FALL 2025: ELEG 648

Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics

LECTURE 15
Chapter 6: Vector Potentials
Professor Dennis W. Prather, Ph.D.
Office: DuPont Hall, Room 109
Phone: (302)-545-6611
Email: dprather@[Link]

Electrical and Computer

Engineering

1
Course Roadmap
Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics (2nd Edition), C.A. Balanis, Wiley Publishing
• Chapter 1: Time-Varying and Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields
• Chapter 2: Electrical Properties of Matter
• Chapter 3: Wave Equation and its Solutions
• Chapter 4: Wave Propagation and Polarization
• Chapter 5: Reflection and Transmission
• Chapter 6: Auxiliary Vector Potentials, Construction of Solutions, and Radiation and Scattering Equations
• Chapter 8: Rectangular Cross-Section Waveguides and Cavities
• Chapter 11: Scattering

Antenna Theory Analysis and Design (3rd Edition), C.A. Balanis, Wiley Publishing

• Chapter 1: Antennas
• Chapter 2: Fundamental Parameters of Antennas
• Chapter 3: Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions
• Chapter 4: Linear Wire Antennas
• Chapter 6: Arrays: Linear, Planar, and Circular

2
Problem Assignments and Exams
• Homework #1: Quiz on 8/28/25
- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 1: #1-4, all problems

• Homework #2: Quiz on 9/04/25

- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 1: #5-10, all problems

• Homework #3: Quiz on 9/18/25

- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 2: #1-25, odd problems

• Homework #4: Quiz on 9/25/25

- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 3: #1-5, 12, 14, 15

• Homework #5: Quiz on 10/02/25

- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 4: #1-11, odd

Note date • Homework #6: Quiz on 10/09/25

- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 4: #13-23, odd

change!!! • Homework #7: Quiz on 10/16/25

- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 5: #1-5

• EXAM I: 10/23/2025 on Chapters 1-5

• Homework #8: Quiz on 11/06/25

- Balani's 2nd Edition, Chapter 6: #1, 2, 7, 8,10,12

• Homework #9: Quiz on 11/13/25

- Balanis 2nd Edition, Chapter 8: #1-6, 8-11

• Homework #10: Quiz on 11/20/25

- Balanis, 2nd Edition, Chapter 11: Lecture Notes

• Homework #11: Quiz on 12/04/25

- Balanis, Antennas 4th Edition, Chapter 2: #1-4, 12, 16, 17

• Homework #12: Quiz on 12/04/25

- Balanis, Antennas 4th Edition, Chapters 3, 4 and 6: #3.3, 3.5, 4.3, 4.5, 4.15, 6.1(a,b), 6.2(a), 6.3, 6.4, 6.5

• EXAM 2: 12/08/25 Chapters EM: 6, 8, 11 and ANT: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6

• FINAL EXAM: TBD ALL CHAPTERS

3
 Chapter 6:
Auxiliary Vector Potentials, Construction of
Solutions, and Radiation and Scattering
Equations

Electrical and Computer

Engineering
Path One
Maxwell’s Equations

# = −𝑴
∇×𝑬 # − 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑯
# (6-1a)

# = 𝑱, + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑬
∇×𝑯 # (6-1b)

𝒒!"
#=
∇0𝑬 (6-1c)
𝜀
𝒒
# = #"
∇0𝑯 (6-1d)
𝜇
or Wave Equation
𝟏
#
∇$ 𝑬 + #
𝛽$𝑬 # + 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑱, +
= ∇×𝑴 ∇𝒒 (6-2a)
𝜀 !"
𝟏
#
∇$ 𝑯 + #
𝛽$𝑯 = −∇×𝑱, + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝑴
# + ∇𝒒 (6-2c)
𝜇 #"
Path One

Fig. 6-1
The Vector Potential A

$ =0
∇ " ∇×𝑨 (6-3)

$4 = 0
∇"𝑩

$4 = 𝜇𝑯
𝑩 $ 4 = ∇×𝑨
$ (6-4)

1
$ 4 = ∇×𝑨
𝑯 $ (6-4a)
𝜇
The Vector Potential A
$4 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑯
∇×𝑬 $4 (6-5)

1
$4 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 ∇×𝑨
∇×𝑬 $
𝜇

$
= −𝑗𝜔∇×𝑨 (6-6)

$4 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨
∇× 𝑬 $ =0 (6-7)

∇× −∇𝜙5 = 0 (6-8)
The Vector Potential A

$4 = −𝑗𝜔𝑨
𝑬 $ − ∇𝜙5 ' + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀∇𝜙! = 0
∇&𝑨
Lorentz Gauge

1
$−∇ −
= −𝑗𝜔𝑨 $
∇"𝑨
𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀

1
𝑬 $−𝑗
$4 = −𝑗𝜔𝑨 $
∇ ∇"𝑨 (6-17)
𝜔𝜇𝜀
The Vector Potential A
𝑬 $ = −∇𝜙5
$4 + 𝑗𝜔𝑨 (6-9)

$4 = −𝑗𝜔𝑨
𝑬 $ − ∇𝜙5 (6-9a)

$4 = 𝜇𝑯
𝑩 $ 4 = ∇×𝑨
$ (6-4)

$4 = 𝜇∇×𝑯
∇×𝑩 $ 4 = ∇×∇×𝑨
$

Using the Vector Identity

$ =∇ ∇"𝑨
∇×∇×𝑨 $ − ∇6 𝑨
$ (6-10)
The Vector Potential A
$ 4 = ∇×∇×𝑨
𝜇∇×𝑯 $ (6-10a)

$ − ∇6 𝑨
=∇ ∇"𝑨 $
1
$4 =
∇×𝑯 $ − ∇6 𝑨
∇ ∇"𝑨 $
𝜇

$ 4 = 𝑱3 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑬
∇×𝑯 $4 (6-12)

1
𝑱3 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑬
$4 = $ − ∇6 𝑨
∇ ∇"𝑨 $ (6-13)
𝜇
The Vector Potential A

# =∇ ∇0𝑨
∇$ 𝑨 # − 𝜇 𝑱, − 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀 𝑬
#1

# =∇ ∇0𝑨
∇$ 𝑨 # − 𝜇 𝑱, − 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀 −∇𝜙! − 𝑗𝜔𝑨
# (6-9)

# + 𝜔$ 𝜇𝜀 𝑨
∇$ 𝑨 # = −𝜇 𝑱, + ∇ ∇ 0 𝑨
# + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀∇𝜙!

# + 𝛽$𝑨
∇$ 𝑨 # = −𝜇 𝑱, + ∇ ∇ 0 𝑨
# + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀𝜙! (6-14)

∇! 𝑨 − ∇ ∇ $ 𝑨 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀𝜙" + 𝛽 ! 𝑨− = −𝜇𝐉⃗
Gauge Transformations

∇! 𝑨 − ∇ ∇ $ 𝑨 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀𝜙" + 𝛽 ! 𝑨− = −𝜇𝐉⃗
If we can have: # + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀𝜙! = 0
∇0𝑨

The Lorenz Gauge:

1
𝜙! = − #
∇0𝑨 (6-15)
𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜀

∇! 𝑨 + 𝛽 ! 𝑨 = −𝜇𝐉⃗
Gauge Transformations
A mathematical gauge transformation is a local change in the mathematical description of a physical system—
specifically, a transformation of the potential fields—that leaves all physically observable quantities
unchanged. This fundamental property is known as gauge invariance or gauge symmetry.

The term "gauge" refers to a redundant set of variables used to describe the system, often called potentials.

Consider the Gravitational Potential Energy, 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ.

• The physically measurable quantity is the force, which depends on the difference in height (or potential).

• You have the freedom to set ℎ = 0 anywhere you like (the floor, a table, or sea level). If you shift the zero
point by a constant C, the new potential 𝑉 " = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝐶.

• The force 𝐹 = −∇𝑉 which is unchanged, as the constant C drops out.

• A mathematical gauge transformation extends this idea to make the transformation local—the offset C can
be a function of position and time, C(x,t).
Gauge Transformations
We can transform the vector potential using a scalar function, λ:
𝑨 → 𝑨! = 𝑨 + 𝛁λ 1
Recall that the electric field is: 𝜕𝑨
#1 = −∇𝜑 −
𝑬
𝜕𝑡
Thus, with 𝑨 → 𝑨! we have: 𝜕𝑨′ 𝜕 𝑨 + 𝛁λ
#1 = −∇𝜑 −
𝑬 ⇒ −∇𝜑 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Therefore, for the electric field to remain unchanged, we must also transform the scalar potential:

𝝏𝝀
𝝓 → 𝝓! = 𝝓 − 2
𝝏𝒕
These transformations are gauge transformations and allow us to manipulate the vector potential and
scalar potential without affecting the physical, measurable properties of the field.
Gauge Transformations
To demonstrate the invariance on the magnetic field we can insert the transformation of equation (1) and a
transformed magnetic flux density into equation (6-4):

∇×𝑨′ = 𝑩′ = ∇× 𝑨 + 𝛁λ = ∇×𝑨 + ∇×𝛁λ = ∇×𝑨 = 𝑩

This can also be demonstrated by similarly inserting (2) into a transformed electric field intensity (6-9)

: 𝜕 𝑨 + 𝛁λ
:
𝜕𝑨 𝜕λ 𝜕𝑨
𝑬′ = −∇𝜑 − ⇒ −∇ 𝜙 + − = −∇𝜑 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕λ 𝜕𝑨 𝜕λ
= −∇𝜙 + ∇ − −∇
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑨
𝑬′ = 𝑬 = −∇𝜙 −
𝜕𝑡
Gauge Transformations
We substitute our transformations from (1) and (2) into the Lorenz Condition:

1 𝜕𝜙 : 1 𝜕 𝜕λ
:
∇0𝑨 + $ = 0 = ∇ 0 𝑨 + 𝛁λ + $ 𝜙− →
c 𝜕𝑡 c 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕 $ λ
∇0𝑨 + ∇$ λ + $ − =0→
c 𝜕𝑡 c $ 𝜕𝑡 $
$
1 𝜕$λ 1 𝜕𝜙
∇ λ− $ = −∇ 0 𝑨 −
c 𝜕𝑡 $ c $ 𝜕𝑡

This shows that there must be a gauge function, λ, with the transformed potentials, A’ and 𝜙', that satisfies
the Lorenz Condition and solves:

1 𝜕 $λ
∇$ λ − $ $ =0
c 𝜕𝑡
The Vector Potential A

1
𝑬 $−𝑗
$4 = −𝑗𝜔𝑨 $
∇ ∇"𝑨 (6-17)
𝜔𝜇𝜀

1
$ $
𝑯4 = ∇×𝑨 (6-4a)
𝜇
The Vector Potential A

" + 𝛽! 𝑨
∇! 𝑨 " = −𝜇𝑱) (6-16)

Which has the solution via a Green’s function approach:

𝜀 𝑒 )*+, ʹ
,=
𝑨 0 𝑱1 𝑑𝑣 (6-95a)
4𝜋 𝑅
(
The Vector Potential A

$ + 𝛽6 𝑨
∇6 𝑨 $ = −𝜇𝑱3 (source) (6-30)

𝜀 𝑒 )*+, ʹ
,=
𝑨 0 𝑱1 𝑑𝑣 (6-95a)
4𝜋 𝑅
(

$ + 𝛽6 𝑨
∇6 𝑨 $=0 (source-free) (6-38)

⟹
$4 , 𝑯
Find 𝑬 $4
The Vector Potential F

Using a similar procedure, the following

equations are derived.
The Vector Potential F

$ + 𝛽6 𝑭
∇6 𝑭 $ = −𝜀𝑴
$ (source) (6-28)

𝜀 𝑒 )*+, ʹ
,=
𝑭 ,
0𝑴 𝑑𝑣 (6-95b)
4𝜋 𝑅
(

$ + 𝛽6 𝑭
∇6 𝑭 $=0 (source-free) (6-40)

⟹
$F , 𝑯
Find 𝑬 $F
The Vector Potential F

1
$ F = − ∇×𝑭
𝑬 $ (6-19)
𝜀

1
$ F = −𝑗𝜔𝑭
𝑯 $−𝑗 $
∇ ∇"𝑭 (6-29)
𝜔𝜇𝜀
The Vector Potentials A and F

$ + 𝛽6 𝑨
∇6 𝑨 $ = −𝜇𝑱3 (6-30)

$ + 𝛽6 𝑭
∇6 𝑭 $ = −𝜀𝑴
$ (6-31)

𝑱3 = 𝑴
$ = 0:

$ + 𝛽6 𝑨
∇6 𝑨 $=0 (6-38)

$ + 𝛽6 𝑭
∇6 𝑭 $=0 (6-40)
Solution Space Figure 6-2(a)
Solution Space Not at Origin
Solution of the Inhomogeneous Vector
Potential Wave Equation

Electrical and Computer

Engineering
Vector Potential Solution
Upon substitution of the Lorenz Gauge back into the Potential Wave Equation, we get:

2 ∂2 A
∇ A − εµ 2 = −µ J
∂t
To solve this equation, we can use a Green’s function formulism in the frequency, or time harmonic, domain:

$ + 𝛽6 𝑨
∇6 𝑨 $ = −𝜇𝑱3 (6-16)

To make a long story short, the solution to this equation is:

𝜇 𝑒 )*+, ʹ
,=
𝑨 0 𝑱1 𝑑𝑣 (6-95a)
4𝜋 𝑅
(
Vector Wave Equation Solution
Depending on the overall current distribution, the vector wave equation solution can be expressed as a volume current:

<=> 𝒓<𝒓 "

𝜇 𝑒
# 𝒓, 𝑡 =
𝑨 K 𝑱, 𝒓: , 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 ʹ
4𝜋 𝒓 − 𝒓:
;
A surface current:

<=> 𝒓<𝒓 "

𝜇 𝑒
# 𝒓, 𝑡 =
𝑨 O 𝑱,A 𝒓: , 𝑡 𝑑𝑠 ʹ
4𝜋 𝒓−𝒓 :
A

Or a line current:

"
𝜇 𝑒 <=> 𝒓<𝒓
# 𝒓, 𝑡 =
𝑨 Q 𝑰, 𝒓 , 𝑡
:
𝑑𝑙 ʹ
4𝜋 𝒓 − 𝒓:
B
Antennas: Vertical Dipole

Electrical and Computer

Engineering
Vertical Dipole [1]

Fig. 4-5(a) of [1]

Infinitesimal electric dipole antenna
Considering the mentioned assumptions and simplifications, the vector potential becomes:

𝜇" 𝐼𝐿 𝑒 #$%&
𝐴 𝑟 = 𝒂!
4𝜋 𝑟
This infinitesimal antenna with the current element IL is also known as a Hertzian dipole.

Assuming that the distance from the antenna to the observer is much greater than the wavelength
(far field, radiation field, or Fraunhofer field of antenna), i.e., r >> l, let us find the components of
the field generated by the antenna.

Using the spherical coordinates:

𝑎C = 𝑎D cos 𝜃 − 𝑎E sin 𝜃
Vertical Dipole (Example 6.3)

𝜇 𝑒 )*+,
,=
𝑨 : 𝑰1 9 𝑑𝑙′
4𝜋 𝑅
8

𝑰1 9 = 𝑎> : 𝐼9

𝑅=𝑟

? = ⁄>
)*+;
𝜇𝐼9 𝑒 𝜇𝐼9 𝑙 )*+;
, = 𝑎> :
𝑨 !
: 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎> : 𝑒
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
) = ⁄>
Infinitesimal electric dipole antenna
The components of the vector potential are:

µ0 IL e− jkr
Ar = Az (r)cosθ = cosθ
4π r
µ0 IL e− jkr
Aθ = − Az (r)sin θ = − sin θ
4π r
Aφ = 0

The magnetic field intensity can be computed from the vector potential using the definition of the curl
in the SCS (spherical coordinate system):

⎡ ⎤
1 1 ⎡ ∂( rAθ ) ∂ Ar ⎤ I(z) 2 1 1
H (r) = ∇ × A = ⎢ − ⎥uφ = − k sin θ ⎢ + 2
⎥ e− jkr u
µ0 µ0 r ⎢⎣ ∂r ∂θ ⎥⎦ 4π ⎢ ikr
( jkr ) ⎥ φ
⎣ ⎦
Vertical Dipole (Example 6.3)

𝜇𝐼9 𝑙 )*+;
𝐴: = 𝑒
4𝜋𝑟

𝜇𝐼9 𝑙 )*+;
𝐴; = 𝐴: cos 𝜃 = 𝑒 cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝑟

𝜇𝐼9 𝑙 )*+;
𝐴@ = −𝐴: sin 𝜃 = − 𝑒 sin 𝜃
4𝜋𝑟

𝐴A = 0
Vertical Dipole (Example 6.3)

1 1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴;
𝑯 , = 𝑎> A
, = ∇×𝑨 𝑟𝐴@ −
𝜇 𝜇𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝐻; = 𝐻@ = 0

𝑘𝐼9 𝑙 1
𝐻A = 𝑗 sin 𝜃 1 + 𝑒 )*B;
4𝜋𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟
Infinitesimal electric dipole antenna
The components of the vector potential are:

µ0 IL e− jkr
Ar = Az (r)cosθ = cosθ
4π r
µ0 IL e− jkr
Aθ = − Az (r)sin θ = − sin θ
4π r
Aφ = 0

The magnetic field intensity can be computed from the vector potential using the definition of the curl in
the SCS (spherical coordinate system):

⎡ ⎤
1 1 ⎡ ∂( rAθ ) ∂ Ar ⎤ I(z) 2 1 1
H (r) = ∇ × A = ⎢ − ⎥uφ = − k sin θ ⎢ + 2
⎥ e− jkr u
µ0 µ0 r ⎢⎣ ∂r ∂θ ⎥⎦ 4π ⎢ ikr
( jkr ) ⎥ φ
⎣ ⎦
Infinitesimal electric dipole antenna
Which can be rewritten as
Hr = 0
jkIL e− jkr
Hφ ≈ sin θ
4π r
Hθ = 0
Note: the equations above are approximates derived for the far field assumptions.

The electric field can be computed from Maxwellʼs equations:

⎡ ( ) ( ) ⎤
1 1 ⎢ 1 ∂ H φ sin θ 1 ∂ rH φ
E(r) = ∇ × H (r) = ur − uθ ⎥
jωε 0 jωε 0 ⎢⎣ r sin θ ∂θ r ∂r ⎥⎦
Vertical Dipole (Example 6.3)

1
, = −𝑗𝜔 𝑨
𝑬 ,−𝑗 ,
∇ ∇T𝑨
𝜔𝜇𝜀

𝐼9 𝑙 cos 𝜃 1 )*B;
𝐸; = 𝜂 1 + 𝑒
2𝜋𝑟 > 𝑗𝑘𝑟

𝑘𝐼9 𝑙 sin 𝜃 1 1
𝐸@ = 𝑗𝜂 1+ − >
𝑒 )*B;
4𝜋𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑘𝑟

𝐸A = 0
Vertical Dipole (Example 6.3)
𝐼C 𝑙 1 )*B;
𝐸; = 𝜂 cos 𝜃 1 + 𝑒
2𝜋𝑟 > 𝑗𝑘𝑟

𝑘𝐼C 𝑙 1 1
𝐸@ = 𝑗𝜂 sin 𝜃 1 + − >
𝑒 )*B;
4𝜋𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑘𝑟

𝐸A = 𝐻; = 𝐻@ = 0

𝑘𝐼C 𝑙 1
𝐻A = 𝑗 1+ sin 𝜃 𝑒 )*B;
4𝜋𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟
Infinitesimal electric dipole antenna
The components of the electric field in the far field region are:
Er ≈ 0
jZ0 kIL e− jkr
Eθ ≈ sin θ
4π r
Eφ = 0

where
Eθ (r) µ0
Z0 = = ≈ 377 Ω
H φ (r) ε0

is the wave impedance of vacuum.

Dipole Antenna Pattern