DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER [NCERT]
INTRODUCTION
1. ↪J. J. Thomsonwas the first to determine experimentallythespeed and the specific charge [charge to massratio
(e/m)] of the cathode ray particles.
↪They were found to travel at speeds ranging from about 0.1 to 0.2 times the speed of light (3 ×108 m/s). The
presently accepted value of e/m is 1.76 × 1011 C/kg.
↪Further, the value of e/m was found to be independent of the nature of the material/metal used as the cathode
(emitter), or the gas introduced in the discharge tube.
2. ↪
In 1913, the American physicist R. A. Millikan (1868-1953) performed the pioneeringoil-drop experimentforthe
precise measurement of the charge on an electron.
↪He found that the charge on an oil-droplet was always an integral multiple of an elementary charge,1.602 × 10–19C.
↪Millikan’s experiment established that electric charge is quantised. From the values of charge (e) and specific
charge (e/m), the mass (m) of the electron could be determined.
ELECTRON EMISSION
3. ↪metals have free electrons (negatively charged particles) that are responsible for their conductivity. However, the
free electrons cannot normally escape out of the metal surface
↪If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface acquires a positive charge and pulls the electron
back to the metal.
↪The free electron is thus held inside the metal surface by the attractive forces of the ions. Consequently, the electron
can come out of the metal surface only if it has got sufficient energy to overcome the attractive pull.
↪A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an electron to pull it out from the surface of the
metal.
This minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface is the work function of the metal.
1 eV = 1.602 ×10–19 J.
The work function (ϕ0) depends on
theproperties of the metalandthe nature of itssurface.
he minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied to the free electrons
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by any one of the following physical processes:
(i)Thermionic emission:By suitably heating, sufficientthermal energy can be imparted to the free
electrons to enable them to come out of the metal.
(ii)Field emission:By applying a very strong electricfield (of the order of 108 V m–1) to a metal, electrons
can be pulled out of the metal, as in a spark plug.
(iii)Photoelectric emission:When light of suitablefrequency illuminates a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated electrons are
called photoelectrons.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
DIFFERENT EXPERIMENTS
ertz Experiment
H
Hertz observed that when ultraviolet rays are incident on a negative cathode anode evacuated quartz tube A
ultraviolet rays plate of electric discharge tube then conduction takes place easily in the tube.
allwach Experiment
H
Hallwach observed that if a negatively charged Zn plate of electroscope is illuminated by ultra violet light, its
negative charge decreases and becomes neutral and after some time, it gains positive charge. It indicates that under
the action of ultra violet light, some negative charged particles are emitted from the metal.
enard Experiment
L
He said that when ultraviolet rays are incident on cathode, electrons are ejected, these electrons are attracted by anode
and due to the complete path of photo electrons, photo current flows. When ultra violet rays are incident on anode,
electrons are ejected but current does not flow.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
IGURE – 1 Experimental arrangement for study of photoelectric effect.
F
→ It consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a thin photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A.
→ Monochromatic light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the window W and falls
on the photosensitive plate C (emitter).
→ A transparent quartz window is sealed on to the glass tube, which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it
and irradiate the photosensitive plate C.
→ The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created
by the battery.
→ The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates C and A, that can be varied.
→ The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by acommutator.
→ Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential with respect to emitter C.
→ When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it. The
emission of electrons causes flow of electric current in the circuit.
→ The potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltmeter (V) whereas the
resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is measured by a microammeter (µA).
→ The photoelectric current can be increased or decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with
respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can be varied, as can the
potential difference V between the emitter C and the collector A.
OLDEN KEY POINTS
G
For the photo electric effect the light of short wavelength (or high frequency) is more effective than the light of long
wavelength (or low frequency)
to study the variation of photocurrent with
(a) intensity of radiation, (b) frequency of incident radiation,
(c) the potential difference between the plates A and C, (d) the nature of the material of plate C.
(a) Effect of intensity of light
The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with respect to emitter C so that electrons ejected from C are attracted
towards collector A
Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation and the potential fixed
the intensity of light is varied and the resulting photoelectric current is measured each time. It is found that the photocurrent
increases linearly with intensity of incident light
When intensity of a given source, able to produce photoelectric effect , is increased, Saturation current increases but V0
(Retarding potential) remains unchanged.
This implies that the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.
(b) frequency of incident radiation,Keeping the intensityof light radiation fixed
→The energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiations.
→When frequency of radiation is increased, V0 increases but is(Saturation current) is almost unchanged. It is also
observed that below a certain frequency photoelectronsdon't come out.
→The minimum frequency which can eject the photo electrons is called cut off or threshold frequency. Similarly
corresponding maximum wavelength is called threshold wavelength.
The graph shows that
(i)the stopping potential V0 varies linearly withthe frequency of incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii)there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequencyν0 for which the stopping potential is zero.
These observations have two implications:
(i)The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectronsvaries linearly with the frequency of incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.
(ii)For a frequency n of incident radiation, lowerthan the cut-off frequencyν0 , no photoelectricemission is possible even if
the intensity is large.
Note
In all the above experiments, it is found that, if frequency of the incident radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the
photoelectric emission starts instantaneously without any apparent time lag, even if the incident radiation is very dim (the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity) It is now known that emission starts in a time of the order of 10– 9 s or less.
The stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation.
. This implies that greater the frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the
threshold frequency, below which no emission of photoelectronstakes place, no matter how intense the incident light is.
Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity
(c) the potential difference between the plates A and C / [Effect of potential on photoelectric current]
I
We first keep the plate A at some positive potential with
respect to the plate C and illuminate the plate C with light I I
of fixed frequency n and fixed intensity I1 . We next vary We now apply a negative (retarding) potential to the plate
the positive potential of plate A gradually and measure the A with respect to the plate C and make it increasingly
resulting photocurrent each time. It is found that the negative gradually. When the polarity is reversed, the
photoelectric current increases with increase in positive electrons are repelled and only the sufficiently energetic
(accelerating) potential. At some stage, for a certain electrons are able to reach the collector A. The
positive potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons are photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly until it drops to
collected by the plate A and the photoelectric current zero at a certain sharply defined, critical value of the
becomes maximum or saturates. If we increase the negative potential V0 on the plate A. For a particular
accelerating potential of plate A further, the photocurrent frequency of incident radiation, the minimum negative
does not increase. This maximum value of the (retarding) potential V0 given to the plate A for which the
photoelectric current is called saturation current. photocurrent stops or becomes zero is called the cutoff or
Saturation current corresponds to the case when all the stopping potential.
photoelectrons emitted by the emitter plate C reach the
collector plate A.
he interpretation of the observation in terms of photoelectrons is straightforward. All the photoelectrons emitted from the
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metal do not have the same energy. Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel even the
1 2
most energetic photoelectrons, with the maximum kinetic energy (Kmax), so thatKmax = e V0 = 𝑚𝑣
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
(d) the nature of the material of plate C.
or the radiation of a given frequency and material of plate C, the value of stopping potential V0 is independent of the
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intensity of the incident radiation. It means that, the maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons depends on the light
source and the emitter plate material but is independent of intensity of incident radiation.
xample 1
E
In an experimental study of photoelectric effect, the stopping potential for a metallic surface is 5.68 V. What will be
the maximum velocity of the electrons?
2
Stopping potential,V0 = 5.68 V, me = × 9.1× 10−31 kg Maximum KE, Kmax = e V0 = 12 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
−19
1 2 2 2𝑒𝑉0 2𝑒𝑉0 2×1.6×
10 ×5.68
e V0 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥= 𝑚
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥= 𝑚
= −31 = 1.414× 106 ms−1
9.1×10
xample 2
E
The given graph shows the variation of photoelectric current I versus applied voltage V for two different
photosensitive materials and for two different intensities of the incident radiations. Identify the pairs of curves that
correspond to different materials but the same intensity of incident radiation.
urves 1 and 2 correspond to similar materials, while curves 3 and 4 represent different materials, since the value
C
of stopping potential for the pair of curves (1 and 2) and (3 and 4) are the same. For a given frequency of the
incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of its intensity. the pairs of curves (1 and 3) & (2 and 4)
correspond to different materials but the same intensity of incident radiation.
ry yourself [same as Example 2]
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The Figure shows a plot of photo current versus anode potential for a photo sensitive surface for three different
radiations. Which one of the following is a correct statement?
(1) Curves (a) and (b) represent incident radiations of same frequency but of different intensity.
(2) Curves (b) and (c) represent incident radiations of different frequencies but of different intensity.
(3) Curves (b) and (c) represent incident radiations of the same frequency having same intensity.
(4) Curves (a) and (b) represent incident radiations of different frequencies and different intensities.
Answer (1) Same stopping potential means incident light is of same frequency
CHECK POINT 1.1
1. W
hen intensity of light increases, then 2. T
he number of photoelectrons emitted per
photoelectric current second from a metal surface increases
(a) increases when
𝑠
(b) decreases (a) the energy of incident photons↑
𝑠
(c) remains same (b) the frequency of incident light↑
(d) None of the above (c) the wavelength of the incident light↑
𝑠
𝑠
(d) the intensity of the incident light↑
( b) be halved
3. W
hen stopping potential is applied in an (c) become more than double
experiment on photoelectric effect, no (d) become less than double
photocurrent is observed. This means that
(a) the emission of photoelectrons is stopped 7. W
hen frequency increases, slope of
(b) the photoelectrons are emitted but are stopping potential versus frequency graph
reabsorbed by the emitter metal (a) increases (b) decreases
(c) the photoelectrons are accumulated near (c) remains same (d) slope is always zero
the collector plate
(d) the photoelectrons are dispersed from the 8. T
he work function of aluminium is 4.2 eV.
sides of the apparatus. If two photons, each of energy 3.5 eV strike
on an electron of aluminium, then emission
4. I f the work function of potassium is 2 eV, of electrons will be
then its photoelectric threshold wavelength (a) possible
(a) 310 nm (b) 620 nm (b) not possible
(c) 6200 nm (d) 3100 nm (c) data is incomplete
(d) depend upon the area of the surface
5. M
aximum kinetic energy of emitted
electrons from the surface of a metal is K. 9. P
hotoelectric effect supports quantum
When frequency of incident light is nature of light because
doubled, then maximum kinetic energy of (a) the energy of released electron is discrete
emitted electrons is K′ then (b) the maximum kinetic energy of
(a) K ′ > 2K (b) K ′ < 2K photoelectrons depends only on the
(c) K ′ = 2K (d) Data is insufficient frequency of light and not on its intensity
(c) even when the metal surface is faintly
6. I f the frequency of light in a photoelectric illuminated, the photoelectrons leave the
experiment is doubled, then the stopping surface immediately
potential will (d) All of the above
(a) be doubled
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d)
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
According to the wave theory:
● Free electrons on the metal surface absorb radiant energy continuously. ………………………………(i)
● Greater intensity of radiation means larger amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields…………………(ii)
● Therefore, higher intensity should lead to more energy absorbed per electron. ……… ……………….(iii)
● As a result, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is expected to increase with intensity. ……(iv)
● Also, regardless of frequency, if the beam is sufficiently intense (and given enough time), it should
supply enough energy for electrons to escape. Thus, no threshold frequency should exist……………...(v)
But these predictions directly contradict experimental observations (i), (ii), and (iii) fromEffect of frequency of incident
radiation on stopping potential (explained in detail below)
Failure of wave theory in explaining photoelectric effect
● A
ccording to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the surface of the metal absorb the radiant energy
continuously.
he greater the intensity of radiation, the greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron. The maximum
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kinetic energy of the photoelectrons on the surface is then expected to increase with increase in intensity. But
according to experimental facts, the maximum kinetic energy of ejected photoelectrons is independent of intensity of
incident radiation.
● ccording to wave theory of light, no matter what the frequency of radiation is, a sufficiently intense beam of
A
radiation should be able to impart enough energy to the electrons, so that they exceed the minimum energy needed to
escape from the metal surface. A threshold frequency, therefore, should not exist which contradicts the experimental
fact that no photoelectric emission takes place below that threshold frequency, no matter whatsoever may be its
intensity.
● ccording to the wave theory of light, the absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously over the entire
A
wavefront of the radiation. Since a large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed per electron per unit
time turns out to be small. Hence, it will take hours or more for a single electron to come out of the metal which
contradicts the experimental fact that photoelectron emission is instantaneous (~ 10− 9 s).
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION : ENERGYQUANTUM OF RADIATION
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) proposed a radically new picture of electromagnetic radiation to explain photoelectric effect.
I n this picture, photoelectric emission does not take place by continuous absorption of energy from radiation. Radiation
energy is built up of discrete units – the so called quanta of energy of radiation.
Each quantum of radiant energy has energy = hν, where h is Planck’s constant andν the frequency of light.
I n photoelectric effect, an electron absorbs a quantum of energy (hν ) of radiation. If this quantum of energy absorbed exceeds
the minimum energy needed for the electron to escape from the metal surface (work functionϕ0 ), the electron is emitted
with maximum kinetic energy
Relation between stopping potential, (V0) , frequency (ν) and wavelength (λ) of incident light
Explanation of photoelectric effect from Einstein’s equation
I .From photoelectric equation it is clear that Kmax is independent of intensity of radiation but depends linearly on ν.
II.Photoelectric emission is possible only, if hν > φ0 . or ν > ν0 ⇒ (φ0= hν0)
where ν0 is threshold frequency. If ν < ν0 , then kinetic energy of the electron comes out to be negative, which is not possible,
so no photoelectric emission is possible below ν0 , even if the incident radiation is of high intensity and falls on the surface
for a long duration.
III.Intensity of radiation (I) is proportional to the number of energy quanta per unit area per unit time (n) . Higher the value
of n, higher the number of electrons emitted ( ν > ν0)
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
E
● (Energy) ∝ ν (frequency)
● Energy of photon changes→ maximum kinetic energy changes→ stopping potential changes
● I (Intensity) ∝ n (no . of . photons)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 1
● Intensity↑ ∝ no. of . photons ↑ ∝ saturation current↑ ∝ 2
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
E
● instein's Photo Electric equation is based on conservation of energy.
● According to Einstein one photon can eject one e – only. But here the energy of the incident photon should
be greater than work function (threshold energy) to bring out the electron.
xample 3
E
A student performs an experiment on photoelectric effect, using two materials A and B. A plot of Vstop versus ν is given in the
figure.
( i) Which material A or B has a higher work function?
(ii) Given the electric charge of an electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C, find the value of h obtained from the experiment for both A and
B. Comment on whether it is consistent with Einstein's theory.
LANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
P
(PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT : THE PHOTON)
The photoelectric effect thus gave evidence that light consists of packets of energy.
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 ν
ℎ ℎ
Energy of a photon is given by 𝐸 = λ
= ℎν The momentum of photon is given by 𝑝 =
𝐶
= 𝐶
= λ
Characteristic properties of photons
● The rest mass of a photon is zero i.e. the photon cannot exist at rest.
● A photon in vacuum travels with a speed of light (c ) i.e. 3 ×108 m/s in a straight line.
● As, velocity of a photon is different in different media, so wavelength of the photon also changes in different media.
● velocity of a photon ∝ ν0 (frequency) (independent of frequency)
● Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the photon, so the energy of the photon does not change when photon
travels from one medium to another.
● The charge of a photon is zero i.e. the photon is neutral . & can`t be charged
● Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. This shows that photons are electrically neutral.
● Total energy and total momentum are conserved in photon-particle collision. However, the number of photons may
not be conserved in collision. As, the photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created during a collision.
● Note:A single electron absorbs energy of a single photon.(fromphotoelectric effect)
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
ℎ𝑐
Energy of a photon is given by 𝐸 = λ
= ℎν
−25
12400 2×10
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = λ(Å)
(in ev) 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = λ(𝑚)
(in joules)
CHECK POINT 1.2
. C
1 alculate the energy of a photon having l = 4000 Å in eV and in J .
2. The energy of a photon is equal to 3 kilo eV. Calculate its linear momentum ?
3. The power of a bulb is 60 milliwatt and the wavelength of light is 6000 Å. Calculate the number of photons/ second
emitted by the bulb ?
4. How many photons of wavelengthλ = 6600 nm must strike a totally reflecting screen per second at normal incidence
so as to exert a force of 1N ?
5. Which colour of photon has greater energy either red or violet ?
6. A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wave length 500 nm is incident normally on a perfectly absorbing surface.
The power through any cross-section of the beam is 10 W.
Find
(a) Number of photon absorbed by the surface per second. (b) The force exerted by light beam on the surface.
CHECK POINT 1.2 (answers)
.
1 .1 eV ; 4.96 × 10–19 J
3
2. 1.6 × 10–24 kg m/s
3. 1.8 × 1017 photon/sec
4. 5 × 1027 photon/sec
5. Violet
6. (a) 2.5 × 1019 (b) 3.33 × 10–8N
Intensity of photons
A moving photon carries momentum with it. Therefore, pressure and intensity are also associated with photons.
onsider an area A through which light (photons) emitted by a source of total energy E and intensity I is passing normally as
C
shown in the figure.
𝐸
momentum of photon is given by , 𝑝 = 𝐶
𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝐴
(from EM waves)…………….(i)
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑛ℎ𝑐
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑡λ
………………………..(ii)
Substitute (ii) in (i)
𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑝 𝑛ℎ𝑐 𝑛ℎν
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝑡𝐴λ = 𝑡𝐴