C H E M

Revision Notes​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 03​ Metal

Ronald Mak
30 ETON
EVR M
HEC KA M
LDANOR
 Mind Maps

●​ Metals
-​ Occurrence and Extraction of Metals
+​ Extraction of metals
➔​ Heating metal oxides
➔​ Heating metal oxides with C / CO / H2
➔​ Electrolysis of molten ore

3
+​ Relate the ease of obtaining metals from their ores to the reactivity of the metals
+​ Relation of the discovery of metals to the ease of extraction of metals and the

0
availability of raw materials

ET
-​ Reactivity of Metals

O
+​ Reaction of common metals (Equations + Observations + Diagrams)
+​ Displacement reactions and their interpretations based on the reactivity series

N
+​ Storage of Group I and Group II metals
+​ Metal reactivity series and the tendency of metals to form positive ions
➔​ Prediction of the occurrence of reactions involving metals using the
reactivity series

EVR
➔​ Relation between the extraction method of a metal and its position in the
M
metal reactivity series
➔​ Deduce the order of reactivity of metals from the given information
+​ Balanced ionic equations
HEC

-​ Reacting Masses
+​ Quantitative relationship of the reactants and the products in a reaction as
K

revealed by a chemical equation (i.e. mole ratio)

A

+​ Mole, Avogadro’s constant and molar mass

M

+​ Percentage by mass of an element in a compound

+​ Empirical formulae and molecular formulae derived from experimental data
+​ Reacting masses from chemical equations
LDA

+​ Concepts of limiting agent

NOR
(cont’d)
-​ Corrosion of Metals and their Protections
+​ Iron rust
➔​ Chemical nature, essential conditions
➔​ Factors that influence the rusting of iron
➔​ Observations with a rust indicator is used in experiments
+​ Methods used to prevent rusting of iron (Choices + Explanations)
➔​ Coating with paint, oil or plastic

3
➔​ Galvanizing
➔​ Tin-plating

0
➔​ Electroplating (Redox)

E
➔​ Cathodic protection

T
➔​ Sacrificial protection

O
➔​ Alloying
+​ Corrosion resistance of aluminium (Comparison with Fe)

N
+​ Anodization (Redox)

EVR
M
HEC KA
M
LDANOR
03​ Metals
-​ Uses of metals​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ **Please refer to the textbook for further details.
Metal Uses Reason for use

Iron (Fe) constructions, car and ship bodies hard, strong, malleable and
ductile, cheap

Copper (Cu) electric wires very good conductor of electricity

3
water pipes non-poisonous, malleable and

0
ductile

E
cooking utensils excellent conductor of heat,

T
corrosion-resistant

O
Aluminium (Al) overhead power cables good conductor of electricity,

N
*cheaper than copper*

aircraft bodies low density but strong,

corrosion-resistant

kitchen foils

EVR
very malleable, non-poisonous
M
soft drink cans corrosion-resistant, low density
(convenient to carry)
HE
window frames strong, corrosion-resistant
C

Titanium (Ti) supersonic aircraft bodies low density but very strong, very
corrosion-resistant, extremely
K

high m.p.
A

metal implants in human body can be easily shaped,

M

biocompatible

Gold (Au) jewellery, coins attractive golden yellow colour,

LDA

extremely corrosion-resistant
(always shiny), most malleable
N

and ductile, quite soft when pure

O

Mercury (Hg) thermometers liquid at room conditions expands

on heating
R

Silver (Ag) jewellery, coins attractive silvery colour,

corrosion-resistant, malleable and
ductile, moderately soft

electrical and electronic best conductor of electricity,

components malleable and ductile
-​ Occurrence of metals in nature
-​ Gold nugget → gold occurs in free state in nature
-​ Platinum nugget → platinum occurs in free state in nature
-​ Bauxite → main ore of aluminium (contains mainly aluminium oxide (Al2O3))
-​ Copper pyrite → main ore of copper (contains mainly copper iron sulphide (CuFeS2))
-​ Haematite → main ore of iron (contains mainly iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3))
-​ Galena → main ore of lead (contains mainly lead(II) sulphide (PbS))
What’s more:
-​ Aluminium is the most abundant metal on the Earth.

3
-​ Oxygen is the most abundant element in the Earth.

0
-​ Metal reactivity series

ET
Recite it in Chinese!!!

O
鉀鈉鈣鎂鋁 (K Na Ca Mg Al)
鋅鐵鉛銅汞 (Zn Fe Pb Cu Hg)

N
銀鉑金 (Ag Pt Au)
⇒ Decreasing reactivity

EV
​

extraction from their ores

K
MNa Ca Mg

electrolysis of their molten ores

Al Zn Fe
R Pb

carbon reduction
Cu Hg Ag

direct heat
Pt Au

free state

reaction with O2 burn (7) does not burn (3) no reaction (3)
HE
(M + O2 → MO)
Lilac Golden Brick​ Very -- -- Yellow -- -- -- -- -- --
C

-yellow -red bright sparks

Notes: white

X: flame colour (in bold letters)

K

white white white white white yellow black orange black red -- -- --
y/z: colour of ppt (when hot/cold) / /
white yellow
A

reaction with H2O w/ cold water (3) w/ steam (4) no reaction (6)
M

M + H2O(l) M + H2O(g)
→ MOH + H2 → MO + H2

reaction w/ dil acid react with acid (8) no reaction (5)

LDA

(M + HX → MX + H2)
N

Set-up for carbon reduction: Set-up for reaction with steam:

O

(apparatus W = crucible)
R

Slanted test tube (↘): to prevent the

condensed water from running back to the
tube and cracking the hot glass
What’s more: CO(g) and H2(g) can also reduce
Position of heating: under the metal
oxides of metals low in the metal reactivity series.
 Experimental set-up for collecting hydrogen gas from the reaction of calcium with water

Calcium is denser than water → sink to the bottom

The colourless gas can be collected using an inverted funnel ​
(which is hydrogen)

Test the gas with a burning splint → burns with a “pop” sound

3
Remarks:

0
-​ Fe(s) react with O2(g) to form Fe3O4(s), iron(II, III) oxide, but not FeO(s) or Fe2O3(s).

E
-​ Ca(OH)2 is slightly soluble in water, hence a milky suspension is produced.

T
-​ The steam reacts with Mg to give an intense white light.

O
-​ Al is usually covered with Al2O3 which protects the metal because it is impermeable to oxygen
and water, thus it does not seem to react with steam.

N
-​ The resultant solution (i.e. metal hydroxide) will turn the red litmus paper blue.

-​ Reactivity and readiness to lose electrons (i.e. forming cations)

Metal reacts by losing electrons to form positive ions!

EVR
-​ Reactivity of metals (as well as the readiness of metals to lose electrons) decreases across a
M
period
e.g. Na > Mg > Al (across Period 3)
HE
Explanation: (refer to part XII of the notes)
C

The number of the outermost shell electrons increases across the period, and more
electrons participate in the formation of the metallic bond (stronger attraction).
K

Hence, it is relatively more difficult to lose electrons across the period.

A

-​ Reactivity of metals (as well as the readiness of metals to lose electrons) increases down a
M

group
e.g. Li < Na < K (in Group I)​
LDA

Explanation: (out of scope)

The distance between the outermost shell electrons and the nucleus increases down the
N

group (weaker attraction). Hence, it is relatively easier for the atom to lose electrons down
the group.
OR
-​ Displacement reaction
Definition: A metal (M1) higher in the reactivity series will displace any metal (M2) lower in the
series from the solution of a compound of it (M2).

Exam-type questions:
State the observable change(s) and write a chemical equation for the reaction involved.
A piece of copper wire is added to silver nitrate solution
Observable change:

3
●​ The copper slowly dissolves.

0
●​ Some shiny silver deposits formed on the surface of the copper wire.
●​ The solution gradually turns (from colourless to) pale blue.

ET
Remarks:

O
-​ Write every observable change, which you can see!!!
-​ NO CHEMICAL REACTIONS involved in your answer (THEY ARE INVISIBLE!!!)​

N
e.g. the solution gradually turns from silver nitrate solution to copper nitrate solution!!

-​ Ionic equation

EVR
Definition: An equation which includes only those ions that are formed or changed during the
reaction.
M
How to write an ionic equation?
HE
Step 1: Write down the full chemical equation
C

Step 2: Show the mobile ions (giant ionic structures which are molten or in aqueous state)
Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions (ions that remains unchanged during the equation)
K

Step 4: Check for the net charge of both the reactant side (L.H.S.) and the product side (R.H.S.)
A

⇒ an ionic equation can be obtained!

M

-​ Equation for mole calculation

LDA

-​ When masses are given:​

Number of moles (mol) = mass (in g) / molar mass (in g mol-1)
N

-​ When numbers of formula units are given:​

Number of moles (mol) = no. of formula units / Avogadro constant (mol-1)
O

Molar mass → the mass of 1 mol of the substance

R

Avogadro constant (L) → number of formula units in 1 mol of the substance = 6.02 x 1023 mol -1

-​ Percentage by mass
Percentage by mass of X in the compound​
= [(no. of atoms of X * relative atomic mass of X) / formula mass of the substance] * 100%
-​ Chemical formulae
1.​ Empirical formula
→ shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms or ions present.
2.​ Molecular formula
→ shows the actual number of each kind of atom in one molecule of the substance.
3.​ Structural formula​
→ shows how the constituent atoms are joined up in one molecule of the substance.

30
-​ Mole calculation: Determination of chemical formulae of a compound

E
Tabular method: Determining the empirical formulae of a compound

T
Metal M forms two different oxides P and Q.

O
(a)​The chemical formula of oxide P is M2O3. It is known that the percentage by mass of M in

N
this oxide is 69.9%. Calculate the relative atomic mass of M.
(b)​It is known that the percentage by mass of M in oxide Q is 77.7%. Calculate the empirical
formula of oxide Q.

EV
Solution:
(a)​Let x be the relative atomic mass of M.​

⇒ 2x = 1.398x + 33.552​
M
← solve the equation​
R
2x / (2x + 16.0 * 3) = 69.9%​ ← r.a.m. of M * no. of atoms / formula mass of M2O3​

⇒ 0.602x = 33.552​
HE
x = 55.73
∴The relative atomic mass of M is 55.7(3).
C

(b)​Assume that there is 100g of oxide Q.

K

Then there are 77.7 g of M and 100 - 77.7 = 22.3 g of O

A

M O
M

mass (g) 77.7 22.3

molar mass (g mol-1) 55.7 16.0

LDA

number of moles (mol) 77.7 / 55.7 = 1.39 22.3 / 16.0 = 1.39

N

mole ratio 1.39 / 1.39 = 1 1.39 / 1.39 = 1

O

∴The empirical formula of oxide Q is MO.

R
-​ Mole calculation: Determination of chemical formulae of a compound (cont’d)
Tabular method: Determining molecular formulae
Compound X has the following composition by mass:
C, 68.9%; H, 4.9%; O, 26.2%
The molecular mass of X was 244. Calculate the empirical formula and molecular formula of X.
Solution:
Assume that there are 100 g of X.

3
Then we have 68.9 g of C, 4.9 g of H and 26.2 g of O

0
C H O

E
mass (g) 68.9 4.9 26.2

TO
molar mass (g mol-1) 12.0 1.0 16.0

N
number of moles (mol) 68.9 / 12.0 = 5.74 4.9 / 1.0 = 4.9 26.2 / 16.0 = 1.64

mole ratio 5.74 / 1.64 = 3.5 4.9 / 1.64 = 2.99 ≒ 3 1.64 / 1.64 = 1
3.5 * 2 = 7 3*2=6 1*2=2

∴The empirical formula of X is C7H6O2.

EVR
M
Let (C7H6O2)n be the molecular formula of X.
(12.0 * 7 + 1.0 * 6 + 16.0 * 2) * n = 244
⇒ 122n = 244
HE
⇒n=2
C

∴The molecular formula of X is C14H12O4.

KA

-​ Mole calculation: Ratio problem

M

e.g. X forms two oxides: XO and X2O3. If 1 mol of XO contains n atoms, how many atoms are there
in 1 mol of X2O3?
(Express your answer in terms of n.)
LDA

Solution:
1 mole of XO = n atoms = 6.02*1023*2 atoms = 2L atoms = n atoms ⇒ n = 2L
N

1 mole of X2O3 = 6.02*1023*5 atoms = 5L atoms = 5(2L)/2 atoms = 5n/2 atoms

O

-​ Mole calculation: Reacting masses from chemical equations

R

5 steps!
1.​ Write down the balanced chemical equation (same number of atoms on both sides)
2.​ Calculate the number of moles of the reactants (mass/molar mass)
3.​ Find the limiting reactant (comparing the mole ratios)
4.​ Calculate the number of moles of the product (comparing the mole ratios)
5.​ Calculate the theoretical yield(/mass) of the product (no of mol * molar mass)
-​ Mole calculation: Reacting masses from chemical equations (cont’d)
DSE past paper: (HKDSE 2021 Paper 1B Q3cii)
Under certain conditions, 1.0 g of SiO2 is allowed to react with 1.0 g of Mg.
The equation for the reaction is shown below:
SiO2 + 2Mg → 2MgO + Si (Step 1 given by the question)
Calculate the theoretical mass of Si that can be formed. (2 marks)
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3, Si = 28.1)
Solution:

3
Step 1: (given by the question)

0
Step 2:

E
no of moles of SiO2 = 1.0 g / (28.1+16.0 * 2) g mol-1 = 0.0166 mol

T
no of moles of Mg = 1.0 g / 24.3 g mol-1 = 0.0412 mol

O
Step 3:

N
Mole ratio of SiO2 : Mg = 1 : 2
Therefore, 0.0166 mol of SiO2 would react with 0.0166 * 2 = 0.0332 mol of Mg.
As there are 0.0412 mol of Mg, Mg is in excess.

EV
i.e. SiO2 is the limiting reactant.
Step 4:
Mole ratio of SiO2 : Si = 1 : 1
M
Therefore, the number of moles of Si = 0.0166 mol.
R
Step 5:
HE
Theoretical mass of Si = 0.0166 mol * 28.1 g mol-1 = 0.466 g
C K

-​ Theoretical yield, actual yield, and percentage yield

A

Percentage yield = (Actual yield / Theoretical yield) * 100%

M

-​ Rusting (i.e. corrosion of Fe)

Things MUST be present:
LDA

●​ Oxygen
N

●​ Water
O

When Fe loses e-, forming Fe2+ ions, rusting starts. ​

i.e. initial stage of rusting: Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e-
R

The whole story line:​

Fe2+(aq) forms → OH-(aq) forms → Fe(OH)2(s) forms → Fe(OH)3(s) forms → Fe2O3•nH2O(s) forms
Overall chemical equation (4-3-2-1):
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2nH2O(l) → Fe2O3 • nH2O(s) (rust; reddish brown solid)

Remarks: Only the corrosion of Fe can be called “rusting”, but other metals cannot.
-​ Factors speeding up rusting (5)
1.​ Presence of acidic pollutants
→ react with Fe → promote the formation of Fe2+ → speed up rusting
2.​ Presence of soluble ionic compounds
→ provided a water film → contains dissolved NaCl → react with them → speed up rusting
3.​ High temp.
→ high temp would speed up a chemical equation → rusting also
4.​ Attachment of less reactive metals to Fe

3
→ displacement reaction caused Fe to lose e- more readily → speed up rusting

0
5.​ Scratched, bent or sharp area of an Fe-made object
→ these areas tend to lose more e- → speed up rusting

ETO
-​ Rust indicator

N
EVR
M
HE
Rust indicator contains:
C

1.​ Potassium hexacyanoferrate (III)​ ​ ​ ​ ​ K3[Fe(CN)6]

→ Fe would turn it blue → indicate the start of rusting
2+
K

2.​ Phenolphthalein​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ C20H14O4

A

→ OH would turn it pink

-
M

3.​ Sodium chloride​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ NaCl

→ to provide mobile ions for rusting to take place
LDA

Remarks: ** hexacyanoferrate (III) ion (K3[Fe(CN)6] (aq) ) is yellow in colour.

NOR
-​ Methods used to protect Fe from rusting​ ​ **Please refer to the textbook for further details.
1.​ Applying protective layers
→ block air and water, e.g. paint, plastic, oil, grease (lubricants), etc. → cheap
→ coating with another metal, e.g. galvanizing, tin-plating (non-poisonous)
→ electroplating, e.g. using Cr to electroplate → expensive
2.​ Cathodic protection
→ passing e- to Fe → prevent the formation of Fe2+
3.​ Sacrificial protection

3
reactivity: Zn > Fe → Zn loses e- more readily → sacrificially protected Fe from reacting
with air and water

0
e.g. galvanized iron, attaching Zn blocks to ship hulls

E
reactivity: Mg > Fe → Mg loses e- more readily → sacrificially protected Fe from reacting

T
with air and water

O
e.g. connecting Mg blocks to underground pipelines
4.​ Using alloys of Fe

N
e.g. stainless steel
→ contains C(0.15-1.5%), Cr, Ni, Mn with Fe
→ there is a layer of Cr2O3 → very tough → most expensive

-​ Corrosion resistance of aluminium

EVR
M
As you see in the metal reactivity series, Al is more reactive than Fe. However, when carrying out
experiments, Al always appears to be less reactive. Why?
When Al is exposed to air, a thin layer of Al2O3 forms on its surface, which is impermeable to air
HE
and water, and hence can protect Al underneath from further corrosion.​
​
C

Then, how can we thicken this oxide layer? ⇒ by anodization

Experimental set-up for anodization:
KA
M
LDANOR

Methodology: ​
Forcing the oxidation of Al to form more impermeable Al2O3 on the metal surface.

Applications:
-​ Becoming more corrosion-resistant (p.s. not stronger!!)
-​ Can be dyed easily to give attractive colours
Common Error

1.​ Deducing the order of reactivity of metals with reference to the methods of obtaining them
from their oxides. (4 point marks + 1 EC mark)​
​
e.g. Cu, Mg and Ag​
Method 1: heating the oxide alone → only Ag2O can do so, Mg and Cu cannot (1)​
Method 2: heating the oxide with carbon → only Cu can do so, Mg cannot (1)​
Method 3: electrolysis of oxide in molten state → Mg can do so (1)​
⇒ The more stable the oxide, the more reactive the metal. ​

3
Therefore, order of reactivity: Mg > Cu > Ag (1)

0
2.​ Displacement reaction​

E
Observation → with correct explanation (if asked)!!!​

T
​

O
e.g. from _____ to colourless (better). OR the _____ colour fades (sometimes okay).​
→ as the amount of _____ion decreases.​

N
​
e.g.2 the metal is coated with _______ powder.​
→ as ____ ions are displaced out from the solution to form the metal.​

EV
** Avoid to write something like “some ____ deposits formed in the solution”

3.​ Chemical equation​

M
Please balance the equation correctly!!!!!
R
4.​ Rusting​
HE
Al2O3 as a protective layer.​
When Al is exposed to the air, a thin but tough Al2O3 layer, which is impermeable to air and
C

water, forms on its surface.​

Essential conditions for rusting to occur: OXYGEN AND WATER (don’t write air!!!!!)
KA

5.​ Rust indicator​

tip and nail → blue colour​
M

body→ pink colour

6.​ Mole calculation​

LDA

Adding excess H2SO4 → to ensure all the (solids) are reacted (not just dissolved!!!!!)​
i.e. making those solids limiting (limiting reactant).
NOR
Supplementary Notes (sources from other tutorial classes)

1.​ Distinguishing species (CuO and Ag2O)​

Which of the following methods can be used to distinguish CuO(s) and Ag2O(s)?​
(1) Heating each of them strongly.​
(2) Heating each of them with carbon strongly.​
(3) Heating each of them with dilute nitric acid.​

3
​

0
Answer: All yes.​

E
For (1), Ag2O(s) is reduced to Ag upon heating and gives silvery colour.​

T
For (2), CuO(s) is reduced to Cu and gives brown colour while Ag2O(s) is reduced to Ag.​

O
For (3), both of them dissolve in HNO3 to give cations: Cu2+ is blue while Ag+ is colourless.​

N
2.​ Balancing sophisticated chemical equations​
⇒ Method used: no. of atoms on reactant side = no. of atoms on product side ​
(by law of conservation of mass)​
EVR
M
​
e.g. 1 ​ NH4OH + H3PO4 → (NH4)3PO4 + H2O​
HE
​
C

Let a, b, c, and d be the stoichiometric ratios of NH4OH, H3PO4, (NH4)3PO4 and H2O respectively.​
i.e. aNH4OH + bH3PO4 → c(NH4)3PO4 + dH2O
KA

element Reactant side Product side

M

N a = 3c

H 5a+3b = 12c+2d
LDA

O a+4b = 4c+d
N

P b = c
O

​
R

We choose a = 3, then we have b = c = 1.​

From a + 4b = 4c + d, we have 3 + 4 = 4 + d ⇒ d = 3.​
(OR from 5a + 3b = 12c + 2d, we have 15 + 3 = 12 + 2d ⇒ d = 3.)​
Therefore, the balanced equation would be 3NH4OH + H3PO4 → (NH4)3PO4 + 3H2O.​
​
 e.g. 2 ​ FeS2 + O2 → Fe2O3 + SO2​

Let a, b, c, and d be the stoichiometric ratios of FeS2, O2, Fe2O3 and SO2 respectively.​
i.e. aFeS2 + bO2 → cFe2O3 + dSO2

element Reactant side Product side

Fe a = 2c

3
S 2a = d

0
O 2b = 3c+2d

ET
​

O
We choose a = 2, then we have c = 1 and d = 4.

N
From 2b = 3c + 2d, we have 2b = 3 + 8 = 11 ⇒ b = 11/2.
However, the stoichiometric ratios should be a whole number, hence we have to multiply all
ratios by 2, i.e. a = 4, b = 11, c = 2 and d = 8.

EVR
Therefore, the balanced equation would be 4FeS2 + 11O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2.​
M
3.​ Rusting of iron​
Rust indicator
HE
Suppose a Fe rod is plated with another metal (unknown
C

reactivity), but with a stretched part in the middle.​

KA

Case 1: The plating metal is of lower reactivity​

M

⇒ Blue colour is observed near the stretched area.

Fe is more reactive than the plating metal, so it loses e- to give Fe2+ more readily.
LDA

Fe2+ reacts with the rust indicator to give a blue colour.

⇒ Pink colour is observed near the two heads of the Fe rod.
N

O2 and H2O gain electrons from Fe to give OH-. The gel becomes alkaline.
O

(O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → OH-)

R

Case 2: The plating metal is of higher reactivity

⇒ Only the pink colour is observed near the stretched area.
 Remarks:
The plating metal is more reactive than Fe, so it prevents Fe from losing e- through sacrificial
protection. The plating metal loses electrons to give plating metal ions.
O2 and H2O gain electrons from Fe to give OH-. The gel becomes alkaline.
(O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → OH-)​
​
​ Therefore, even if no rusting occurs, there are still observable changes!​

30 ETON
​

EVR
4.​ Experimental set-up to determine the empirical formula of an oxide of Pb​
M
HEC KA

​
M

Q: Why is it necessary to burn away any excess town gas?

A: Town gas is flammable (due to H2).
LDA

Q: Given that the empirical formula of the oxide of Pb is PbO2. Write down the chemical
N

equation for the reaction involved in the experiment.

O

A: PbO2(s) + 2CO(g) → Pb(s) + 2CO2(g).

R

Q: Why is it necessary to continue passing town gas over the Pb formed while it cooled?
A: This is to prevent the hot Pb formed from reacting with O2 again.