Assignment One:

Q. 1 Enumerate Sociological theories related to health, include authors and

years.

Introduction:
Sociology and anthropology are two important disciplines in the social sciences
that study human beings, their behavior, culture and interaction in society. While
sociology primarily examines the structures and functions of modern societies,
anthropology traditionally focuses on culture, traditions, and human evolution.
However, both disciplines share a common goal of understanding humanity in all
its dimensions.

Health, as a crucial aspect of human life, has long been studied through
sociological and anthropological lenses. Sociology of health and illness
investigates how health is influenced by social structures, while medical
anthropology studies cultural practices related to healing and medicine. These
perspectives highlight that health is not simply a biological phenomenon but also
deeply shaped by society, culture, and inequality.

Sociological Theories Related to Health

Different sociological theories provide frameworks for explaining how health,
illness, and healthcare systems operate in society. Each theory offers unique
insights into the social determinants of health and the role of health institutions.
Below are the major theories in detail:
a) Functionalist theory
Functionalism, rooted in the works of Emile Durkheim and later Talcott Parsons
(,1951), views society as a system made up of interdependent parts that work
together to maintain stability and order. Health is seen as vital to the smooth
functioning of this system, since illness disrupts the ability of individuals to
perform their social roles.
Parsons introduced the concept of the ‘sick role,’ which defines the rights and
responsibilities of a sick person. According to Parsons, a sick person is exempted
from normal social roles but is also obligated to seek treatment and try to get
well. This ensures that illness does not destabilize society indefinitely.

For example, if a teacher falls sick, society expects them to visit a doctor, follow
medical advice, and return to teaching as soon as possible. The healthcare system
provides the structure to reintegrate them into society.

Criticism: The functionalist perspective has been criticized for ignoring inequalities
in health and assuming that healthcare systems are equally accessible to all. In
reality, poor communities may not have access to quality care.

b) Conflict Theory
Conflict theory, developed from Karl Marx’s ideas, emphasizes power struggles,
inequality, and exploitation in society. It argues that health disparities are rooted
in class divisions, with wealthier groups enjoying better health and longer life
expectancy, while poorer groups suffer more illness due to lack of resources.

For instance, in capitalist societies, healthcare often becomes a commodity.

Private hospitals provide better care to those who can pay, while public facilities
remain underfunded. This widens the health gap between the rich and the poor.

An example is the COVID-19 pandemic, where wealthier nations secured vaccines

earlier, while poorer nations struggled. Similarly, within countries, the wealthy
had better access to treatment compared to marginalized groups.
Criticism: While conflict theory highlights inequality, it tends to overlook cases
where healthcare professionals genuinely aim to help patients regardless of their
class.

People with money and power, seen as dominant group, are the one who make
decisions about how the health system can be run. They therefore, ensure that
they have health courage while simultaneously ensuring the subordinate group
stay subordinate through lack of access to good health services. This creates
significant health and health disparities between the dominant and subordinate
group. These ideas come straight from the conflict perspective which emphasize
that social class difference is the main cause of unequal outcomes. Health
institutions include thousand of Doctors, patient, staff and administrators. They
are highly bureaucratic but often struggle to serve all members of society equally
due to racism, sexism, ageism and heterosexism. When health are the
commodities, the poor are more likely to experience illness caused by poor diet,
living and working in unhealthy environments and are likely to challenge the
system.

c) Medicalization and Symbolic Interactionism

The term medicalization of deviance refers to the process that changes bad
behavior into sick behavior. A related process is demedicalization in which sick
behavior is normalized again. Both of these concepts come from the symbolic
theory of sociology, which asserts that society is created by repeated interaction
between individuals and groups . Medicalization and demedicalization affect who
respond to the patient and how people view the personal responsibility of the
patient ( Conrad and Schneider 1992). So far in this chapter there medicalization
as the process in which situations and behaviors are considered medical problems
rather than social problem.

In this case of the medicalization of deviance, the social problems that may be
medicalized are deviant behaviors . An example of this medicalization of often
intermittent explosive disorder, which is a disorder listed in DSM-5 in 1980 .
People who had emotionally explosive or aggressive behaviors were considered
deviant but not sick. The medicalization of deviance in this case show how what
was considered deviant is now considered medical problems.

Meanwhile, symbolic interactionism, associated with George Herbert Mead and

Herbert Bulmer, focuses on micro-level interactions. It explores how people
define and interpret health, illness, and medical experiences in everyday life.
According to this theory, illness is not just a biological condition but also a social
label.

For example, mental illness may be seen as shameful in some cultures but
accepted in others. Similarly, people living with HIV/AIDS often face stigma
because of the social meanings attached to the disease.

Doctor-patient interactions are also central to this theory. The way doctors
communicate with patients influences how patients understand their illness and
treatment.

Criticism: Symbolic interactionism is sometimes seen as too focused on small-

scale interactions, ignoring larger structural forces.

d) Feminist Theory
Feminist theory emphasizes gender inequalities in health and healthcare. It
argues that women’s health has historically been marginalized, with issues such
as reproductive rights, maternal morality, and gender-based violence receiving
insufficient attention.
For example, in many countries, women have limited access to reproductive
healthcare, leading to high rates of maternal death. Feminists also critique how
medical research has often ignored women, focusing instead on male bodies.

The medicalization of women’s bodies is another area of concern. Natural

processes such as childbirth and menopause are sometimes treated as medical
problems requiring intervention, often controlled by male-dominated medical
institutions.

Criticism: Some argue that feminist theory focuses too much on gender and may
underplay other forms of inequality such as class and race.
e) Social Constructionism
Social constructionism suggests that health and illness are socially defined. What
is considered an illness in one culture may not be in another. For example, certain
mental health conditions recognized in Western societies may not exist in
traditional societies.

Another example is alcoholism, which is defined as a disease in some contexts but

may be seen as moral weakness in others. This shows that illness categories are
not fixed but shaped by cultural beliefs and social norms.
Social constructionism argues that health and illness are not fixed or natural
categories; instead, they are defined through social interaction, cultural beliefs,
and institutional authority. What counts as an illness in one society or historical
period may not be viewed the same in another. For instance, homosexuality was
once categorized as a psychiatric disorder in the DSM but is now widely accepted
as a normal variation of human sexuality. Similarly, alcoholism was historically
seen as a moral weakness, but it is now recognized as a medical condition. These
shifts show that medical categories are socially created and can change over time.
Social constructionists also emphasize that stigma and labeling play a powerful
role in health. Conditions like HIV/AIDS or mental illness are often heavily
stigmatized, not just because of the biological condition itself, but because of
cultural meanings attached to them. For example, HIV/AIDS has been associated
with morality and sexuality, leading to discrimination against those who suffer
from it. In addition, institutions such as hospitals and medical professionals
actively construct categories of illness through diagnostic systems and treatment
practices. The classification of autism, depression, or even attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) reflects not only medical science but also social
norms about acceptable behavior. From this perspective, health and illness are
both biological and social, shaped by cultural expectations and institutional
power.

Criticism: Critics argue that social constructionism sometimes overlooks biological

realities of disease.
f) Postmodernist Perspectives
Postmodernist theory , take the critique further by rejecting the idea that there
can be a single universal truth about health. Postmodernists argue that modern
society is fragmented and diverse, meaning there are many competing definitions
of what it means to be healthy or ill. For example, while doctors might define
health as the absence of disease, many individuals see health in terms of balance,
spirituality, or personal wellbeing. A cancer patient may undergo chemotherapy
while also turning to herbal medicine, acupuncture, or meditation, reflecting the
pluralism of postmodern healthcare.

Media and technology also play a central role in shaping health from a
postmodern perspective. Jean Baudrillard’s idea of hyperreality is useful here:
media does not simply reflect reality but creates it. Fitness influencers, diet
trends, and cosmetic advertising produce unrealistic standards of health and
beauty, making people pursue simulated ideals of “the healthy body.” A slim,
muscular figure promoted on Instagram may be digitally altered, yet it becomes
the model by which society judges health. This blurs the line between reality and
representation.

Postmodernists also point out that health identities are fluid and flexible rather
than fixed. A person with diabetes, for example, may see themselves as healthy if
their condition is well-managed, while society may still categorize them as ill.
Likewise, many everyday experiences have been medicalized such as menopause,
childbirth, or ADHD where ordinary life processes are redefined as medical issues
requiring treatment. Postmodernists challenge this expansion of medical
authority and argue that health should not be reduced to medical categories
alone
Postmodernist thinkers argue that health knowledge is fragmented and
influenced by power, politics, and media. They reject the idea of a single truth
about health. Instead, they emphasize competing narratives.

For instance, media representations of obesity vary, sometimes seen as a medical

problem, sometimes as a lifestyle choice. Similarly, alternative medicine
challenges biomedical dominance by offering different explanations for illness.

Postmodernists also highlight consumerism in health, where patients act like

consumers choosing treatments, doctors, and wellness programs.
Q.2 Explain the disciplines related to sociology and anthropologyy, state and
explain how sociology is related to anthropology.
Sociology and anthropology are broad fields that interconnect with many other
disciplines or social sciences. Their multidisciplinary nature allows them to study
society and culture from different lenses. They deal with forms and man’s
interaction. They study human groups, society and social environment . Below are
the major disciplines related to sociology and anthropology:

I. Psychology
Psychology, sociology, and anthropology are social sciences. Psychology focuses
on the individual mind and behavior, sociology studies groups and institutions,
and anthropology emphasizes culture and human origins. Psychology is therefore
strongly related to both sociology and anthropology in explaining human
behavior.
a) Psychology and Sociology
 Psychology : Focuses on individual thoughts, emotions, behavior.
 Sociology : Deals with the study of society, groups, institutions.
Connection: Both study human behavior at different levels.
Example:
- Sociology: youth unemployment → social structures & inequality.
- Psychology: unemployment → self-esteem, motivation, depression.

b) Psychology and Anthropology

 Anthropology : Human culture, traditions, and evolution.
 Psychology : How individuals behave within cultural contexts.
Connection: Psychological anthropology → culture shapes personality and
mental processes.
Example:
- Anthropology: Marriage customs in a tribe.
 - Psychology: Effect on identity, emotions, gender roles.
Shared Importance
 Psychology → individual mind & behavior.
 Sociology → social groups & institutions.
 Anthropology → culture & origins.
 Together → holistic understanding of human life.
Psychology complements sociology and anthropology. It explains the individual’s
response to society (sociology) and culture (anthropology). Together, these three
disciplines provide a complete picture of human behavior.

II. History
 History studies past human events, societies, and civilizations.
Relation to Sociology: Shows how past social institutions and movements shaped
present societies.
Relation to Anthropology: Provides cultural traditions, origins, and evolution of
human groups.
Example: Studying colonial history → sociology explains its impact on inequality
today; anthropology shows cultural changes in traditions.

III. . Economics
 Economics studies production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services.
Relation to Sociology: Explains how economic systems (capitalism, socialism)
shape social classes and inequality.
Relation to Anthropology: Explores traditional economies, barter systems, and
cultural values in exchange.
Example: Sociology studies poverty as a class issue, anthropology looks at cultural
practices of survival in poor communities.
IV. Geography
 Geography studies the physical environment and how humans interact with
it.
Relation to Sociology: Shows how environment affects settlement, migration, and
urban life.
Relation to Anthropology: Explores how environment influences culture, rituals,
and lifestyles.
Example: Sociology explains urbanization, anthropology studies how desert life
shapes nomadic traditions.

V. Political Science
 Political Science studies power, government, and political systems.
Relation to Sociology: Looks at how politics affects society, rights, and social
movements.
Relation to Anthropology: Examines political organization in traditional and tribal
societies.
Example: sociology studies democracy and voting patterns, anthropology looks at
how elders lead in indigenous communities.

VI. . Demography
 Demography studies population size, growth, fertility, mortality, and
migration.
Relation to Sociology: Explains how population trends affect social institutions
(schools, jobs, housing).
Relation to Anthropology: Shows how cultural practices affect birth rates,
marriage, and family size.
Example: Sociology studies aging populations in Europe, anthropology studies
large family traditions in African tribes.
VII. Archaeology
 Archaeology : Study of past human societies through material remains
(tools, fossils, buildings).

 Relation to Sociology: Reveals evidence of past social organization, class

systems, and trade.
 Relation to Anthropology: Reconstructs cultural traditions, rituals, and
lifestyles of ancient societies.
Example: ruins of ancient cities → sociology explains social stratification,
anthropology explains rituals and beliefs.
Archaeology supports sociology by showing past social systems and anthropology
by preserving cultural traditions.

VIII. Philosophy
 Philosophy: Study of fundamental questions about existence, ethics, and
reasoning.
o Relation to Sociology: Provides theories for justice, morality, and
society (e.g., Marx’s class theory).
o Relation to Anthropology: Guides interpretation of cultural values,
beliefs, and moral systems.
Example: sociology uses philosophy in social justice debates, anthropology
applies philosophy to explain moral values.
Philosophy strengthens sociology by shaping theories and anthropology by
interpreting cultural values.

IX. Linguistics
 Linguistics : Scientific study of human language, its structure, and use.
o Relation to Sociology: sociolinguistics studies how language reflects
social class, gender, ethnicity, and power.
o Relation to Anthropology: shows how language preserves culture,
traditions, and worldview.
Example: sociology studies slang and class differences, anthropology studies
endangered tribal languages.
Linguistics enriches sociology by showing social identity through language and
anthropology by preserving cultural knowledge.

X. Public Health
 Public Health: study of health, disease, and well-being in populations.
o Relation to Sociology: examines how poverty, inequality, and
education affect health outcomes.
o Relation to Anthropology: explores how cultural beliefs and
practices influence health and healing.
Example: sociology studies limited hospital access, anthropology studies
traditional healers and cultural views of illness.
Public Health complements sociology by addressing social causes of illness and
anthropology by adapting to cultural practices.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGYY

The relationship between sociology and Anthropologyy is widely recognized
today. Infact anthropologist Kroeber pointed out that the two sciences are twin
size sisters. Robert Redfield writes that “ Viewing the whole United States , one
sees that the relationships between sociology and Anthropologyy are closer than
those of anthropology and political science. That’s partly due to the similarities in
work ”.

According to Hoebel “ Sociology and social anthropology are, in their broadest

sense one and the same”. Evans Pritchard considers social anthropology a branch
of sociology. Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies. Sociologists
have to depend upon anthropologist to understand the present day phenomena
from our knowledge of the past which is often provided by anthropology. The
studies made by great anthropologists like Redcliffe Brown, B. Malinowski, Ralph
Linton, Margret Mead, Evans Pritchard and others have been proved to be
valuable in sociology.

Sociological topics such as the origin of family, the beginning of marriage, private
property, the genesis of religions e.t.c can better be understood in the light of
anthropological studies. The anthropological studies have shown that there’s no
correlation between anatomical characteristics and mental superiority.

Further, sociology has borrowed many concepts like cultural area, culture traits,
interdependent traits , culture lag, culture pattern, culture configuration e.t.c ,
from anthropology. The knowledge of anthr physical as well as socio culture is
necessary for sociologists. A understanding of societies can be gained by
comparing various cultures particularly the modern with the primitive.

Anthropology as a discipline is closely related to sociology that the two are

frequently undistinguishable. Both of them are fast growing. The socio cultural
anthropologist today are also making the study of the present people and their
societies.

In number of universities, anthropology and sociology are Administratively

organized into one department.

The conclusion of sociologists have also helped the anthropologists in their

studies, for example, anthropologist like Morgan and his followers have to the
conclusion regarding the existence of primitive of communism from the
conception of private property in our modern society.
REFERENCES / AUTHORS
Authors-Years
1. Robert Merton ( 1910 – 2003) – Developed the concept of
social mechanisms and middle-range theories
2. Talcott Parsons ( 1902 – 1979) – Developed Functionalist
theory
3. George Herbert Mead ( 1863 – 1931) – Developed symbolic
interactionism
4. Charles Horton Cooler ( 1864 – 1929) – Developed social
consciousness
5. Emilia Durkheim ( 1858- 1917)
6. Harriet Martineau ( 1820 – 1903) – coined term “ survival of
the fittest “ Applying evolutionary theory
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