLES OF INFORMATION ................................................................................................................................. 44

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION ................................................................................................... 44

SOURCES OF INFORMATION ....................................................................................................................................... 45

TYPES OF INFORMATION ........................................................................................................................................ 46

DATA HANDLING ......................................................................................................................................................... 46

DIGITIZATION OF DATA ............................................................................................................................................... 47

DATA TRANSMISSION ..................................................................................................................................................... 49

MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION ............................................................................................................................... 49

Simplex mode.......................................................................................................................................................... 49

Half Duplex mode.................................................................................................................................................... 50

Full Duplex mode .................................................................................................................................................... 50

TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION ................................................................................................................................. 51

Parallel transmission ............................................................................................................................................... 52

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 Serial Transmission ................................................................................................................................................. 52

DATA TRANSMISSION ERRORS .................................................................................................................................... 56

TYPES OF ERRORS.................................................................................................................................................... 56

CAUSES OF ERRORS IN DATA TRANSMISSION ............................................................................................................ 57

 External electromagnetic signals .................................................................................................................... 57

 Noise ............................................................................................................................................................... 57

 Crosstalk .......................................................................................................................................................... 57

 Echo ................................................................................................................................................................. 57

 Distance........................................................................................................................................................... 57

ERROR CHECKING/ DETECTION ................................................................................................................................... 57

ERROR CHECKING/DETECTION METHODS .................................................................................................................. 57

 Parity checking ................................................................................................................................................ 57

 Automatic Repeat Request ............................................................................................................................. 58

 Check sum ....................................................................................................................................................... 58

 Echo checking.................................................................................................................................................. 58

 Repetition Code .............................................................................................................................................. 58

 Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) ...................................................................................................................... 59

COMPUTER NETWORK .................................................................................................................................................... 60

Network Devices ......................................................................................................................................................... 60

Hub .......................................................................................................................................................................... 60

Switch ...................................................................................................................................................................... 61

Router ..................................................................................................................................................................... 62

Bridge ...................................................................................................................................................................... 64

Brouter .................................................................................................................................................................... 64

Gateway .................................................................................................................................................................. 65

Modem .................................................................................................................................................................... 65

Repeater .................................................................................................................................................................. 66

Access Point ............................................................................................................................................................ 66

RJ45 connector and cable ....................................................................................................................................... 67

Ethernet Card .......................................................................................................................................................... 68

Wi-Fi Card................................................................................................................................................................ 68

OSI Model.................................................................................................................................................................... 69
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 Application Layer .................................................................................................................................................... 69

Presentation Layer .................................................................................................................................................. 69

Session Layer ........................................................................................................................................................... 70

Transport Layer ....................................................................................................................................................... 70

Network Layer ......................................................................................................................................................... 70

Data Link Layer ........................................................................................................................................................ 70

Physical Layer .......................................................................................................................................................... 70

Advantages of OSI Model........................................................................................................................................ 70

OSI vs. TCP/IP Model ............................................................................................................................................... 71

Other important differences: .................................................................................................................................. 71

Types of Computer Network ....................................................................................................................................... 72

Local Area Network (LAN) ....................................................................................................................................... 72

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ........................................................................................................................ 73

Wide Area Network (WAN) ..................................................................................................................................... 73

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) ..................................................................................................................... 74

Network Topology....................................................................................................................................................... 77

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Scheme Outline
Week Topic Sub – Topics Objective
1 History of • Early computing device. Students should be able to:
Computer • Pre-computing age to 19th century  Explain the concept of number
computing devices. system.
• Number System • Identify 20th century till date
• 20th century till date computing computing devices like ENAIC,
EDVAC, UNIVAC, desktops,
laptops etc.
• Identify early computing devices.
• Identify pre-computing age to
19th century computing devices like
abacus, slide rule, Napier’s bone,
etc.
Classification of  Classify computers based on Students should be able to:
Computers generation and types, • Classify computers based on
 Classify computers based on size generation and types
and degree of versatility • Classify computers based on size and
 Describe the characteristics of degree of versatility.
personal/desktop computer and its • Describe the characteristics of both
uses as a standalone and networked com
• personal/desktop computer and its
uses, both as a standalone and
networked computers
Impacts of  Describe how emerging Students should be able to:
Emerging technologies are having an impact  Describe how emerging
Technologies on everyday life (artificial technologies are having an impact
intelligence, biometrics, vision on everyday life(artificial
enhancement, robotics, quantum intelligence, biometrics, vision
cryptography, virtual reality etc.) enhancement, robotics, quantum,
cryptography, virtual reality etc.)
2 Logic Circuits  Define logic circuit Students should be able to:
 Define terms associated with logic  Define logic gate
gate  Define logic circuit
 Identify types of logic gate and  Define terms associated with logic
their symbols gate
 Construct truth table for some  Identify types of logic gate and their
gates symbols
 Write equation for combinational  Construct truth table for some gates
logic gates  Write equation for combinational
 Itemise the use of logic gates. logic gates
• Itemise the use of logic gates.
Main Component  List and describe the central Students should be able to:
of the Computer processing unit including its role  Define a computer in contrast with
Systems • Describe the internal memory: computer system
RAM and ROM and give the  List and describe the central
differences between them processing unit including its role
• Define input, output and storage  Describe the internal memory: RAM
devices, their differences and uses. and ROM and give the differences
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 between them
 Define input, output and storage
devices, their differences and uses.
3 Hardware and  Define hardware as consisting of Students should be able to:
Software physical components of a • Define hardware as consisting of
computer system. physical components of a computer
• Identify internal hardware and system.
external hardware devices. • Identify internal hardware and
• Define software as programs external hardware devices.
controlling the operation of a • Define software as programs
computer or processing of controlling the operation of a
electronic data. computer or processing of electronic
• Define application software data.
• Identify the two types of software- • Define application software Identify
applications and system software. the two types of software –
applications and system
software
Operating Systems  Define and describe operating Students should be able to:
systems which contain a command • Define and describe operating
Line interface(CLI) systems which contain a command
 Define and describe operating Line interface(CLI)
system which contain a Graphical • Define and describe operating system
User Interface(GUI) which contain a Graphical User
 Describe the differences, including Interface(GUI)
the benefits and drawbacks, • Describe the differences, including
between operating systems which the benefits and drawbacks, between
contain CLI and those which operating systems which contain CLI
contain a GUI. and those which contain a GUI.
4 Data and • Definition of data Students should be able to:
Information • Definition of information  Define of data
• Sources of data and information • Define of information
• Different types of data and • List sources of data and
information information
 Ways of handling data and • Different types of data and
information information
 Digitalisation of data • List Ways of handling data and
information
• Explain Digitalisation of data
5 Data Transmission  Data transmission Student should be able to:
 Serial and Parallel data  Understand the meaning of data
transmission transmission
 Data transmission errors  Show understanding of the reason
 Causes of data transmission errors for choosing serial and parallel data
 Describe error checking methods transmission.
List error checking methods  Distinguish between serial and
parallel data transmission
 Understand the use of parallel and
serial data transmission in USBs and
ICs
 Distinguish between simplex, half
duplex, full duplex
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  Define data transmission error
 State the causes of data transmission
errors
 Describe error checking methods
List error checking methods
 The need to check for errors in data
transmission (verification,
validation) Error checking methods
6 Computer Network  Define Computer Network Students should be able to:
 Define Local Area  Define Computer Network
Network(LAN), Wireless Area  Define Local Area Network(LAN),
Network(WLAN), and Wide Area Wireless Area Network(WLAN),
Network(WAN). and Wide Area Network(WAN).
 Describe the differences between a  Describe the differences between a
LAN, a WLAN and a WAN LAN, a WLAN and a WAN
 Define Network topology  Define Network topology
 Understand how a router works  Understand how a router works and
and its purpose its purpose
 Understand the use of other  Understand the use of other network
network devices devices
 Understand the use of Wi-Fi and  Understand the use of Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth in connecting networks Bluetooth in connecting networks
 Describe the differences between  Describe the differences between
internet, intranet and extranet. internet, intranet and extranet.
 List stages of the TCP/IP, OSI  List stages of the TCP/IP, OSI
Model Model

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 EARLY COMPUTING DEVICES
The history of computer began with counting and the need to keep records of facts and information. Early
man’s quest for ways other than the primitive to aid in carrying out his duties, gave birth to the following
devices;

The Abacus (Counting Frame)

The Abacus was the first calculating device. It was developed by a famous Chinese mathematician
called Cheng Dawei of the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644) in China as early as 500 BC. The Abacus is
made up of pebbles or beads attached on strings which are mounted in a frame. It is known as Suan
Pan in China and Soroban in Japan. The different rows of beads have different values ranging from
units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. The beads are slid along the strings when counting. Readings
are shown on the right hand side. The Abacus is used for addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. It can also be used to obtain square roots and cubic roots.

Abacus

Napier’s rod (bone)

In 1617, Scotsman named John Napier (1550 – 1617) invented rods, which are also called bones, for
easy calculations of multiplication and division of large numbers. This made it possible for
multiplication to be reduced to addition and division to be reduced to subtraction. A more advanced
use of these rods can even extract square roots of numbers. It consists of a set of eleven rods, with
four sides each used as multiplication tools. These rods were made with bones.

Napier’s Bones are not the same as tables of logarithms which John Napier also invented.

Napier's Bones
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Slide Rule William Oughtred (1574 – 1660)
An English man, William Oughtred, invented the slide rule based on the emerging work on
logarithms by John Napier. The slide rule uses two logarithmic scales to allow rapid multiplication
and division of numbers. More advanced slide rules allow other calculations such as square roots,
exponential equations, logarithms, and trigonometric functions.

Slide Rule

Pascaline (Pascal calculator)

Pascaline was the first mechanical calculating machine which was invented by a 19-year-old French
mathematician, Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662), in the year 1642. The Pascaline was able to add and
subtract whole numbers. It consisted of a number of rotating wheels or gears, each having ten teeth.
The first gear counted in units, the second gear counted in tens, the third gear counted in hundreds,
fourth in thousands, and so on. It had the ability to carry digit to the next gear. In honour of his work,
Professor Niklaus Wirth named a computer programming language (PASCAL) after him.

Pascaline

Stepped Reckoner
This was a calculating machine that was designed in 1671 and built in 1673 by the German
mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646 -1716). The Stepped Reckoner
expanded on the French mathematician-philosopher Blaise Pascal’s idea. Not only does it multiply
by repeated by addition and shifting, it also subtracts and divides.

Stepped Reckoner
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Jacquard’s Loom
In 1801, a French textile manufacturer, Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752 – 1834) automated the first
mechanical means of weaving. Jacquard’s Loom was one of the first machines that were run by a
program. It initiated the storage of information on punch cards. The punch cards were secured tightly
alongside each other in a sequential manner.

Jacquard's Loom

Difference Engine
Charles Babbage (1791 – 1871), designed the difference engine in 1822 and printed the first reliable
mathematical tables that were in use for over 50 years. It could solve polynomial equations using
numerical method called “the method of difference”. Charles Babbage Difference Engine is the first
complete design for an automatic calculating engine.

Difference Engine

The Analytical Engine

In 1834, Charles Babbage invented The Analytical Engine, a general-purpose programmable
computing engine. It was programmable using punched cards. It contains computer components such
as memory (the ‘Store’), mill (arithmetic and logical unit), input device, output device, etc. This
logical structure of the Analytical Engine made Babbage known today as the Father of Computer.

Analytical Engine

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Herman Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine
An American statistician, Herman Hollerith, in 1887 developed an electro-mechanical machine
called Tabulating Machine which was capable of recording, computing and tabulating data. This
machine was used to process data from the 1890 United States census. It was the first machine to use
electricity and the first to use punch cards to count, collate and analyse data.

Tabulating Machine

Burroughs Machine
William Burroughs built his first experimental model of an adding machine with printing in 1884.
The distinguishing features of this machine are the high sloping keyboard, the bevelled glass front,
and the printing mechanism. The machine performs addition only.

Burroughs Machine

COMPUTING DEVICES FROM THE 20TH CENTURY TO DATE INCLUDES

The following devices fall under the 20th century computing devices ENIAC – Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first general purpose computer. It
was invented by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. It was primarily designed, and used, to
calculate artillery tables for the Army, it was also used to study the feasibility of thermonuclear
bombs. It was programmed with hard-wired function tables that each had 1200 10-way switches. It
could also receive input from IBM punch cards, and used an IBM card punch for output, which could
then be sent to an IBM accounting machine to be printed. It was octal based, rather than binary. I
actually have seen part of ENIAC at the Computer Museum in Mountain View, CA. I held up my
iPhone and said, “This was your great, great, great, great…granddaddy.
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 ENIAC

EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Calculator. EDVAC was the successor to ENIAC,
was binary based, and used stored programs, and was also designed by Eckert and Mauchly.

EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator UNIVAC – Universal Automatic

Computer. EDSAC was an early computer dated around 1949. EDSAC performed its first
calculation at the Cambridge University in England. EDSAC used mercury delay lines for memory
and 3,000 vacuum tubes for logic. Programs were input using 5-hole punched tape and output was
via a teleprinter.

UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I) was the first commercial computer. It was designed by
the same two men who designed ENIAC and EDVAC. Their company, Eckert–Mauchly Computer
Corporation was acquired by Remington Rand before the design was complete. Remington Rand
became part of Sperry, which is now known as Unisys. The first UNIVAC I went to the Census
Department, and the fifth machine, built for the Atomic Energy Commission was used by CBS to

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predict the 1952 election, correctly predicting that Eisenhower would win based on only 1% of the
vote, even though Stevenson was heavily favoured.

Desktop PC – A desktop computer is a personal computer in a form intended for regular use at a
single location as opposed to a mobile laptop or portable computer. Desktop personal computers
(PCs) are small, relatively inexpensive computer that are designed for individual users. Typically,
these devices include a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and other peripherals. Desktop personal computer
uses a microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to place an entire central processing
unit (CPU) on a single chip.

Laptop and Notebook computer – Notebook and laptop computers are portable computers that
usually feature integral keyboards and monitors. There are two basic types;
(i) Personal computer which run Microsoft windows like Window XP, Vista, Window 7 or 8.
(ii) Macintosh which run versions of Mac OS, like Apple OS, Linux, UNIX etc.

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ADVANTAGES
i. Portability: is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus
desktop.
ii. Productivity: Using a laptop in place of a desktop.
iii. Immediacy: Carrying laptop means having instant access to various information, personal and
work files.
iv. Connectivity: Laptop can have easy internet and local network connectivity while remaining
mobile.

Other advantages include size, low power consumption, quiet battery and all – in – one.

Palmtop computers – These are hand held devices that has the abilities of a computer. E.g. Smart
phones.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE
Supercomputers – These are arguably the most powerful in terms of speed and accuracy. They are
types of computers used in solving complex mathematical computations. They are capable of
executing trillions of instructions per second. The typical personal computer used at home and the
office is only capable of calculating millions of instructions per second (MIPS). Their processing
numbers up to the quadrillion.

Uses of Supercomputers
Because of their superiority, supercomputers are not intended for your everyday tasks. They handle
exhaustive scientific applications that require complex and real-time processing.
 In the field of science, researchers use these machines to compute and model properties of biological
compounds like protein and human blood. They are also used to interpret new diseases and strains, and
predict illness behavior and treatment.
 The military use supercomputers to test new aircraft, tanks, and a host of weaponry and camouflage.
They also use them to understand the effects they will have on soldiers and wars. These machines are
also used to help encrypt and decrypt sensitive data.
 In entertainment, supercomputers are used to help make a flawless online gaming experience. Games
like World of Warcraft demand intense processing. When thousands of gamers around the world are
playing, supercomputers help stabilize the game performance.
 Meteorologists use them to simulate weather behavior. They can also be used to predict earthquakes.
 Scientists use them to simulate and test the effects of nuclear weapon detonation.
 Scientists also use them to simulate the events of the Big Bang and other space related projects.
 Hollywood uses supercomputers to create realistic animations.
 The famous supercomputers Deep Blue and Watson defeated chess Grandmaster Gary Kasparov and
quiz expert Ken Jennings respectively.

Mainframe computer – They are usually slower, less powerful and less expensive than
supercomputers. A technique that allows many people at terminals, to access the same computer at one
time is called time sharing. Mainframes are used by banks and many businesses to update inventory etc.

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  Mainframe computers can support hundreds or thousands of users, handling massive amounts of
input, output, and storage.
 Mainframe computers are used in large organizations where many users need access to shared data
and programs.
 Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers, handling transactions over the Internet.

Uses of Mainframes
They are used in large organizations where thousands of clients have to access data simultaneously. For
examples:
• Performing ATM cash withdrawals and deposits. During the process, communication between the
mainframe and remote computer will help accomplish the financial transactions at hand.
• Business transactions that use credit cards or pre-paid cards.
• Online electronic transactions.
• Cloud storage.
• Handling of patient records in major hospitals.
• Making reservations and travel schedules for airline companies.
• Manipulation and tallying of data for census and electoral purposes.

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 Minicomputers – Minicomputers are general purpose devices. Their processing power is below that of
mainframe systems but above the capabilities of personal computers. They are smaller than mainframe,
general purpose computers, and give computing power without adding the prohibitive expenses
associated with larger systems. It is generally easier to use.
 Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals.
 Minicomputers may be used as network servers and Internet servers.

Workstations
 Workstations are powerful single-user computers.
 Workstations are used for tasks that require a great deal of number-crunching power, such as product
design and computer animation.
 Workstations are often used as network and Internet servers.

Microcomputers – Microcomputers are the smallest, least expensive and the most used types of
computers. They have a small memory, less processing power, are physically smaller, and permit fewer
peripherals compared to super and mainframe computers. They are more commonly known as personal
computers or simply PCs. The term was initially used to refer to IBM compatible computers. They
became popular in the 70s and 80s, at the dawn of the microprocessor chips. These chips meant that a
machine used by one individual was now feasible.

Common examples are desktop computers, mobile computer/devices and wearable computers
i. Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk. e.g. Single Unit
Systems, Net top Systems, Single Board Computers, Thin Clients, etc.

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 ii. Mobile Computer: Mobile devices have become the norm in recent years. Most users opt for
laptops and tablets due to ease of use on the go, and battery power. Some hand held devices have no
keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

Particular features that make mobile systems a favourite include:

 Extended battery use.
 Wi-Fi capabilities.
 Mobility.

The most common types of mobile computers include:

 Laptop computers.: e.g. Netbooks, Chromebooks, Ultrabook
 Tablets.
 Smartphones.
 Personal Digital Assistants (PDA).

iii. Wearable Gadgets: Like the term suggests, wearable computers, or simply wearables, are miniature
devices that are designed to be worn or attached onto your body. Wearables are designed to function
as smart devices similar to smartphones. They typically provide specific functions like health
monitoring. Whereas general purpose wearables offer a fuller computing experience that includes
reading emails, the lesser systems will ship as embedded devices capable of minimal functions.
Examples of these devices include smartwatches, smart glasses, smart clothes, smart shoes.

NOTE: Chromebooks are low-end laptops that only runs the web-based Chrome operating system.
After the installation of Chrome OS, additional software can only be installed via the Chrome Web Store
Ultrabooks are special laptops specifically designed to be thin and lightweight.

Netbooks can be thought of as mini laptops. They are smaller in size, price, and processing power. Just like
Chromebooks, they are primarily designed for web browsing, electronic communication, and cloud
computing

Single unit computers, also known as all-in-one PCs, are a sub-type of desktop computers. They integrate
the monitor and system unit within a single unit.

They also have connectivity to a mouse, keyboard, and other peripherals, usually through USB ports.

Thin-Clients: These are low-cost computer types which rely on server systems in order to provide
computing services to attached monitors. They communicate to the server via the remote desktop protocol
and are part of the networking implementation setup known as client/server model.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON TYPES
Classification based on types refers to data handling capabilities of computers, which are analog, digital or
hybrid. Analog computers work on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements obtained are
translated into data. Modern analog computers usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages,
resistances or currents, to represent the quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly
with the numbers. They measure continuous physical magnitudes. Digital computers are those that operate
with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process data into a
digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate. Hybrid computers
incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of a digital computer. For
computational purposes, these computers use analog components and for storage, digital memories are used.

According to functionality, Type of computers are classified as:

Analog Computer – An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that
uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved.

Digital Computer – A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system

Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital) – A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and
outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective
method of performing complex simulations.

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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE/ FUNCTIONALITY
General purpose Computers A ‘General Purpose Computer’ is a machine that is capable of
carrying out some general data processing under program control. It refers to computers that follow
instructions, thus virtually all computers from micro to mainframe are general purpose. Even
computers in toys, games and single-function devices follow instructions in their built-in program.
Examples are Desktop PC, Tablet PC, Smartphones, Smart TVs, Smartwatches, laptop, etc.

Special purpose Computers – A computer that is designed to operate on a restricted class of

problems. Use special purpose computer equipment to obtain patient diagnostic information. Digital
scale, Calculator, Digital liquid dispenser, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON GENERATION

The history of the computer goes back several decades however and there are five definable generations of
computers. Each generation is defined by a significant technological development that changes
fundamentally how computers operate – leading to more compact, less expensive, but more powerful,
efficient and robust machines.

First generations of computers (From 1940s-1950s):

The following are the characteristics of first generation computers:
• Vacuum tubes were used as the principal electronic components in the first generations of computers.
• A large amount of space was occupied by these computers.
• Speed was normally measured in milliseconds.
• The first generation of computers had a limited storage capacity to store data, magnetic drums were used
for storing data.
• For input and output operations, punched cards were used.
• The first generation of computers generated more heats.
• A huge amount of electricity was consumed.
• Basically, machine languages were used to program the first generations of computers.
• These computers were limited to solving one problem at a time.
• UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
• The first generations of computers were very costly.

21
Second generations of computers (From 1950s-1960s):
The following are the characteristics of second generation computers:
• Solid state electronic components such as transistor and diodes were used as the principal electronic
components in the second generation of computers.
• Speed was normally measured in microseconds.
• The heat was reduced marginally as compared to the first generations of computers.
• Processing speed and reliability had improved remarkably.
• Magnetic tapes besides punch cards were also used for input-output operations in the second generation of
computers.
• A huge improvement of storage capacity.
• Assembly languages were used to program the second generations of computers.
• The second generations of computers consumed lower electricity and space compared to the first
generation of computers.
• IBM 1620, UNIVAC 1108 etc. are some example of the second generation of computers.

Third generations of computers (From 1960s-1970s):

The following are the characteristics of third generation computers:
• Integrated Circuits (IC) were used as the principal electronic components in the third generation of
computers.
• The speed of computation was normally measured in nanoseconds.
• They occupied less storage and consumed less electricity.
• Monitors, line printers, magnetic tapes etc. were used as the primary input-output device.
• This generation’s computers were smaller in size, reliable, and efficient.
• Some important concepts like remote processing, time-sharing, and multiprogramming operating system
were introduced in the second generation of computers.
• High-level programming languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, and PASCAL etc. were used to program
the computers.
• They generated less heat and required less maintenance.
• IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series etc. are some example of the third generation of computers.

Fourth generations of computers (From 1970s-1980s):

The following are the characteristics of fourth generation computers:
• Computers of the fourth generation used microprocessor chip i.e. the entire CPU is combined on a single
small silicon chip.
• The speed was measured in nanoseconds and picoseconds.
• The fourth generation of computers occupied lesser space.
22
• They are programmed using the high-level languages such as C, C++ etc.
• They were relatively cheap, reliable, portable and also more powerful and affordable than older
generations.
• In the fourth generation of computers, time-sharing, real-time networks and distributed operating system
were used.
• They were commonly available as personal computers.
• From the concept of the microprocessor, mini and microcomputers were also developed.
• DEC 10, STAR 1000 are some of the examples of fourth generations of computers.

Fifth generations of computers (From 1980 - Now):

The following are the characteristics of fifth generation computers:
• In the fifth generation of computers, the super large scale integration (SLSI) chips were used and it
introduced the concept of supercomputers.
• The fifth generations of computers can perform millions of instructions in a second.
• Due to the higher performance capability, the speed of computation is very high.
• Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) was used for processing.
• The fifth generation of computers i.e. the supercomputers are very expensive due to its capability.
• All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java etc. are used in this generation.
• Parallel processing hardware and the concept of Artificial Intelligence is introduced in the fifth generation
of computers.
AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning to the future,
computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation, molecular and Nano technology.

The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to ultimately create machines which can
process and respond to natural language, and have capability to learn and organize themselves.

IMPACT OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of intelligent
machines that work and react like humans. Some of the activities computers with artificial intelligence are
designed for include:
• Speech recognition
• Learning
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• Planning
• Problem solving
The field of robotics has greatly advanced with several new general technological achievements. One is the
rise of big data, which offers more opportunity to build programming capability into robotic systems.
Another is the use of new kinds of sensors and connected devices to monitor environmental aspects like
temperature, air pressure, light, motion and more. All of this serves robotics and the generation of more
complex and sophisticated robots for many uses, including manufacturing, health and safety, and human
assistance.

The field of robotics also intersects with issues around artificial intelligence. Since robots are physically
discrete units, they are perceived to have their own intelligence, albeit one limited by their programming and
capabilities. This idea has generated new debates over traditional science fiction theories, such as Asimov's
three laws of robotics, which address the interaction of humans with robots in some mechanized future.

Virtual Reality (VR) is the use of computer technology to create a simulated environment. Unlike traditional
user interfaces, VR places the user inside an experience. Instead of viewing a screen in front of them, users
are immersed and able to interact with 3D worlds. By simulating as many senses as possible, such as vision,
hearing, touch, even smell, the computer is transformed into a gatekeeper to this artificial world. The only
limits to near-real VR experiences are the availability of content and cheap computing power.

Virtual Reality technology

Virtual Reality’s most immediately-recognizable component is the head-mounted display (HMD). Human
beings are visual creatures, and display technology is often the single biggest difference between immersive
Virtual Reality systems and traditional user interfaces. For

instance, CAVE automatic virtual environments actively display virtual content onto room-sized screens.
While they are fun for people in universities and big labs, consumer and industrial wearables are the wild
west.

With a multiplicity of emerging hardware and software options, the future of wearables is unfolding but yet
unknown. Concepts such as the HTC Vive Pro Eye, Oculus Quest and PlayStation VR are leading the way,
but there are also players like Google, Apple, Samsung, Lenovo and others who may surprise the industry
with new levels of immersion and usability. Whomever comes out ahead, the simplicity of buying a helmet-
sized device that can work in a living-room, office, or factory floor has made HMDs centre stage when it
comes to Virtual Reality technologies

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 LOGIC CIRCUITS
A logic gate is an electronic device that makes decisions based on the different combinations of digital
signals present on its inputs.

A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical
operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single logical output.

Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also
be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules,
or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean
functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and
therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.

Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer
memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million gates.
In practice, the gates are made from field-effect transistors (FETs), particularly MOSFETs (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistors).

A logical circuit device in the computer has only one output channel and one or more input channels, hence,
it gives different output signals only when specific input conditions are met.

Types of Logic Gates

Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. In other words, logic gates are the
fundamental building blocks of digital systems. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR
and EXNOR gates.

OR, AND, and NOT are referred to as the basic logic gates. On the other hand, NOR, NAND, EXOR,
EXNOT are referred to as derived logic gates, as they are derived by combining a basic logic gate with the
NOT gate. The basic operations for each of the aforementioned gates are described below with the aid of
logic symbols and truth tables.

AND gate – The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high.
A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation, i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted, i.e.
AB.

25
OR gate – The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs
are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate – The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its
output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A.
This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show
two ways that the NAND logic gate can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also be done using
NOR logic gates in the same way.

NAND gate – This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The
outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small
circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

NOR gate – This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs
of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on
the output. The small circle represents inversion.

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 EXOR gate – The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both, of
its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the EXOR operation.

EXNOR gate – The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low
output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle
on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

Note:

 The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the AND and OR
functions and NOT can be generated.

 A function in sum of products form can be implemented using NAND gates by replacing all AND
and OR gates by NAND gates.

 A function in product of sums form can be implemented using NOR gates by replacing all AND and
OR gates by NOR gates.

The Truth table for all the logic gates with two input combinations, is summarised below

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Uses of Logic Gate
Logic Gates are used for the following;
1. They are used in integrated circuits
2. They are used in functioning of transistors, resistors and capacitors
3. They are used in making comparators
4. They are used in producing high speed CPU’s
5. They are used as elemental building blocks for devices where signals must be selected or combined in a
controlled form. This is obvious in telephone switching, satellite transmission and digital computer
operations.
6. They are used in making micro-controllers.
7. They are used in making amplifiers, and oscillator circuits.
8. They are used in vacuum tubes
9. They are used in constructing alarms used in cars and homes

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 THE MAIN HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Construction of simple comparator
Comparator is a combinational logic circuit that compares the magnitudes of two binary quantities to
determine which one has the greater magnitude. In other word, a comparator determines the relationship of
two binary quantities.

Von Neumann architecture

Storage devices are components which allow data to be stored within a computer system. This includes
devices such as hard disk drives and compact disk drives.

Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions and data a computer needs to reach quickly. It's
where information is stored for immediate use. Memory is one of the basic functions of a computer, because
without it, a computer would not be able to function properly. Memory is also used by a computer's
operating system, hardware and software. There are technically two types of computer memory: primary and
secondary. The term memory is used as a synonym for primary memory or as an abbreviation for a specific
type of primary memory called random access memory (RAM). This type of memory is located on
microchips that are physically close to a computer's microprocessor. If a computer's central processer (CPU)
had to only use a secondary storage device, computers would become much slower. In general, the more
memory (primary memory) a computing device has, the less frequently the computer must access
instructions and data from slower (secondary) forms of storage.

The image above shows how primary, secondary and cache memory relate to each other in terms of size and
speed.

Memory vs. storage

The concept of memory and storage can be easily conflated as the same concept; however, there are some
distinct and important differences. Put succinctly, memory is primary memory, while storage is secondary
memory. Memory refers to the location of short-term data, while storage refers to the location of data stored
on a long-term basis.

29
Memory is most often referred to as the primary storage on a computer, such as RAM. Memory is also
where information is processed. It enables users to access data that is stored for a short time. The data is only
stored for a short time because primary memory is volatile, meaning it isn't retained when the computer is
turned off.

The term storage refers to secondary memory and is where data in a computer is kept. An example of
storage is a hard drive or a hard disk drive (HDD). Storage is non-volatile, meaning the information is still
there after the computer is turned off and then back on. A running program may be in a computer's primary
memory when in use -- for fast retrieval of information -- but when that program is closed, it resides in
secondary memory or storage. How much space is available in memory and storage differs as well. In
general, a computer will have more storage space than memory. For example, a laptop may have 8 GB of
RAM while having 250 GB of storage. The difference in space is there because a computer will not need
fast access to all the information stored on it at once, so allocating approximately 8 GB of space to run
programs will suffice.

The terms memory and storage can be confusing because their usage today is not always consistent. For
example, RAM can be referred to as primary storage -- and types of secondary storage can include flash
memory. To avoid confusion, it can be easier to talk about memory in terms of whether it is volatile or non-
volatile -- and storage in terms of whether it is primary or secondary.

Historically there have been two types of Computers:

1. Fixed Program Computers – Their function is very specific and they couldn’t be programmed, e.g.
Calculators.
2. Stored Program Computers – These can be programmed to carry out many different tasks,
applications are stored on them, hence the name. The modern computers are based on a stored-
program concept introduced by John Von Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and
data are stored in a separate storage unit called memories and are treated the same. This novel idea
meant that a computer built with this architecture would be much easier to reprogram. The basic
structure is like,

30
It is also known as IAS (Institute for Advanced Study) computer and is having three basic units:
i. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
ii. The Main Memory Unit
iii. The Input/Output Device

Let’s consider them in details.

Control Unit – A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input and
output flow, fetches code for instructions and controlling how data moves around the system.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the CPU that handles all
the calculations the CPU may need, e.g. Addition, Subtraction, Comparisons. It performs Logical
Operations, Bit Shifting Operations, and Arithmetic Operation.
Main Memory Unit (Registers) – Though, RAM is said to be the main memory of the computer, it
works in conjunction with the registers in exchanging data and instructions with the CPU during data
processing and program execution. The different types of registers and their functions are analysed
below;
- Accumulator: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU.
- Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next instructions to be
dealt with. The PC then passes this next address to Memory Address Register
- Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of instructions that need to
be fetched from memory or stored into memory.
- Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from memory or any data that is
to be transferred to, and stored in, memory.
- Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched instructions while it is
waiting to be coded and executed.
- Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be executed immediately is
placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.

Input/output Devices – Program or data is read into main memory from the input device or
secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction. Output devices are used to output the
information from a computer. If some results are evaluated by computer and it is stored in the
computer, then with the help of output devices, we can present it to the user.

Buses – Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all major internal
components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses. Types:
- Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the processor.

31
 - Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between memory and
processor.
- Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status signals from other
devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the computer. Von

Neumann bottleneck – Whatever we do to enhance performance, we cannot get away from

the fact that instructions can only be done one at a time and can only be carried out
sequentially. Both of these factors hold back the competence of the CPU. This is commonly
referred to as the ‘Von Neumann bottleneck’. We can provide a Von Neumann processor
with more cache, more RAM, or faster components but if original gains are to be made in
CPU performance then an influential inspection needs to take place of CPU configuration.
This architecture is very important and is used in our PCs and even in Super Computers.

How does computer memory work?

When a program is open, it is loaded from secondary memory to primary memory. Because there are
different types of memory and storage, an example of this could be a program being moved from a solid-
state drive (SSD) to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed faster, the opened program will be able to
communicate with the computer's processor at quicker speeds. The primary memory can be accessed
immediately from temporary memory slots or other storage locations.

Memory is volatile, which means that data in memory is stored temporarily. Once a computing device is
turned off, data stored in volatile memory will automatically be deleted. When a file is saved, it will be sent
to secondary memory for storage. There are multiple types of memory available to a computer. Types of
computer memory in general, memory can be divided into primary and secondary memory; moreover, there
are numerous types of memory when discussing just primary memory. Some types of primary memory
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include the following • Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily
available to the processor than the computer's main memory source. It is also called CPU memory because it
is typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with a bus interconnect with
the CPU.

RAM. The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be accessed directly by the processor.
Types of RAM
- Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used by the data or
program code needed by a computer processor to function.
- Static RAM (SRAM) retains data bits in its memory for as long as power is supplied to it. Unlike
DRAM, which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to
be periodically refreshed.
- Double Data Rate SDRAM. DDR SRAM is SDRAM that can theoretically improve memory clock
speed to at least 200 MHz
- Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM. DDR4 RAM is a type of DRAM that has a high-
bandwidth interface and is the successor to its previous DDR2 and DDR3 versions. DDR4 RAM
allows for lower voltage requirements and higher module density. It is coupled with higher data rate
transfer speeds and allows for dual in-line memory modules (DIMMS) up to 64 GB.
- Rambus Dynamic RAM. DRDRAM is a memory subsystem that promised to transfer up to 1.6
billion bytes per second. The subsystem consists of RAM, the RAM controller, the bus that connects
RAM to the microprocessor and devices in the computer that use it.

Read-only memory. ROM is a type of computer storage containing non-volatile, permanent data that,
normally, can only be read and not written to. ROM contains the programming that enables a computer
to start up or regenerate each time it is turned on.
- Programmable ROM. PROM is ROM that can be modified once by a user. It enables a user
to tailor a microcode program using a special machine called a PROM programmer.
- Erasable PROM. EPROM is programmable read-only memory PROM that can be erased and
re-used. Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a window designed
into the memory chip.
- Electrically erasable PROM. EEPROM is a user-modifiable ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage.
Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer to be
modified. However, an EEPROM chip must be erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not
selectively.

33
 - Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary memory can be used as
if it were a part of the main memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software to enable a
computer to compensate for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from
RAM to disk storage.

Parameters for RAM and ROM Usage

RAM allows the computer to read data quickly to run applications. ROM stores all the application which is
needed to boot the computer initially. It only allows for reading.

 Volatility
RAM is volatile. So, its contents are lost when the device is powered off.
It is non-volatile, i.e., its contents are retained even if the device is powered off Accessibility Information
stored in the RAM is easily accessed. The processor can't directly access the information that is stored in the
ROM. In order to access ROM information first, the information is transferred into the RAM, and then it can
be executed by the processor.

 Read/Write
Both R (read) and W (write) operations can be performed over the information which is stored in the RAM.
The ROM memory allows the user to read the information. But, the user can't alter the information. Storage
RAM is used to store temporary information. ROM memory is used to store permanent information, which
is non-erasable.

 Speed
The access speed of RAM is faster.

Its speed is slower in comparison with RAM. Therefore, ROM can't boost up the processor speed. Cost The
price of RAM is quite high. The price of ROM is comparatively low.

 Chip size
Physical size of RAM chip is bigger than ROM chip.

Physical size of ROM chip is smaller than the RAM chip of same storage capacity. Preservation of Data
Electricity is needed in RAM to flow and to preserve information Electricity is not required to flow and
preserving information

 Structure
The RAM chip is in rectangle form and is inserted over the motherboard of the computer.
Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of storage medium that permanently stores data on personal computers
(PCs) and other electronic devices. In computing, a memory module or RAM (random-access memory) stick

34
is a printed circuit board on which memory integrated circuits are mounted. Memory modules permit easy
installation and replacement in electronic systems, especially computers such as personal computers,
workstations, and servers. The first memory modules were proprietary designs that were specific to a model
of computer from a specific manufacturer. Later, memory modules were standardized by organizations such
as JEDEC and could be used in any system designed to use them. Types of memory module include:
 TransFlash Memory Module
 SIMM, a single in-line memory module
 DIMM, dual in-line memory module o Rambus memory modules are a subset of DIMMs, but are
normally referred to as RIMMs o SO-DIMM, small outline DIMM, a smaller version of the DIMM,
used in laptops Distinguishing characteristics of computer memory modules include voltage,
capacity, speed (i.e., bit rate), and form factor. For economic reasons, the large (main) memories
found in personal computers, workstations, and non-handheld game-consoles (such as PlayStation
and Xbox) normally consist of dynamic RAM (DRAM). Other parts of the computer, such as cache
memories normally use static RAM (SRAM). Small amounts of SRAM are sometimes used in the
same package as DRAM. However, since SRAM has high leakage power and low density, die-
stacked DRAM has recently been used for designing multi-megabyte sized processor caches.
Physically, most DRAM is packaged in black epoxy resin.

General DRAM formats A 256 x 4 Kibit 20-pin DIP DRAM on an early PC memory card, usually Industry
Standard Architecture Common DRAM packages. From top to bottom: DIP, SIPP, SIMM (30-pin), SIMM
(72-pin), DIMM (168-pin), DDR DIMM (184-pin). Dynamic random access memory is produced as
integrated circuits (ICs) bonded and mounted into plastic packages with metal pins for connection to control
signals and buses. In early use individual DRAM ICs were usually either installed directly to the
motherboard or on ISA expansion cards; later they were assembled into multi-chip plug-in modules
(DIMMs, SIMMs, etc.).

Some standard module types are: • DRAM chip (Integrated Circuit or IC) o Dual in-line Package
(DIP/DIL) o Zig-zag in-line package (ZIP)

35
  DRAM (memory) modules o Single In-line Pin Package (SIPP) o Single In-line Memory Module
(SIMM) o Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM) o Rambus In-line Memory Module (RIMM),
technically DIMMs but called RIMMs due to their proprietary slot. o Small outline DIMM (SO-
DIMM), about half the size of regular DIMMs, are mostly used in notebooks, small footprint PCs
(such as Mini-ITX motherboards), upgradable office printers and networking hardware like routers.
 Small outline RIMM (SO-RIMM). Smaller version of the RIMM, used in laptops. Technically SO-
DIMMs but called SO-RIMMs due to their proprietary slot.

Common DRAM packages as illustrated to the right, from top to bottom (last three types are not present in
the group picture, and the last type is available in a separate picture): • DIP 16-pin (DRAM chip, usually
pre-fast page mode DRAM (FPRAM))
 SIPP 30-pin (usually FPRAM)
 SIMM 30-pin (usually FPRAM)
 SIMM 72-pin (often extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM) but FPRAM is not uncommon)
 DIMM 168-pin (most SDRAM but some were extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM))
 DIMM 184-pin (DDR SDRAM)
 RIMM 184-pin (RDRAM)
 DIMM 240-pin (DDR2 SDRAM and DDR3 SDRAM)
 DIMM 288-pin (DDR4 SDRAM)

Common SO-DIMM DRAM modules:

 72-pin (32-bit)
 144-pin (64-bit) used for SO-DIMM SDRAM
 200-pin (72-bit) used for SO-DIMM DDR SDRAM and SO-DIMM DDR2 SDRAM • 204-pin (64-
bit) used for SO-DIMM DDR3 SDRAM • 260-pin used for SO-DIMM DDR4 SDRAM

36
 COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitute a computer system. It is the
physical electronic or electro-mechanical component of a computer. It also refers to the physical parts or
components of a computer such as monitor, keyboard, hard drive disk, mouse, CPU (graphic cards, sound
cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that you can actually touch.

Computer hardware is divided into two main categories namely:

• System unit, and
• Peripherals

The System Unit – The System Unit is the central device of the computer system where other
components or devices are interconnected to enhance the smooth operation of the computer. Its
components include, CPU, primary memory and other devices that are used to process and store data.
It is the computer casing or cabinet that contains the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and many other
electronic components. It contains many hardware components that can be seen only when the case
or cabinet is open.

Peripheral – A Peripheral device is any piece of hardware attached to the computer’s system unit to
facilitate or enhance input and output operations. Those devices which are not an integral part of the
CPU are referred to as being peripherals. These attachments increase the capabilities of the
computer. Peripherals are usually used for input, storage, output and communication devices (such as
a hard disk, keyboard, printer, modems, digital camera, etc.).
- Input devices are hardware devices which take data from the user of the computer system, convert it
into electrical signals and transmit it to the processor. The primary function of input devices is to

37
 allow humans to interact with the computer system. For instance, a mouse allows the user to control
the movement of the pointer (a common element in user interface design).
- Output devices take information (processed data) from the computer system and convert it to a form
that can be interpreted by humans (human-readable format). For instance, a monitor creates a visual
electronic display to output information created by the processor to the user.
- Processing devices are the components responsible for the processing of information within the
computer system. This includes devices such as the CPU, memory and motherboard.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software is a set of instructions (programs) that commands the computer hardware what to do,
how to do and as well as when to do. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms
and its documentation. It is the driver of the hardware. Without the software, the computer becomes useless
and an idle piece of metal.

In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it ‘it cannot be touched’.

Software as a whole can be divided into a number of categories based on the types of work done by
programs. The two primary software categories are;

• System software: This is a collection of computer software designed to operate the computer hardware
and to provide and maintain a platform for running application software. It is made up of Operating system,
device drivers, servers, utilities which control the workings of the computer.

• Application software: also known as software application, application or app, consists of programs that
instruct the computer to accomplish specific tasks for the user, such as word processing, operating a
spreadsheet, managing accounts in inventories, record keeping, or playing a video game. These programs,
called applications, are run only when they are needed. The number of available applications is as great as
the number of different uses of computers. Some examples of this category of software includes;

 Accounting software e.g. Peachtree Complete Accounting

 Computer-aided design e.g. Corel Draw
38
  Databases e.g. Microsoft access
 Decision making software e.g. Microsoft project
 Educational software e.g. Microsoft Encarta
 Image editing e.g. Adobe photo-shop
 Mathematical software e.g. SAGE
 Word processor e.g. Microsoft word
 Spreadsheets e.g. Microsoft excel
 Media players and database applications

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE

SYSTEM SOFTWARE APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Can run independently of the application software It cannot run without the presence of the system
software

It gets installed when the operating system is It is installed according to the requirements of the
installed on the computer user

They are programs that run and control the hardware They are programs designed to meet specific needs
units of the system of users

It provides a platform for running the application It helps the user to perform single or multiple tasks
software

Some examples of system software are computer Some examples of application software are
operating systems like Windows XP, Linux, MacOs Microsoft Word, Accounting software like Microsoft
and Ubuntu Excel and Microsoft Access

They are intricately(carefully) programmed by They are programmed by applications programmers.

system programmers

39
 OPERATING SYSTEM
Command line Interface (CLI) and Graphical user Interface(GUI)
A command line interface (CLI) is a text-based user interface (UI) used to view and manage computer files.
Command line interfaces are also called command-line user interfaces, console user interfaces and character
user interfaces.

History and features of CLI

Before the mouse, users interacted with an operating system (OS) or application with a keyboard. Users
typed commands in the command line interface to run tasks on a computer.

Typically, the command line interface features a black box with white text. The user responds to a prompt in
the command line interface by typing a command. The output or response from the system can include a
message, table, list, or some other confirmation of a system or application action.

Today, most users prefer the graphical user interface (GUI) offered by operating systems such as Windows,
Linux and macOS. Most current Unix- based systems offer both a command line interface and a graphical
user interface.

The MS-DOS operating system and the command shell in the Windows operating system are examples of
command line interfaces. In addition, programming languages can support command line interfaces, such as
Windows OS, Mac OS, Linux, etc.

An explanation of a shell
The software that handles the command line interface is the shell, also commonly referred to as a command
language interpreter. Two well-known shells are Windows shell and Bash for Linux and macOS.

Shells are the outermost layer of the OS and are often separated from the underlying OS kernel. A shell
operates like an application and can be replaced. Because the shell is only one layer above the OS, users can
perform operations that are not available in other interface types, such as moving files within system folders
and deleting locked files.

Shells require users to know the syntax of a scripting language. Most command line shells save sequences of
commands for reuse in a script, which is the foundation of basic systems management automation.

Prompts and commands

There are hundreds of different commands available in a command line. The set of commands may vary
dramatically between operating systems or applications.

40
The following is a list of commands in the Microsoft task configuration and automation framework
PowerShell:
• Get-Date: Retrieves the current time and date.

• cd: Used to change directories.

• Stop-Process: Terminates one or more system processes.

Although some commands operate alone, others require the use of arguments. The argument follows the
command and provides additional details or specifics. For example, the cd command tells the OS to change
to a different directory, but the command line must include the name of the desired directory path, as well.

For example, a full command with an argument appears as:

cd \documents\user

The arguments used with commands can also be extremely complex and granular. For example, the
following command line string shows the PowerShell syntax to retrieve detailed network configuration
information from a Windows machine:

Get-NetIPAddress | Sort InterfaceIndex | FT InterfaceIndex, InterfaceAlias, AddressFamily, IPAddress,

PrefixLength -Autosize

CLI versus GUI

The graphical user interface is the most popular user interface today. A GUI uses windows, menus and icons
to execute commands. A mouse is the most common way to navigate through a GUI, although many GUIs
allow navigation and execution via a keyboard.

One example of a GUI-based application is Microsoft Word. A user can change options for page layouts and
styles by selecting the corresponding icon with a mouse or keyboard.

An example of output from the PowerShell command line

The advantage of a GUI is the interface visually displays the available functions. However, because of its
simplicity and ease of use, a GUI does not have the same level of functionality and granular control as a
command line interface. For example, it may take numerous clicks and movement through several dialog
boxes in a GUI to accomplish the same result as a single command line.

In addition, GUIs do not readily support scripting or automation. For common tasks, a user must repeat each
click or navigate each dialog within the GUI manually.

Administrators who manage thousands of systems or user configurations will find a GUI far less efficient
than a CLI. But a simple CLI command can easily adjust configurations for a large group of systems at once.

41
Commands and arguments can also be combined and saved, then executed as a script each time that specific
action -- or comprehensive set of actions -- is required. The CLI is the preferred tool for many enterprise-
wide systems management tasks.

CLI advantages and disadvantages

The advantages of a command line interface are:
• granular control of an OS or application;
• faster management of a large number of operating systems;
• ability to store scripts to automate regular tasks; and
• basic command line interface knowledge to help with troubleshooting, such as network connection issues.

The disadvantages of a command line interface are:

• GUI is more user-friendly;
• steeper learning curve associated with memorizing commands and complex syntax/arguments; and
• different commands used in different shells.

42
 DATA AND INFORMATION
DATA
Data are raw facts events or transactions which have been recorded.

Think of data as a "raw material" - it needs to be processed before it can be turned into something useful.
Hence the need for "data processing". Data comes in many forms - numbers, words, symbols. Data relates to
transactions, events and facts. On its own - it is not very useful.

Think of the data that is created when you buy a product from a retailer. This includes:
 Time and date of transaction (e.g. 10:05 Tuesday 23 December 20X3)
 Transaction value (e.g. £55.00)
 Facts about what was bought (e.g. hairdryer, cosmetics pack, shaving foam) and how much was
bought (quantities)
 How payment was made (e.g. credit card, credit card number and code)
 Which employee recorded the sale
 Whether any promotional discount applied

At its simplest, this data needs processing at the point of sale in order for the customer to receive a valid
receipt. So the data about the transaction is processed to create "information" - in this case a receipt. You can
imagine that the same data would also be useful to the manager of the retail store. For example, report
showings total sales in the day, or which are the best-selling products. So the data concerning all shop
transactions in the day needs to be captured, and then processed into a management report

EXAMPLES OF DATA
 Student Data on Admission Forms: When students get admission in a college. They fill admission
form. This form contains raw facts (data of student) like name, father’s name, address of student etc.
 Data of Citizens: During census, data of all citizens is collected.
 Survey Data: Different companies collect data by survey to know the opinion of people about their
product.
 Students Examination data: In examination data about obtained marks of different subjects for all
students is collected. INFORMATION
 Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be meaningful to the person who
receives it.
Note the two words highlighted in red - "processed" and "meaningful". It is not enough for data simply to be
processed. it has to be of use to someone - otherwise why bother?

43
INFORMATION
Information is processed data. The data that can be made useful is known as information. Information is
basically the data plus the meaning of what the data was collected for. Data does not depend upon
information but information depends upon data. It cannot be generated without the help of data. Information
is something that is being conveyed. Information is meaningful when data is gathered and meaning is
generated. Information cannot be generated without the help of data. Information is the meaning that has
been formed with the help of data and that meaning makes sense because of the data that has been collected
against the word. Information is processed and comes in a meaningful form.

EXAMPLES OF INFORMATION
 Student Address Labels: Stored data of students can be used to print address labels of students.
 Census Report: Census data is used to get report/information about total population of a country and
literacy rate etc. Survey Reports and Results: Survey data is summarized into reports/information to
present to management of the company.
 Result Cards of Individual Students: In examination system collected data (obtained marks in each
subject) is processed to get total obtained marks of a student. Total obtained marks are Information.
It is also used to prepare result card of a student.
 Merit List: After collecting admission forms from candidates, merit is calculated on the basis of
obtained marks of each candidate. Normally, percentage of marks obtained is calculated for each
candidate. Now all the candidates’ names are arranged in descending order by percentage. This
makes a merit list. Merit list is used to decide whether a candidate will get admission in the college
or not.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION

DATA INFORMATION

Data is collection of raw facts and figures. Information is processed data.

Data is unarranged and unorganized. Information is arranged and organized

Data is NOT meaningful. Information is meaningful.

Data is input. Information is output.

Data is used less frequently. Information is used frequently.

Data represents facts before processing. Information represents results (obtained after
processing).

44
Data is not helpful in decision-making. Information is helpful in decision-making.

Data is raw material for information. Information is the final product of data.

Data are unprocessed records Information contains processed records

Data is in large amounts Information is in small amounts

If data is lost, it is If information is lost,

very difficult (or even impossible in some situations) it is easily derived from stored data, again.
to recollect.

Data is collected by observations, recordings, Now we will process these temperatures data to find
interview or survey etc. For example, if we record useful information. For example, if we arrange
the temperature of each hour recorded in a particular temperatures in ascending order, then we will find
day is called temperature data. the information like:

Minimum Temperature of the day= 15 C and

Maximum Temperature of the day = 25 C.

Data is the asset of an organization and is not Normally, information is available for sale to general
available for sale to public. public.

Data depends upon the sources for collecting data, Information depends upon data.
the collection methods adopted and the people who
will collect data.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Primary Documents – A primary document is a document that was written at the time of an event
or period of research. Primary documents therefore include literary texts, letters, Speeches historical
documents such as birth certificates and diaries. A live news-feed (or the transcript of) is a primary
source – recording events as they unfold. Of course any major news event (like the Olympic Games)
is likely to have several primary sources, accounts from different broadcasters. To get a fuller idea of
the event you may look at more than one primary source of information – taking into account biases,
points-of-view and personal or cultural perceptions.
Secondary Documents – A secondary document is written after an event - usually the authors will
not have witnessed the event themselves. Such documents are usually written with reference to
primary documents and attempt to provide an interpretation. Core texts - academic texts related to
the topic being studied - are an example of secondary documents. In current affairs a secondary

45
 source would be a standard news story. A story that has been reported after the event. As a secondary
source is a writer’s interpretation of what happened (a primary source) it is more likely to contain
observations, bias and subjective commentary that try to explain the event and put it into some sort
of context.

Tertiary Documents – Tertiary documents usually act as pointers to primary and secondary
documents. They are indexes, directories, bibliographies and other categorised collections of
information - documents that you can turn to and be guided to other, potentially relevant, documents
on a particular subject. For example, checking the bibliography of books can help to lead you to
further research material or to looking at a list of similar stories on a news website.

TYPES OF INFORMATION
 Customer and employee information Emails, mail and faxes
 Charts and graphs Monthly financial reports
 Signs directing customers to a particular location Procedures
 Pictures and diagrams Industry specific
 Demographic information about customer preferences and trends

DATA HANDLING
Data handling is the process of ensuring that research data is stored, archived or disposed off in a safe and
secure manner during and after the conclusion of a research project. This includes the development of
policies and procedures to manage data handled electronically as well as through non-electronic means.

Data handling is important in ensuring the integrity of research data since it addresses concerns related to
confidentially, security, and preservation/retention of research data. Proper planning for data handling can
also result in efficient and economical storage, retrieval, and disposal of data. In the case of data handled
electronically, data integrity is a primary concern to ensure that recorded data is not altered, erased, lost or
accessed by unauthorized users.

Data handling issues encompass both electronic as well as non-electronic systems, such as paper files,
journals, and laboratory notebooks. Electronic systems include computer workstations and laptops, personal
digital assistants (PDA), storage media such as videotape, diskette, CD, DVD, memory cards, and other
electronic instrumentation. These systems may be used for storage, archival, sharing, and disposing off data,
and therefore, require adequate planning at the start of a research project so that issues related to data
integrity can be analysed and addressed early on.

46
If the data are recorded electronically, the data should be regularly backed up on disc; a hard copy should be
made of particularly important data; relevant software must be retained to ensure future access, and special
attention should be given to guaranteeing the security of electronic data” (ORI website, 2003).

Creating a secure environment for electronic data usually involves all members of a project, which can
include an IT Manager, system administrator, support personnel, and several end- users. Some issues to
consider when handling data electronically include the following:
 Protect systems’ and individual files with login and passwords
 Manage access rights (in the case of computer system administrators not involved in the project their
access rights could be limited) Regularly update virus protection to prevent vulnerability of data
 Limit physical access to equipment and storage media (for example, in the case of data stored on a
computer using a stand-alone computer may be secure than a networked, computer)
 Accurate data removal from old hardware and certification that the data was removed Ensure data
recoverability in case of emergencies
 Regularly update electronic storage media to avoid outdated storage/retrieval devices Backup
multiple copies in secured multiple locations
 Encrypt files when wireless devices are used, and keep track of wireless connectivity to prevent
accidental file sharing
 Record date and time when a piece of electronic data was originally recorded to prevent alteration or
manipulation at a future date

DIGITIZATION OF DATA
Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital format. In this format, information is
organized into discrete units of data (called bit s) that can be separately addressed (usually in multiple-bit
groups called byte s). This is the binary data that computers and many devices with computing capacity
(such as digital camera s and digital hearing aid s) can process.

Text and images can be digitized similarly: a scanner captures an image (which may be an image of text)
and converts it to an image file, such as a bitmap. An optical character recognition (OCR) program analyses
a text image for light and dark areas in order to identify each alphabetic letter or numeric digit, and converts
each character into an ASCII code.

Audio and video digitization uses one of many analogue-to-digital conversion processes in which a
continuously variable (analogue) signal is changed, without altering its essential content, into a multi-level
(digital) signal. The process of sampling measures the amplitude (signal strength) of an analogue waveform
at evenly spaced time markers and represents the samples as numerical values for input as digital data.

47
Digitizing information makes it easier to preserve, access, and share. For example, an original historical
document may only be accessible to people who visit its physical location, but if the document content is
digitized, it can be made available to people worldwide. There is a growing trend towards digitization of
historically and culturally significant data.

48
 DATA TRANSMISSION
Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analogue data over a communication medium to one or
more computing, network, communication or electronic devices. It enables the transfer and communication
of devices in a point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to- multipoint environment.

It also refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more digital devices.

This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example, coaxial cable, fibre
optics etc.) There are three (3) factors to be considered when transmitting data, which are
1. The direction of data transmission (either one way or two ways)
2. The method of transmission (the number of bits transmitted per time)
3. The method of synchronisation between the two devices

This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example, coaxial cable, fibre
optics etc.)

MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

The term Transmission Mode defines the direction of the flow of information between two communication
devices i.e. it tells the direction of signal flow between the two devices.

There are three ways or modes of data transmission: Simplex, Half duplex (HDX), Full duplex (FDX)

Simplex mode: In Communication Networks, Communication can take place in one direction
connected to such a circuit are either a send only or receive only device. There is no mechanism for
information to be transmitted back to the sender. Communication is unidirectional. TV broadcasting
is an example. Simplex transmission generally involves dedicated circuits. Simplex circuits are
analogous to escalators, doorbells, fire alarms and security systems.

49
Examples of Simplex mode:
- A Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves simplex duplex transmission. A
television broadcast is an example of simplex duplex transmission.
- Another example of simplex transmission is loudspeaker system. An announcer speaks into a
microphone and his/her voice is sent through an amplifier and then to all the speakers.
- Many fire alarm systems work the same way.

Half Duplex mode: A half-duplex system can transmit data in both directions, but only in one
direction at a time that mean half duplex modes support two-way traffic but in only one direction at a
time. The interactive transmission of data within a time sharing system may be best suited to half-
duplex lines. Both the connected devices can transmit and receive but not simultaneously. When one
device is sending the other can only receive and vice-versa. Data is transmitted in one direction at a
time, for example. a walkie-talkie.

This is generally used for relatively low-speed transmission, usually involving two-wire, analog
circuits. Due to switching of communication direction, data transmission in this mode requires more
time and processes than under full duplex mode. Examples of half-duplex application include line
printers, polling of buffers, and modem communications (many modems can support full duplex
also).

Example of half-duplex mode:

- A walkie-talkie operates in half duplex mode. It can only send or receive a transmission at any
given time. It cannot do both at the same time. As shown in fig. computer A sends information to
computer B. At the end of transmission, computer B sends information to computer
- Computer A cannot send any information to computer B, while computer B is transmitting data.

Full Duplex mode: A full duplex system can transmit data simultaneously in both directions on
transmission path. Full-duplex method is used to transmit the data over a serial communication link.

50
 Two wires needed to send data over a serial communication link layer. Full-duplex transmission, the
channel capacity is shared by both communicating devices at all times.

Both the connected devices can transmit and receive at the same time. Therefore, it represents truly bi-
directional system. The link may contain two separate transmission paths one for sending and another for
receiving.

Example of Full duplex mode:

Telephone networks operate in full duplex mode when two persons talk on telephone line, both can listen
and speak simultaneously

TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

51
Parallel transmission
This is when several bits of data are transmitted are sent down several wires or channels at the same time;
one wire transmits one bit of data per time.
 In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
 In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
 All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another i.e. multiple
bits are sent with each clock pulse.
 Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.
 As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8-bit data from sender to receiver.

Advantage of parallel transmission

 It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with a single
clock pulse.

Disadvantage of parallel transmission

 It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same time.

Serial Transmission

52
  In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
 It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender to a receiver.
 Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
 In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
 As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination. Then least
significant bit (LSB) i.e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits. The most significant bit
(MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single communication line.
 The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change this
parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
 These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so that it can be
transmitted over single line.
 On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the interval circuitry
of computer can accept it
 Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Advantage of Serial transmission

 Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as compared
to parallel transmission.

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

 Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall transmission
cost.
 This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted serially one after
the other.

Types of Serial Transmission

There are two types of serial transmission; synchronous and asynchronous. Both transmissions use 'Bit
synchronization.' Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end
of the data transmission occurs.

Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end during a transmission.
Therefore, bit synchronization provides timing control.

53
Asynchronous Transmission

Asynchronous transmission is a method where only one character is sent at a time; where a character is
either a letter of the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
 Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.
 Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new group of bits. A
start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
 Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more
additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.
 Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed in
asynchronous transmission.
 There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time is also known as
Gap
 The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called Asynchronous, because at
byte level sender and receiver need not to be synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream.

Application of Asynchronous Transmission

 Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape devices. The
advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at the terminal or the computer
as transmission takes place character by character.

 Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is transmitted in

short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

54
  This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If lines are
short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and idle time will not be
expensive.
 In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is corrupted
during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.
 It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
 The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
 Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission

 This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead of extra
bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
 Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits can be
missed or corrupted.

Synchronous Transmission

This is a type of transmission that a group of bytes is sent per time.

 Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.

 In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.
 There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.
 In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver by
'timing' the transmission of each bit.
 Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of receiver to
separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.
 In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock frequency.

Application of Synchronous transmission

 Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.
 Advantage of Synchronous transmission

55
  This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop bit) and
also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.

Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission

 It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the two ends of
line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to
increase in the cost.
 The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper
synchronization which makes the system complicated.

DATA TRANSMISSION ERRORS

In Communication Networks, external electromagnetic signals can cause incorrect delivery of data. By this,
data in the communication Networks can be received incorrectly, data can be lost or unwanted
Communication Networks data can be generated. Any of these problems are called transmission errors in
communication networks

TYPES OF ERRORS
 Single bit error: This is a type of error where only one bit of data is changed or corrupt. For
instance, 1 changed to 0 or 0 to 1.

 Multiple bits error: this is the type of error where more than one bit of data is changed. Frame is
received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

 Burst error: this type of error more than one consecutive data bit is changed. Frame contains more
than1 consecutive bits corrupted. In term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit
were changed. Burst error is also called packet level error, where errors like packet loss, duplication,
reordering. This is as shown below.

56
CAUSES OF ERRORS IN DATA TRANSMISSION
The following are some causes of errors in data transmission

 External electromagnetic signals can cause incorrect delivery of data. By this, data in the
communication Networks can be received incorrectly, data can be lost or unwanted Communication
Networks data can be generated.
 Noise – sound waves or electrical signals can disrupt the flow of data in a computer system. This
may be the result of the conductors that transmit the data across computers or software systems. Old
conductors may be unable to handle heavy data traffic and physical interference from the
environment in the form of noise or electricity that comes from nearby devices, like motors or power
switches. One type of noise is especially harmful. Known as impulse noise, it is when energy surges
through the transmission line, destroying most or all of the data communication.
 Crosstalk: Cross talk is a term to describe how two different data communications may be
synthesized together in a computer transmission. Usually, how this error occurs is when a computer
line is sending data through a transmission cable that is surrounded by other transmission cables. As
other data communication codes and bits go through the neighbouring transmission lines, there is a
high likelihood that data from other neighbouring lines may cross into another line.
 Echo. Like crosstalk, it is formed when conflicting data communications are merged together.
However, echo is usually from a single transmission line where multiple computer ports are sending
data communications through at once. Someone's data communication would echo into another's,
resulting in a corruption of data.
 Distance: data could be changed over very long distance or when the distance is too short. The loss
of signal strength during data transmission is known as attenuation.
 Receiver and transmitter are out of synch.

ERROR CHECKING/ DETECTION

Error detection is the detection of errors caused by noise or other impairments during transmission from the
transmitter to the receiver.

Error correction is the detection of errors and reconstruction of the original, error-free data.

ERROR CHECKING/DETECTION METHODS

This section contains a number of ways used to check for errors, such as:
 Parity checking: This is when one extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number of 1s
either even in case of even parity, or odd in case of odd parity. The sender while creating a frame
57
 counts the number of 1s in it. For example, if even parity is used and number of 1s is even then one
bit with value 0 is added. This way number of 1s remains even. If the number of 1s is odd, to make it
even a bit with value 1 is added.
The receiver simply counts the number of 1s in a frame. If the count of 1s is even and even parity is
used, the frame is considered to be not- corrupted and is accepted. If the count of 1s is odd and odd
parity is used, the frame is still not corrupted.
If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can detect it by counting the number of 1s. But when more
than one bits are erroneous, then it is very hard for the receiver to detect the error.

 Automatic Repeat Request: AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ) is another method used to
check whether data has been correctly transmitted. It uses an ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (a message
sent by the receiver indicating that data has been received correctly) and TIMEOUT (this is the time
allowed to elapse before an acknowledgement is received). If an acknowledgement isn’t sent back to
the sender before timeout occurs, then the message is automatically resent.

 Check sum: Data is sent in blocks and an additional value, the checksum, is also sent at the end of
the block of data. When a block of data is about to be transmitted, the checksum for the bytes is first
of all calculated. This value is then transmitted with the block of data. At the receiving end, the
checksum is recalculated from the block of data received. This calculated value is then compared to
the checksum transmitted. If they are the same value, then the data was transmitted without any
errors; if the values are different, then a request is sent for the data to be retransmitted.

 Echo checking: This is when data is sent to another device, this data is sent back again to the sender.
The sender compares the two sets of data to check if any errors occurred during the transmission
process.
As you will have no doubt worked out, this isn’t very reliable. If the two sets of data are different, it
isn’t known whether the error occurred when sending the data in the first place, or if the error
occurred when sending the data back for checking! However, if no errors occurred then it is another
way to check that the data was transmitted correctly.
 Repetition Code: is a coding scheme that repeats the bits across a channel to achieve error-free
communication. Given a stream of data to be transmitted, the data are divided into blocks of bits.
Each block is transmitted some predetermined number of times. For example, to send the bit pattern
"1011", the four-bit block can be repeated three times, thus producing "1011 1011 1011". However,
if this twelve-bit pattern was received as "1010 1011 1011" – where the first block is unlike the other
two – it can be determined that an error has occurred.

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 A repetition code is very inefficient, and can be susceptible to problems if the error occurs in exactly
the same place for each group (e.g., "1010 1010 1010" in the previous example would be detected as
correct). The advantage of repetition codes is that they are extremely simple, and are in fact used in
some transmissions of numbers stations

 Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is a non-secure hash function
designed to detect accidental changes to digital data in computer networks; as a result, it is not
suitable for detecting maliciously introduced errors. It is characterized by specification of what is
called a generator polynomial, which is used as the divisor in a polynomial long division over a finite
field, taking the input data as the dividend, such that the remainder becomes the result. A cyclic code
has favourable properties that make it well suited for detecting burst errors. CRCs are particularly
easy to implement in hardware, and are therefore commonly used in digital networks and storage
devices such as hard disk drives.
Even parity is a special case of a cyclic redundancy check, where the single-bit CRC is generated by
the divisor x + 1.

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 COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer is connection of two or more computers with other networking devices in order to share
information or resources (which can either be hardware or software resources).

Network Devices
Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for communication and
interaction between hardware on a computer network.

Types of network devices

Here is the common network device list:
 Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Bridge
 Gateway
 Modem
 Repeater
 Access Point
 Ethernet cable/LAN cable/RJ45
 Ethernet card/Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Wi-Fi card

Hub
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in that it
amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is the simplest
in the family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components with identical protocols.
A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured to prepare
for the formatting of the incoming data.
For example, if the incoming data is in digital format, the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the
incoming data is analog, then the hub passes it on in signal form. Hubs do not perform packet filtering or
addressing functions; they just send data packets to all connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer
of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. There are two types of hubs: simple and multiple port.

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Switch
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that improves
network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the internal network,
and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected using
switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the
appropriate destination. Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the
virtual circuit capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more
difficult to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the best
capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network
layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers, which means that it can
operate as both a switch and a router. A multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the
same routing protocols as routers.
Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are used to prevent
malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is important so be sure to secure
switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP inspection and MAC address filtering.

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Router
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the web of interconnected
networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent devices, and they store
information about the networks they’re connected to. Most routers can be configured to operate as packet-
filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs). Routers, in conjunction with a channel service
unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to translate from LAN framing to WAN framing. This is
needed because LANs and WANs use different network protocols. Such routers are known as border
routers. They serve as the outside connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your
network.
Router are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks. Routers can also be
connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers establish
communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A router contains
information about the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the destination isn’t known.
Routers usually communicate routing and other information using one of three standard protocols: Routing
Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
Routers are your first line of defence, and they must be configured to pass only traffic that is authorized by
network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured as static or dynamic. If they are static, they
can only be configured manually and stay that way until changed. If they are dynamic, they learn of other
routers around them and use information about those routers to build their routing tables.
Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks. They are
usually dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate input and output network interfaces for each
connected network. Because routers and gateways are the backbone of large computer networks like the
internet, they have special features that give them the flexibility and the ability to cope with varying network
addressing schemes and frame sizes through segmentation of big packets into smaller sizes that fit the new
network components. Each router interface has its own Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) module, its own
LAN address (network card address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address. The router, with the help of
a routing table, has knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to its destination. The routing
table, like in the bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon receipt of a packet, the router removes the
packet headers and trailers and analyses the IP header by determining the source and destination addresses
and data type, and noting the arrival time. It also updates the router table with new addresses not already in
the table. The IP header and arrival time information is entered in the routing table. Routers normally work
at the Network layer of the OSI model.

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How Routers Work
Routing is the process of forwarding IP packets from one network to another. A router is a device that joins
networks together and routes traffic between them. A router will have at least two network cards (NICs), one
physically connected to one network and the other physically connected to another network. A router can
connect any number of networks together provided it has a dedicated NIC for each network.

Basic Routing - Connecting two subnets

Having two networks with one router is extremely simple and easy to configure. Once we move onto bigger
networks with multiple routers however, things get a little more complicated. For example, if we have just 3
networks we can connect them in two different ways; one way is to daisy chain them together using only 2
routers. The other way would be connecting them directly to each other using 3 routers.

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Bridge
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of bridges in
network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments that the bridge
connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking at
the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or block it from
crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.
Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to divide larger
networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments and managing the flow of
data between the two.
Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN components with identical
protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for addresses before they are
forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no modifications to the format or content of the
incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network with the help of a dynamic bridge
table. The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in the LAN
and the addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be
either simple or multiple port.
Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by switches, which offer
more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges” because of how they
operate.

Brouter: Is a network device that works as a bridge and as a router. The brouter routes packets for known
protocols and simply forwards all other packets as a bridge would.

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Gateway
Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the Transport layer and
above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors; gateways are used to deal with
them. Gateways provide translation between networking technologies such as Open System Interconnection
(OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two
or more autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name
service, and network administration procedures and policies.
Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with added translation
functionality is a gateway. The function that does the translation between different network technologies is
called a protocol converter.

Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines. Thus,
digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies and transmitted to a
modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a
digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The digital data is usually transferred
to or from the modem over a serial line through an industry standard interface, RS-232. Many telephone
companies offer DSL services, and many cable operators use modems as end terminals for identification and
recognition of home and personal users. Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link layers.

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Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater as a device
which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the signal can cover
longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.

Access Point
While an access point (AP) can technically involve either a wired or wireless connection, it commonly
means a wireless device. An AP works at the second OSI layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate either
as a bridge connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as a router passing data transmissions
from one access point to another.
Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used to create a
wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points typically are separate network devices with a built-in antenna,
transmitter and adapter. APs use the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point
between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. They also have several ports, giving you a way to expand the
network to support additional clients. Depending on the size of the network, one or more APs might be
required to provide full coverage. Additional APs are used to allow access to more wireless clients and to
expand the range of the wireless network. Each AP is limited by its transmission range — the distance a
client can be from an AP and still obtain a usable signal and data process speed. The actual distance depends
on the wireless standard, the obstructions and environmental conditions between the client and the AP.
Higher end APs have high-powered antennas, enabling them to extend how far the wireless signal can travel.

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APs might also provide many ports that can be used to increase the network’s size, firewall capabilities and
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service. Therefore, we get APs that are a switch, DHCP
server, router and firewall.
To connect to a wireless AP, you need a service set identifier (SSID) name. 802.11 wireless networks use
the SSID to identify all systems belonging to the same network, and client stations must be configured with
the SSID to be authenticated to the AP. The AP might broadcast the SSID, allowing all wireless clients in
the area to see the AP’s SSID. However, for security reasons, APs can be configured not to broadcast the
SSID, which means that an administrator needs to give client systems the SSID instead of allowing it to be
discovered automatically. Wireless devices ship with default SSIDs, security settings, channels, passwords
and usernames. For security reasons, it is strongly recommended that you change these default settings as
soon as possible because many internet sites list the default settings used by manufacturers.
Access points can be fat or thin. Fat APs, sometimes still referred to as autonomous APs, need to be
manually configured with network and security settings; then they are essentially left alone to serve clients
until they can no longer function. Thin APs allow remote configuration using a controller. Since thin clients
do not need to be manually configured, they can be easily reconfigured and monitored. Access points can
also be controller-based or stand-alone.

RJ45 connector and cable

RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by devices to physically
connect to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols for
establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector pins
at both ends. These pins go into the corresponding socket on devices and connect the device to the network.

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 Unshielded twisted pair Shielded twisted pair cable RJ-45 connector

Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component used by computers to
connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on the LAN. The earliest Ethernet cards were
external to the system and needed to be installed manually. In modern computer systems, it is an internal
hardware component. The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically plugged in.

Wi-Fi Card
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve wireless connection to any
network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the local network wirelessly. The physical area
of the network which provides internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set up
at home, office or any public space. Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.

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OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer systems use to
communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted by all
major computer and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer
model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate
and troubleshoot networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and telecom companies, and was
adopted by ISO as an international standard in 1984.

Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides
protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few
examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System
(DNS).

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should encode,
encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data
transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session layer.

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Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is responsible for
opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing them
when communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session
is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.

Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on the
transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into
data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate
that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control, checking if data was received
incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the best path
across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses)
to route packets to a destination node.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected nodes on a
network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination. This layer is composed
of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error checking and
synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and
define permissions to transmit and receive data.

Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network nodes. It
defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is responsible
for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of bit rate control.

Advantages of OSI Model

1. The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:
2. Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.
3. Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating across a network.
4. Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and focusing efforts
on that layer.

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 5. The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software vendors:
6. Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other vendor, allowing
open interoperability
7. Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
8. Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for example, only at the
application layer, or across the stack.

OSI vs. TCP/IP Model

The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is older than the OSI model and was created by
the US Department of Defence (DoD). A key difference between the models is that TCP/IP is simpler,
collapsing several OSI layers into one:

OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one Application Layer in TCP/IP

OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP – however TCP/IP does not take
responsibility for sequencing and acknowledgement functions, leaving these to the underlying transport
layer.

Other important differences:

TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve specific communication problems, and which is based on
specific, standard protocols. OSI is a generic, protocol-independent model intended to describe all forms of
network communication.

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In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers, while in OSI simple applications do not use all seven layers.
Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are mandatory to enable any data communication.

Types of Computer Network

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any medium.
LAN, MAN and WAN are the three major types of the network designed to operate over the area they cover.
There are some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of the major differences is the
geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and
WAN comprises the largest of all.

There are other types of Computer Networks also, like:

• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• SAN (Storage Area Network)
• EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
• VPN (Virtual Private Network)

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computer and
workstations can share data, tools and programs. The group of computers and devices are connected together
by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol.
Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local network. Routers are found at the
boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.

Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are limited. By definition, the
connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters and
Ethernet cables). LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometres) and are
privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design
and maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers
a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.

Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger
LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for
increased speed and security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a
LAN is more and there is less congestion in this network. For example: A bunch of students playing Counter
Strike in the same room (without internet).

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MAN or Metropolitan Area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area as compared
to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the same or different cities. It
covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for
customers who need a high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design
and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.

The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is costly and may
or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN is
moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a
MAN are the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer
or the cable TV network in a city.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical area, although it
might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be a connection of LAN
connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a
corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high speed and relatively
expensive.

There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to design and
maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the
network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.

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WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed, since it involves increased distance and increased
number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of WAN ranges from few kilobits per second (Kbps) to
megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices used for
transmission of data through WAN are: Optic wires, Microwaves and Satellites. Example of a Switched
WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is dial-up line that
connects a home computer to the Internet.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs but there are no wires or cables. In other words, they
provide wireless network communications over fairly short distances (a few meters) using radio or
infrared signals instead of cables. Devices known as Access Points (APs), are connected into the wired
network at fixed locations (see Figure 4.5). Because of the limited range, most commercial WLANs (e.g.
on a college campus or at an airport) need several APs to permit uninterrupted wireless communications.
The APs use either spread spectrum technology (which is a wideband radio frequency with a range of
about 30 to 50 meters) or infrared but this has a very short range (i.e. about 1 to 2 meters) and is easily
blocked, so is of limited use.
The AP receives and transmits data between the WLAN and the wired network structure. End users access
the WLAN through WLAN adapters, which are built into the devices or are plug-in modules.

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Advantages
● All computers can access the same services and resources (e.g. printers, scanners, internet access from
anywhere within range of the APs).
● There is no cabling to individual computers and devices so safety is improved.
● The system is more flexible, since users can move their laptops from their desks.
● Adding new computers and devices is very easy (all that is required is a WLAN adapter, provided the
device is within range of an AP) and costs are reduced since no extra cabling is needed.
Disadvantages
● Security is a big issue since anyone with a WLAN-enabled laptop computer can access a network if it
can pick up a signal. It is therefore necessary to adopt complex data encryption techniques.
● There may be problems of interference which can affect the signal.
● The data transfer rate is slower than in a wired LAN.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi refers to any system where it is possible to connect to a network or to a single computer through
wireless communications, for example:
● on the WLAN described above
● PDAs and other handheld devices
● laptop computers which are Wi-Fi enabled
● peripheral devices such as printers, keyboards and mouse which can interface with the single computer
when fitted with Wi-Fi adapters. Wi-Fi systems rely on some form of AP, which uses radio frequency
technology to enable the device to receive and send signals. Note that Wi-Fi is not short for wireless
fidelity (a common misconception!). Rather, it is the trademark name for any product which is based on
the IEEE 802.11 standard. Wi-Fi hotspots are places where you can access Wi-Fi (free or paid). They exist
in public places such as airports, hotels and internet cafés. It is possible to logon to free Wi-Fi hotspots
unless they are protected by passwords. Software exists which can be loaded onto a laptop computer
which then searches for non-protected Wi-Fi systems. The practice of driving around in a car looking for
these unsecured Wi-Fi hotspots is known as war-driving and poses a security risk to any unsecured Wi-Fi
system.

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 Wi-Fi connection

BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is an example of wireless personal area networking (WPAN) technology. Spread spectrum
transmission (radio waves) is used to provide wireless links between mobile phones, computers and other
handheld devices and allow connection to the internet. With this system, it is possible to create a small
home network, for example, to allow communication between any PDA, mobile phone, computer, media
player and printer. The range is, however, quite small (about 10 metres). Examples of its use include the
transfer of photographs from a digital camera to a mobile phone or the transfer of phone details to a
computer, the process of doing this is called tethering

Bluetooth connection

Comparison between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi

Comparison Bluetooth Wi-Fi
Frequency 2.4GHz 2.4,3.6,5 GHz
Cost Low High
Bandwidth Low(800Kbps) High(11Mbps)
Security It is less secure More secure
Year of 1994 1991

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 development
Primary devices Mobile phones, mouse, Notebook computers,
keyboard, office and desktop computers,
industrial automation devices servers, TV, mobile
phones
Hardware Bluetooth adapter on all Wireless adaptors on all
requirement devices connecting with each the devices of the
other network ,a wireless
router and/or wireless
access point
Range 5-30m With 802.11b/g the
typical range is 32m in
doors and 95meters
outdoors.802.11n has a
greater range.
Power Low High
consumption
Bit-rate 2.1Mbps 600Mbps

Network Topology
A network topology is the arrangement of nodes -- usually switches, routers, or software switch/router
features -- and connections in a network, often represented as a graph. The arrangement can either be
physical or logical. The topology of the network, and the relative locations of the source and destination of
traffic flows on the network, determine the optimum path for each flow and the extent to which redundant
options for routing exist in the event of a failure. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the
physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.

The physical topology of a network is the layout of nodes and physical connections, including wires
(Ethernet, DSL), fibber optics, and microwave. There are several common physical topologies, as described
below and as shown in the illustration.

Types of physical topologies

In the bus network topology, every node is connected in series along a linear path. This arrangement is
found today primarily in cable broadband distribution networks.

In the star network topology, a central node has a direct connection to all other nodes. Switched local-area
networks (LANs) based on Ethernet switches, including most wired home and office networks, have a
physical star topology.

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In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a closed loop configuration. Some rings will pass
data only in one direction, while others are capable of transmission in both directions. These bidirectional
ring networks are more resilient than bus networks because traffic can reach a node by moving in either
direction. Metro networks based on Synchronous Optical Network Technology (SONET) are the primary
example of ring networks today.

The mesh network topology links nodes with connections so that multiple paths between at least some points
of the network are available. A network is said to be fully meshed if all nodes are directly connected to all
other nodes, and partially meshed if only some nodes have multiple connections to others. Meshing to create
multiple paths increases resiliency under failure, but increases cost. The Internet is a mesh network.

The tree network topology, also called a star of stars, is a network where star topologies are themselves
connected in a star configuration. Many larger Ethernet switch networks including data canter networks, are
configured as trees.

Logical topologies

A logical topology for a network usually refers to the relationship between nodes and logical connections. A
logical connection will differ from a physical path when information can take an invisible hop at
intermediate points. In optical networks, optical add-drop multiplexers (ADMs) create logical optical paths
because the ADM hop isn't visible to the endpoint nodes. Networks based on virtual circuits (or tunnels) will
have a physical topology based on the real connection medium (fibber, for example) and a logical topology
based on the circuits/tunnels.

Sometimes the logical topology will refer to the topology as the user sees it, which means the connectivity
of the network. IP and Ethernet networks, the two most commonly used today, are fully meshed at the
connection level because any user can connect with any other -- unless some means of blocking unwanted
connections, like a firewall, is introduced. This full connectivity is a property of the network protocols used
(IP and Ethernet), not of the network topology itself. Any network topology can appear to be fully meshed to
its use.
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