EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded: something that is attached to another thing

System: is a set of interrelated part/component which is design, develop to perform common tasks or to
do some specific works for which it has been created

Embedded System: is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform a specific function

and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).

E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive Control Units,
Set Top Box, DVD Player etc

1. Computer: A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources that integrate together
and provides various functionalities to the user.

2. Embedded Device: An embedded device is a part of an integrated system that is formed as a

combination of computer hardware and software for a specific function and which can operate without
human interaction.

Criteria General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

Content It is a combination of hardware, It is a combination of special

Software and a general purpose purpose hardware and embedded
operating system for executing a operating system for executing a
variety of application specific set of application
Operating System It has general purpose Operating It may or may not have operating
system(GPOS) system
Change Application are alterable by the user The firmware of embedded
system is pre- programmed and it
is not-alterable by the end-user
Key Factor Performance is key factor Application specific is the key
factor
Power Consumption More Less generally they are battery
operated.
Response time Not Time-Critical It is time-critical in some
application
Examples Desktop, Laptop Air Conditioner, Refrigerator

HISTORY OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

First Recognized Modern Embedded System: Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) developed by
Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory.
It has two modules
Command module (CM) [Link] Excursion
Module (LEM)
RAM size 256, 1K, 2K words
ROM size 4K, 10K, 36K words
Clock frequency is 1.024MHz
5000, 3-input RTL NOR gates are used
User interface is DSKY (display/Keyboard)
First Mass Produced Embedded System: Autonetics D-17 Guidance computer for Minuteman-I
missile
CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
The classifications are based on the following criteria’s:
A. Generation
B. Complexing and Performance
C. Deterministic Behaviour
D. Triggering
E. Functional Requirement
CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM BASED ON GENERATION
1. First Generation: Built around 8 bit microprocessor and 4 bit microcontroller Simple in hardware
circuit and firmware developed. Example: Digital telephone keypads

2. Second Generation: Built around 16-bit microprocessor and 8 or 16 bit microcontroller. They are more
complex and powerful than 1G microprocessor and microcontroller. Examples: data acquisition systems

3. Third Generation: Built around 32-bit microprocessor and 16-bit microcontroller digital signal
processing DSP, application specific integrated circuit ASIC .Examples: Robotics, Media

4. Fourth Generation: Built around 64-bit microprocessor and 32-bit microcontroller System on chip
(SoC), Multicore processors evolved Highly complex and powerful. Example: Smart phone

CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM BASED ON COMPLEXITY AND

PERFORMANCE
1. Small-Scale (Eg : Electronic toy) : Built around low performance and low cost 8-bit or 16-bit
micro-controller/microprocessor. They can be powered by a battery. May or may not contain OS
for its functioning. Simple in application need Performance not time-critical
2. Medium-Scale (Eg: Industrial machines): Built around medium performance and low cost 16-
bit or 32-bit micro-controller/microprocessor. They usually contain embedded OS for
functioning. Slightly complex in hardware and firmware requirement Java, C, C++ are the
programming languages are used to develop medium scale embedded systems.
3. Large-Scale (Eg: Mission Critical Applications): Highly complex hardware and firmware.
Built around 32 or 64 bit reduce instructions set computer RISC processors/controllers or
multicore processors and programmable logic devices Response is time-critical. Contains real
time purpose operation system RTOS for task scheduling, prioritization and management
CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM BASED ON DETERMINISTIC
BEHAVIOUR
This classification is applicable for Real Time Systems. The task execution behaviour for
embedded systems may be deterministic or non-deterministic. Based on execution behaviour
Real Time embedded systems are divided into Hard and Soft
These are classified in to two types

1. Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be tolerated to a certain degree

2. Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution time deadline can have catastrophic
consequences (financial, human loss of life, etc.)

CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM BASED ON TRIGGERING

Embedded Systems which are reactive in nature can be based on triggering. Reactive systems
can be: Event triggered and Time triggered
These are classified into two types
1. Event Triggered: Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic and depend
upon occurrence of different events.
2. Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed schedule (i.e., they
are allocated time slots during which they can take place) and thus by nature are predictable.
CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM BASED ON FUNCTIONAL
REQUIREMENT
1. Stand Alone Embedded Systems; Stand alone embedded systems do not require a host system
like a computer, it works by itself. It takes the input from the input ports either analog or digital
and processes, calculates and converts the data and gives the resulting data through the
connected device-Which either controls, drives or displays the connected devices. Examples for
the stand alone embedded systems are microwave ovens, calculators and temperature
measurement systems.
2. Real Time Embedded Systems: A real time embedded system is defined as, a system which
gives a required o/p in a particular time. These types of embedded systems follow the time
deadlines for completion of a task. Real time embedded systems are classified into two types
such as soft and hard real time systems. Eg: Traffic Control System
3. Networked Embedded Systems: These types of embedded systems are related to a network to
access the resources. The connected network can be LAN, WAN or the internet. The connection
can be any wired or wireless. This type of embedded system is the fastest growing area in
embedded system applications. The embedded web server is a type of system wherein all
embedded devices are connected to a web server and accessed and controlled by a web browser.
Example for the LAN networked embedded system is a home security system wherein all
sensors are connected and run on the protocol TCP/IP. Eg:ATM
4. Mobile Embedded Systems: Mobile embedded systems are used in portable embedded devices
like cell phones, mobiles etc. The basic limitation of these devices is the other resources and
limitation of memory.
MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

 Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.

 Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave
Oven etc.
 Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection
alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
 Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition
Systems, Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
 Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications
etc.
 Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
 Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
 Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.
 Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers
PLC systems etc.
 Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters, Point of
Sales (POS)
 Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

PURPOSE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.
1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data Communication
3. Data (Signal) Processing
4. Monitoring
 5. Control
6. Application Specific User Interface
1. DATA COLLECTION/STORAGE/REPRESENTATION
Embedded Systems designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of data from
the external world. Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and
transmission. Data can be digital (discrete) or analog (continuous)
ES with analog data capturing techniques collect data directly in the form of analog signal
whereas embedded system with digital data collection mechanism converts the analog signal to
digital using analog to digital convertors. If the data is digital it can be directly captured by
digital ES Eg: Digital Camera
Images are captured those may be stored within the memory of the camera. The captured image
can also be presented to user through a graphic LCD unit.
2. DATA COMMUNICATION
Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in applications ranging from complex
satellite communication systems to simple home networking systems. Embedded Data
communication systems are dedicated for data communication
The data communication can happen through a wired interface (like Ethernet, RS-
232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc) or wireless interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS, Bluetooth, ZigBee etc)
Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are typical examples for dedicated data
transmission embedded systems
3. DATA (SIGNAL) PROCESSING
Embedded systems with Signal processing functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec, transmission
applications etc Computational intensive systems, Employs Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)
4. MONITORING
Embedded systems coming under this category are specifically designed for monitoring purpose
They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors
They cannot impose control over variables.
Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heartbeat of a patient is a typical example
for this
The sensors used in ECG are the different Electrodes connected to the patient’s body
Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in
Control & Instrumentation applications are also examples of embedded systems for monitoring
purpose
5. CONTROL
Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing control over some
variables according to the changes in input variables
Embedded system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators
Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental variable or
measuring variable
The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in input
variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the
specified range
Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for embedded system with
„Control‟ functionality
Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a thermistor
and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature
The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to the
current room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.
6. APPLICATION SPECIFIC USER INTERFACE
Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application
Contains Application Specific User interface (rather than general standard UI ) like key board,
Display units etc Eg: Mobile phone
CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED COMPUTING APPLICATIONS

 Complex Algorithms
 User Interface
 Real Time
 Multirate
 Manufacturing Cost
 Power

Complex algorithms: The operations performed by the microprocessor may be very

sophisticated. For example, the microprocessor that controls an automobile engine must perform
complicated filtering functions to optimize the performance of the car while minimizing
pollution and fuel utilization.
User interface: Microprocessors are frequently used to control complex user interfaces that may
include multiple menus and many options. The moving maps in Global Positioning System
(GPS) navigation are good examples of sophisticated user interfaces.
To make things more difficult, embedded computing operations must often be performed to meet
deadlines:
Real time: Many embedded computing systems have to perform in real time— if the data is not
ready by a certain deadline, the system breaks. In some cases, failure to meet a deadline is unsafe
and can even endanger lives. In other cases, missing a deadline does not create safety problems
but does create unhappy customers— missed deadlines in printers, for example, can result in
scrambled pages.
Multirate: Not only must operations be completed by deadlines, but many embedded computing
systems have several real-time activities going on at the same time. They may simultaneously
control some operations that run at slow rates and others that run at high rates. Multimedia
applications are prime examples of multirate behaviour. The audio and video portions of a
multimedia stream run at very different rates, but they must remain closely synchronized. Failure
to meet a deadline on either the audio or video portions spoils the perception of the entire
presentation.
Costs of various sorts are also very important:
Manufacturing cost: The total cost of building the system is very important in many cases.
Manufacturing cost is determined by many factors, including the type of microprocessor used,
the amount of memory required, and the types of I/O devices.
Power and energy: Power consumption directly affects the cost of the hardware, since a larger
power supply may be necessary. Energy consumption affects battery life, which is important in
many applications, as well as heat consumption, which can be important even in desktop
applications.
Challenges in Embedded Computing System Design
How much hardware do we need?
How do we meet deadlines?
How do we minimize power consumption?
How do we design for upgradability?
Does it really work?
Complex testing
Limited observability and controllability
Restricted development environments
External constraints are one important source of difficulty in embedded system design. Let‘s
consider some important problems that must be taken into account in embedded system design.
How much hardware do we need?
We have a great deal of control over the amount of computing power we apply to our problem.
We cannot only select the type of microprocessor used, but also select the amount of memory,
the peripheral devices, and more. Since we often must meet both performance deadlines and
manufacturing cost constraints, the choice of hardware is important—too little hardware and the
system fails to meet its deadlines, too much hardware and it becomes too expensive.
How do we meet deadlines?
The brute force way of meeting a deadline is to speed up the hardware so that the program runs
faster. Of course, that makes the system more expensive. It is also entirely possible that
increasing the CPU clock rate may not make enough difference to execution time, since the
program‘s speed may be limited by the memory system.
How do we minimize power consumption?
In battery-powered applications, power consumption is extremely important. Even in non battery
applications, excessive power consumption can increase heat dissipation. One way to make a
digital system consume less power is to make it run more slowly, slowing down the system can
obviously lead to missed deadlines. Careful design is required to slow down the noncritical parts
of the machine for power consumption while still meeting necessary performance goals.
How do we design for upgradability?
The hardware platform may be used over several product generations or for several different
versions of a product in the same generation, with few or no changes. However, we want to be
able to add features by changing software.
Does it really work?
Reliability is always important when selling products—customers rightly expect that products
they buy will work. Reliability is especially important in some applications. If we wait until we
have a running system and try to eliminate the bugs, we will be too late—we won‘t find enough
bugs, it will be too expensive to fix them, and it will take more time.
Let‘s consider some ways in which the nature of embedded computing machines makes their
design more difficult.
Complex testing: Exercising an embedded system is generally more difficult than typing in some
data. We may have to run a real machine in order to generate the proper data. The timing of data
is often important, meaning that we cannot separate the testing of an embedded computer from
the machine in which it is embedded.
Limited observability and controllability: Embedded computing systems usually do not come
with keyboards and screens. This makes it more difficult to see what is going on and to affect the
system‘s operation. We may be forced to watch the values of electrical signals on the
microprocessor bus, for example, to know what is going on inside the system. Moreover, in real-
time applications we may not be able to easily stop the system to see what is going on inside.
Restricted development environments: The development environments for embedded systems
(the tools used to develop software and hardware) are often much more limited than those
available for PCs and workstations.

THE CORE OF THE EMBEDDED SYSTEMS: The core of the embedded system falls into
anyone of the following categories.

1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
 Digital Signal Processors
2. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
3. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
4. Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)
1. GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC PROCESSOR
Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor, depending
on the domain and application.
Microprocessor: A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable
of performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer
In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and Working
registers
Microprocessor is a dependant unit and it requires the combination of other hardware like
Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper functioning.
Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit processor
which was released in Nov 1971
Developers of microprocessors.
Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit) Intel – Intel 4040.
Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit). Motorola – Motorola 6800.
Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976. Zilog - Z80 – July 1976
Microcontroller: A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special
and General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
Timer and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors
Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic applications and
domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from Atmel Corporation. Designed
specifically for automotive applications)
Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent working,
they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors
Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market
Texas Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the world‟s first microcontroller
Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller

Microprocessor Microcontroller

A silicon chip representing a Central A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip

Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM,
of performing arithmetic as well as logical
Special and General purpose Register
operations according to a pre-defined setArrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for
of Instructions program storage, Timer and Interrupt
control units and dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the It is a self-contained unit and it doesn‘t
combination of other chips like Timers, require external Interrupt Controller, Timer,
Program and data memory chips, Interrupt UART etc for its functioning
controllers etc for functioning
Most of the time general purpose in Mostly application oriented or domain
design and operation specific
Doesn’t contain a built in I/O port. The Most of the processors contain multiple
I/O Port functionality needs to be built-in I/O ports which can be operated as a
implemented with the help of external single 8 or 16 or 32 bit Port or as individual
Programmable Peripheral Interface Chips port pins
like 8255
Targeted for high end market where Targeted for embedded market where
performance is important performance is not so critical (At present
this demarcation is invalid)
Limited power saving options compared Includes lot of power saving features
to microcontrollers

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessors designed specifically to meet the
computational demands and power constraints of today's embedded audio, video, and
communications applications
Digital Signal Processors are 2 to 3 times faster than the general purpose microprocessors in
signal processing applications
DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general
purpose processors implement the algorithm in firmware and the speed of execution depends
primarily on the clock for the processors
DSP can be viewed as a microchip designed for performing high speed computational operations
for „addition‟, „subtraction‟, „multiplication‟ and „division‟
A typical Digital Signal Processor incorporates the following key units
 Program Memory
 Data Memory
 Computational Engine
 I/O Unit
2. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):
Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost every
other function a system must perform.
Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories - Fixed and Programmable. The
circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of functions -
once manufactured, they cannot be changed
Programmable logic devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic capacity, features,
speed, and voltage characteristics - and these devices can be re-configured to perform any
number of functions at any time
Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test their logic
designs in PLD based design. The design can be quickly programmed into a device, and
immediately tested in a live circuit
PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to change
the design
3. Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as replacement to
conventional general purpose logic chips.
ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system development
cost
Most of the ASICs are proprietary products. As a single chip, ASIC consumes very small area in
the total system and thereby helps in the design of smaller systems with high
capabilities/functionalities.
ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated by using the
components from a re-usable „building block‟ library of components for a particular customer
application
Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment (Non Recurring Engineering
(NRE) charges) for the process technology and configuration expenses
If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is born by a third party and the Application
Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the market, the ASIC is referred
as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP)
The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general-purpose product , but to a smaller
number of customers since it is for a specific application.
Some ASICs are proprietary products; the developers are not interested in revealing the internal
details.
4. Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS)
A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) product is one which is used „as-is‟
COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and interoperability with
existing system components
Typical examples for the COTS hardware unit are Remote Controlled Toy Car control unit
including the RF Circuitry part, High performance, high frequency microwave electronics (2 to
200 GHz), High bandwidth analog-to-digital converters, Devices and components for operation
at very high temperatures, Electro-optic IR imaging arrays, UV/IR Detectors etc
A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or Application Specific
Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific Integrated Chip (ASIC)/Application
Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or Programmable Logic Device (PLD)
The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market, cheap and a
developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extent.
There is no need to design the module yourself and write the firmware. Everything will be
readily supplied by the COTs manufacturer.
COMMUNICATION INTERFACE
Communication interface is essential for communicating with various subsystems of the
embedded system and with the external world
The communication interface can be viewed in two different perspectives; namely;
1. Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface)
2. Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface)
1. Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface):
The communication channel which interconnects the various components within an embedded
product is referred as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication
Interface)
Examples: Serial interfaces like I2C, SPI, UART, 1-Wire etc and Parallel bus interface I2C (Inter
Integrated Circuit) Bus
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Bus
UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) 1-Wires Interface
Parallel Interface
2. Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface):
The Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface) is responsible
for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or modules. The external
communication interface can be either wired media or wireless media and it can be a serial or
parallel interface.
Examples for wireless communication interface: Infrared (IR), Bluetooth (BT), Wireless LAN
(Wi-Fi), Radio Frequency waves (RF), GPRS etc.
Examples for wired interfaces: RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485, USB, Ethernet (TCP-IP), IEEE 1394
port, Parallel port etc.