Probability

Probability in everyday life, we come across statements such as:

1. Most probably it will rain today.

2. Chances are high that the prices of petrol will go up.
3. I doubt that he will win the race.

The words „most probably‟, „chances‟, „doubt‟ etc., show the probability of occurrence of an
event.

Some Terms Related to Probability

Experiment:

An operation which can produce some well-defined outcomes is called an experiment. Each
outcome is called an event.

Random Experiment:

In an experiment where all possible outcomes are known and in advance if the exact outcome
cannot be predicted, is called a random experiment.

Thus, when we throw a coin we know that all possible outcomes are Head and Tail.
But, if we throw a coin at random, we cannot predict in advance whether its upper face will show
a head or a tail.

So, tossing a coin is a random experiment.

Similarly, throwing a dice is a random experiment.

Trial:

By a trial, we mean performing a random experiment.

For example; throwing a die or tossing a coin etc.

Sample space:

A sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible results of that random experiment.

For example; in throwing a die possible results are {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Event:

Out of the total results obtained from a certain experiment, the set of those results which are in
favor of a definite result is called the event and it is denoted as E.

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Equally Likely Events:

When there is no reason to expect the happening of one event in preference to the other, then the
events are known equally likely events.

For example; when an unbiased coin is tossed the chances of getting a head or a tail are the
same.

Exhaustive Events:

All the possible outcomes of the experiments are known as exhaustive events.

For example; in throwing a die there are 6 exhaustive events in a trial.

Favorable Events:

The outcomes which make necessary the happening of an event in a trial are called favorable
events.

For example; if two dice are thrown, the number of favorable events of getting a sum 5 is four,

i.e., (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2) and (4, 1).

Additive Law of Probability:

If E1 and E2 be any two events (not necessarily mutually exclusive events), then P(E1 ∪ E2) =
P(E1) + P(E2) - P(E1 ∩ E2)

Probability of Occurrence of an Event:

The probability of occurrence of an event is defined as:

P(occurrence of an event)=

Solved examples on Probability:

1. A dice is thrown 65 times and 4 appeared 2 1 times. Now, in a random throw of a dice, what is
the probability of getting a 4?

Solution:

Total number of tria1s = 65.

Number of times 4 appeared = 21.

Number of times 4 appeared
Probability of getting a 4 = /Total number of trials
= 21/65
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2. A survey of 200families shows the results given below:

No. of girls in the family 2 1 0

No. of Families 32 154 14

Out of these families, one is chosen at random. What is the probability that the chosen family has
1 girl?

Solution:

Total number of families = 200.

Number of families having 1 girl = 154.

Probability of getting a family having 1 girl

= Number of families having 1 girl/Total number of families

= 154/200

= 77/100
Worksheet Probability:

1. The tree diagram above represents three events. In the first event either a Red, White, or Blue
circle is chosen. In the second event either a Red, White, or Blue circle is chosen. In the third
event either a Red, White, or Blue circle is chosen.

Match the following events with the corresponding probabilities:

(a) The second circle is white (a) 10/15

(b) All three circles are red (b) 4/15

(c) Exactly two circles are the same (c) 5/15

(d) At least two circles are the same (d) 3/15

(e) The first circle is not red (e) 1/15

(f) The first two circles are blue (f) 12/15

(g) The third circle is blue (g) 15/15

2. The tree diagram above represents three events. In the first event either an A, B, or C is
chosen. In the second event either an A, B, or C is chosen. In the third event either a D, E, or F is
chosen.

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Match the outcome with its probability:

(a) The second letter is a C (a) 6/12

(b) The first or second letter is an A (b) 0/12

(c) The last letter chosen is a D (c) 5/15

(d) The first two letters chosen are both A (d) 3/15

(e) All three letters are the same (e) 1/15

(f) The first letter is not an A (f) 12/15

(g) ADD (g) 15/15

Terms Related to Probability:

Experiment: An action or process that results in well-defined outcomes is known as an
experiment.

Example: The toss of a coin is an experiment because it results in a “head” or “tail”. So, the
outcomes are well-defined.

Random Experiment:

If an experiment, although conducted under identical conditions, can result in two or more
known outcomes, it is called a random experiment.

Trial:

The process of conducting an experiment is called a trial which results in any one of the possible
outcomes.

Definition of Probability:

The concept of probability started in a statistical form of collecting data and it was called
Empirical Probability. Later a theoretical approach was introduced for probability and it was
called Theoretical Probability or Classical Probability.
Experimental Probability
At first we will know the precise meaning of the term „experiment‟ and the proper context in
which it will be used in our experimental probability.

Definition of experiment: A process which can produce some well-defined results (outcomes) is
called an experiment.

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Some Experiments and their outcomes:

I. Tossing a coin:

Suppose we toss a coin and let it fall flat on the ground. Its upper face will show either Head (H)
or Tail (T).

1. Whatever comes up, is called an outcome.

2. All possible outcomes are Head (H) and Tail (T).

II. Throwing a dice:

A dice is a solid cube having 6 faces, marked as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 respectively.

Suppose we throw a dice and let it fall flat on the ground. Its upper face will show one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

1. Whatever comes up, is called an outcome.

2. All possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

The act of tossing a coin or throwing a dice is called an experiment.

Whatever comes up, is called an outcome.
In an experiment, all possible outcomes are known.

The plural of die is dice.

III. Drawing a card from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards:

A deck of playing cards has in all 52 cards.

1. It has 13 cards each of four suits, namely spades, clubs, hearts and diamonds.

 Cards of spades and clubs are black cards.

 Cards of hearts and diamonds are red cards.

2. Kings, queens and jacks (or knaves) are known as face cards. Thus, there are 12 face cards in all.

Definition of Experimental Probability: The experimental probability of happening of an event is

the ratio of the number of trials in which the event happened to the total number of trials.

The experimental probability of the occurrence of an event E is defined as:

P(E)

Solved examples on Experimental Probability:

1. Suppose we toss a coin 100 times and get a head 58 times. Now, we toss a coin at random.
What is the probability of getting a head?

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Solution:

Total number of trials = 100.

Number of times head appeared = 58.
Probability of getting a head= Number of times head appeared
Total number of trials

= 58/100

= 29/50
2. A coin is tossed 150 times and head is obtained 71 times. Now, if a coin is tossed at random,
what is the probability of getting a tail?

Solution:

Total number of trials = 150.

Number of times head appeared = 71.
Number of times tail appeared = (150 - 71) = 79.

Probability of getting a tail =

= 79/150
Events in Probability
The outcomes of a random experiment are called events connected with the experiment.

For example; „head‟ and „tail‟ are the outcomes of the random experiment of throwing a coin
and hence are events connected with it.

Now we can distinguish between two types of events.

(i) Simple event

(ii) compound event

Simple or Elementary Event:

If there be only one element of the sample space in the set representing an event, then this event
is called a simple or elementary event.

For example; if we throw a die, then the sample space, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Now the event of 2
appearing on the die is simple and is given by E = {2}.
In other words,

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If an event E consists of only one outcome of the experiment then it is called an elementary
event.

For example:

In tossing a coin, E = event of getting a head, F = event of getting a tail are both elementary
events.

In throwing a die,

A = event of getting 5, is an elementary event while

B = event of getting an even number, is not an elementary event because its favourable outcomes
are 2, 4, 6 (three outcomes).

Remember: The sum of probabilities of all elementary events of an experiment is equal to 1.

Compound Event:
If there are more than one element of the sample space in the set representing an event, then this
event is called a compound event.

For example; if we throw a die, having S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, the event of a odd number being shown
is given by E = {1, 3, 5}.

Odd in favor of an event A is defined as; number of favorable events/number of unfavorable events.

Similarly, odds against an event A = number of unfavorable events/number of favorable events.

Certain Events / Sure Events:
An event which is sure to occur at every performance of an experiment is called a certain event
connected with the experiment.

For example, “Head or Tail‟ is a certain event connected with tossing a coin.

Face-1 or face-2, face-3, ……, face-6 is a certain event connected with throwing a die.

Certain Events also known as Sure Event.

Sure Event: An event E is called a sure event if P(E) = 1. This happens when all outcomes of
the experiment are favourable outcomes.

For example, in throwing a die, the event of getting a natural number less than 7 is a sure event.
Impossible Even:
An event which cannot occur at any performance of the experiment is called an possible event.

Following are such examples ----

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(i) „Seven‟ in case of throwing a die.

(ii) „Sum-13‟ in case of throwing a pair of dice.

In other words,

An event E is called an impossible event if P(E) = 0. This happens when no outcome of the
experiment is a favourable outcome.

For example, in throwing a die, the event of getting a natural number greater than 6 is an impossible
event.
Equivalent Events / Identical Events:
Two events are said to be equivalent or identical if one of them implies and implied by other. That is,
the occurrence of one event implies the occurrence of the other and vice versa.

For example, “even face” and “face-2” or “face-4” or “face-6” are two identical events.
Equally Likely Events:
When there is no reason to expect the happening of one event in preference to the other, then the
events are known equally likely events.

For example; when an unbiased coin is tossed the chances of getting a head or a tail are the same.
Exhaustive Events:
All the possible outcomes of the experiments are known as exhaustive events.

For example; in throwing a die there are 6 exhaustive events in a trial.

Favorable Events:
The outcomes which make necessary the happening of an event in a trial are called favorable
events.

For example; if two dice are thrown, the number of favorable events of getting a sum 5 is
four, i.e., (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2) and (4, 1).
Mutually Exclusive Events:
If there be no element common between two or more events, i.e., between two or more subsets of
the sample space, then these events are called mutually exclusive events.
If E1 and E2 are two mutually exclusive events, then E1 ∩ E2 = ∅

For example, in connection with throw a die “even face” and “odd face” are mutually exclusive.

But” odd-face” and “multiple of 3” are not mutually exclusive, because when “face-3” occurs both
the events “odd face” and “multiply of 3” are said to be occurred simultaneously.

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We see that two simple-events are always mutually exclusive while two compound events may or
may not mutually exclusive.

Complementary Event:
An event which consists in the negation of another event is called complementary event of the event.
In case of throwing a die, „even face‟ and „odd face‟ are complementary to each other. “Multiple of
3” ant “Not multiple of 3” are complementary events of each other.

In other words,
If E and F are two events for an experiment such that every favourable outcome for the event E is not
a favourable outcome for the event F and every unfavourable outcome for the event E is a favourable
outcome for F then F is called the complementary event of the event E, and F is denoted by

For example: In the throw of a die if

E = event of getting an odd number

then = event of not getting an odd number, that is, event of getting an even
number.

Remember: P(E) + P( ) = 1, that is, the sum of the probabilities of an event and its
complementary event is 1.
Not happening of the event E is called the complementary event of the event E. It is denoted by
E‟ or E or Ec.

Note that complementary event of certain event is an impossible event and vice versa.

Complementary Event Verification by example:

A bag contains 4 red balls and 5 green balls. A ball is drawn from the bag at random.

Let E = event of drawing a red ball.

Then, = event of not drawing a red ball

= event of drawing a green ball.

Now,

P(E) [ ]

P( [ ]

So, P(E) + P( +

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Therefore, P(E) ( ( ) (E)

Event points, Even Space:

Let an experiment be donated by E. The simple events connected with E will be called even points:
and the set S of all possible even points is called event space of E.

Any subset A of S is obviously an event. If A contains single point then it is a simple event, if A
contains more than one point of S then A is compound event.

Then entire space S is certain event and empty set ∅ is impossible event.

Event points, Even Space:

Let an experiment be donated by E. The simple events connected with E will be called even points:
and the set S of all possible even points is called event space of E.

Any subset A of S is obviously an event. If A contains single point then it is a simple event, if A
contains more than one point of S then A is compound event.

Then entire space S is certain event and empty set ∅ is impossible event.
Probability of Tossing Two Coins
Here we will learn how to find the probability of tossing two coins.

Let us take the experiment of tossing two coins simultaneously:

When we toss two coins simultaneously then the possible of outcomes are: (two heads) or (one
head and one tail) or (two tails) i.e., in short (H, H) or (H, T) or (T, T) respectively; where H is
denoted for head and T is denoted for tail.
Therefore, total numbers of outcome are 22 = 4

The above explanation will help us to solve the problems on finding the probability of tossing
two coins.

Worked-out problems on probability involving tossing or flipping two coins:

1. Two different coins are tossed randomly. Find the probability of:

(i) getting two heads

(ii) getting two tails

(iii) getting one tail

(iv) getting no head

(v) getting no tail

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(vi) getting at least 1 head

(vii) getting at least 1 tail

(viii) getting at most 1 tail

(ix) getting 1 head and 1 tail

Solution:

When two different coins are tossed randomly, the sample space is given by

S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

Therefore, n(S) = 4.

(i) getting two heads:

Let E1 = event of getting 2 heads. Then,
E1 = {HH} and, therefore, n(E1) = 1.
Therefore, P(getting 2 heads) = P(E1) = n(E1)/n(S) = 1/4.

(ii) getting two tails:

Let E2 = event of getting 2 tails. Then,
E2 = {TT} and, therefore, n(E2) = 1.
Therefore, P(getting 2 tails) = P(E2) = n(E2)/n(S) = 1/4.

(iii) getting one tail:

Let E3 = event of getting 1 tail. Then,
E3 = {TH, HT} and, therefore, n(E3) = 2.
Therefore, P(getting 1 tail) = P(E3) = n(E3)/n(S) = 2/4 = 1/2
(iv) getting no head:
Let E4 = event of getting no head. Then,
E4 = {TT} and, therefore, n(E4) = 1.
Therefore, P(getting no head) = P(E4) = n(E4)/n(S) = ¼.

(v) getting no tail:

Let E5 = event of getting no tail. Then,

E5 = {HH} and, therefore, n(E5) = 1.
Therefore, P(getting no tail) = P(E5) = n(E5)/n(S) = ¼.

(vi) getting at least 1 head:

Let E6 = event of getting at least 1 head. Then,
E6 = {HT, TH, HH} and, therefore, n(E6) = 3.
Therefore, P(getting at least 1 head) = P(E6) = n(E6)/n(S) = ¾.
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(vii) getting at least 1 tail:
Let E7 = event of getting at least 1 tail. Then,
E7 = {TH, HT, TT} and, therefore, n(E7) = 3.
Therefore, P(getting at least 1 tail) = P(E2) = n(E2)/n(S) = ¾.

(viii) getting at most 1 tail:

Let E8 = event of getting at most 1 tail. Then,
E8 = {TH, HT, HH} and, therefore, n(E8) = 3.
Therefore, P(getting at most 1 tail) = P(E8) = n(E8)/n(S) = ¾.

(ix) getting 1 head and 1 tail:

Let E9 = event of getting 1 head and 1 tail. Then,
E9 = {HT, TH } and, therefore, n(E9) = 2.
Therefore, P(getting 1 head and 1 tail) = P(E9) = n(E9)/n(S)= 2/4 = 1/2.

The solved examples involving probability of tossing two coins will help us to practice different
questions provided in the sheets for flipping 2 coins.
Probability of Tossing Three Coins
Here we will learn how to find the probability of tossing three coins.

Let us take the experiment of tossing three coins simultaneously:

When we toss three coins simultaneously then the possible of outcomes are: (HHH) or (HHT) or
(HTH) or (THH) or (HTT) or (THT) or (TTH) or (TTT) respectively; where H is denoted for
head and T is denoted for tail.
Therefore, total numbers of outcome are 23 = 8

The above explanation will help us to solve the problems on finding the probability of tossing
three coins.

Worked-out problems on probability involving tossing or throwing or flipping three

coins:

1. When 3 coins are tossed randomly 250 times and it is found that three heads appeared 70
times, two heads appeared 55 times, one head appeared 75 times and no head appeared 50 times.

If three coins are tossed simultaneously at random, find the probability of:

(i) Getting three heads,

(ii) Getting two heads,

(iii) Getting one head,

(iv) Getting no head

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Solution:

Total number of trials = 250.

Number of times three heads appeared = 70.

Number of times two heads appeared = 55.

Number of times one head appeared = 75.

Number of times no head appeared = 50.

In a random toss of 3 coins, let E1, E2, E3 and E4 be the events of getting three heads, two heads,
one head and 0 head respectively. Then,

(i) Getting three heads

P(getting three heads) = P(E1)

Number of times three heads appeared

=
Total number of trials

= 70/250

= 0.28

(ii) Getting two heads

P(getting two heads) = P(E2)

Number of times two heads appeared

=
Total number of trials

= 55/250

= 0.22

(iii) Getting one head

P(getting one head) = P(E3)

Number of times one head appeared

=
Total number of trials

= 75/250

= 0.30

(iv) Getting no head

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P(getting no head) = P(E4)

Number of times on head appeared

=
Total number of trials

= 50/250

= 0.20

Note:
In tossing 3 coins simultaneously, the only possible outcomes are E1, E2, E3, E4 and P(E1) +
P(E2) + P(E3) + P(E4)

= (0.28 + 0.22 + 0.30 + 0.20)

=1

2. When 3 unbiased coins are tossed once.

What is the probability of

(i) Getting all heads

(ii) Getting two heads

(iii) Getting one head

(iv) Getting at least 1 head

(v) Getting at least 2 heads

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(vi) Getting at most 2 heads

Solution:

In tossing three coins, the sample space is given by

S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}

And, therefore, n(S) = 8.

(i) Getting all heads

Let E1 = event of getting all heads. Then,
E1 = {HHH}
and, therefore, n(E1) = 1.
Therefore, P(getting all heads) = P(E1) = n(E1)/n(S) = 1/8.

(ii) Getting two heads

Let E2 = event of getting 2 heads. Then,
E2 = {HHT, HTH, THH}
and, therefore, n(E2) = 3.
Therefore, P(getting 2 heads) = P(E2) = n(E2)/n(S) = 3/8.

(iii) Getting one head

Let E3 = event of getting 1 head. Then,
E3 = {HTT, THT, TTH} and, therefore,
n(E3) = 3.
Therefore, P(getting 1 head) = P(E3) = n(E3)/n(S) = 3/8.

(iv) Getting at least 1 head

Let E4 = event of getting at least 1 head. Then,
E4 = {HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
and, therefore, n(E4) = 7.
Therefore, P(getting at least 1 head) = P(E4) = n(E4)/n(S) = 7/8.

(v) Getting at least 2 heads

Let E5 = event of getting at least 2 heads. Then,
E5 = {HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
and, therefore, n(E5) = 4.
Therefore, P(getting at least 2 heads) = P(E5) = n(E5)/n(S) = 4/8 = 1/2.

(vi) Getting at most 2 heads

Let E6 = event of getting at most 2 heads. Then,
E6 = {HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
and, therefore, n(E6) = 7.
Therefore, P(getting at most 2 heads) = P(E6) = n(E6)/n(S) = 7/8

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Complimentary Events

The event „E' and the event „not E' are called complementary event of the latter event. If E
occurs, its compliment is E which does not occur.
Compliment of an event is denoted by E‟ or E or Ec.

For example:

1. When a coin is tossed, getting „head‟ and getting „tail‟ are complimentary event of each other.

2. When two coins are tossed, getting „at least one head‟ and getting „no head‟ are
complimentary event of each other.

3. When a die is thrown:

● Getting „even face‟ and „odd face‟ are complimentary event of each other.

● Getting „multiple of 2‟ and getting „not multiple of 2‟ are complement event of the latter event.

● Getting „divisible by 3‟ and getting „not divisible by 3‟ are complement event of the latter
event.

Sum of the probability of an event „E‟ and probability of an event „not E‟ is always 1.

i.e., P(E) + P(not E) = 1

Therefore, P = 1 - P(not E)

Or, P(not E) = 1 - P(E)

Now we will solve the examples on different types of word problems on complementary event.

Problems on complementary event:

1. A bag contains red and what balls. The probability of getting a red ball from the bag of balls is
1/6. What is the probability of not getting a red ball?

Solution:

The probability of getting a red ball from the bag of balls is 1/6.

Therefore, the probability of not getting a red ball

P(ball is not red) = 1 – 1/6 = 5/6

Therefore, the probability of not getting a red ball is 5/6.

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2. In a box, contains blue and green marbles. The probability of getting a green marble from the
box of marbles is 3/7. What is the probability of getting a blue marble?
Solution:
Let E1 be the event of getting a green marble and
E2 be the event of getting a blue marble
E2 is the probability of getting a blue marble which is also the same as the probability of not
getting a green marble, Since we know that the marble are either green or blue.
Therefore, P(not getting a blue marble)

= P(E2) = 1 - P(E1)

= 1 – 3/7

= 4/7.

Therefore, the probability of getting a blue marble is 4/7.

3. In a cricket tournament Yuvraj Singh hits eight times „6‟ out of thirty two balls. Calculate the
probability that he would not hit a 6?

Solution:

Let P(A) = 32be the total number of events .

Favorable events that is Yuvraj Singh hits a boundary P (B) = 8,

Therefore, P(E) = P (Yuvraj Singh hits a „6‟)

= P(B)/P(A)

= 8/32 = ¼.

Now, P (not E) = P (Yuvraj Singh did not hit a „6‟) = 1 – 1/4 = 3/4.

4. In a laptop shop there are 16 defective laptops out of 200 laptops. If one laptop is taken out at
random from this laptop shop, what is the probability that it is a non defective laptop?

Solution:

The total number of laptops in laptop shop = 200,

The number of defective laptops = 16,

Let E1be the event of getting a defective laptops and
E2 be the event of getting a non-defective laptops

P(A) = The probability of getting a defective laptop

= 16/200

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= 0.08

Therefore, the probability of getting a non defective laptop = 1 – P(A) = 1 – 0.08 = 0.92.

5. The probability that it will rain in the evening 0.84. What is the probability that it will not rain
in the evening?

Solution:

Let E be the event that it will rain in the evening.

Then, (not E) is the event it will rain in the evening .

Then, P(E) = 0.84

Now, P(E) + P(not E) = 1

⇒ P(not E) = 1 - P(E)

⇒ P(not E) = 1 - 0.84

⇒ P(not E) = 0.16

Therefore, the probability that it will not rain in the evening = P(not E) = 0.16
Mutually Exclusive Events
Definition of Mutually Exclusive Events:

If two events are such that they cannot occur simultaneously for any random experiment are said to be
mutually exclusive events.

If X and Y are two mutually exclusive events, then X ∩ Y = ∅

For example, events in rolling of a die are “even face” and “odd face” which are known as mutually
exclusive events.

But” odd-face” and “multiple of 3” are not mutually exclusive, because when “face-3” occurs both the
events “odd face” and “multiply of 3” are said to be occurred simultaneously.

We see that two simple-events are always mutually exclusive while two compound events may or may
not mutually exclusive.

Addition Theorem Based on Mutually Exclusive Events:

If X and Y are two mutually exclusive events, then the probability of „X union Y‟ is the sum of
the probability of X and the probability of Y and represented as,

P(X U Y) = P(X) + P(Y)

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Proof: Let E be a random experiment and N(X) be the number of frequency of the event X in E.
Since X and Y are two mutually exclusive events then;

N(X U Y) = N(X) + N(Y)

or, N(X U Y)/N = N(X)/N + N(Y)/N; Dividing both the sides by N.

Now taking limit N g ∞, we get probability of

P(X U Y) = P(X) + P(Y)

Worked-out problems on probability of Mutually Exclusive Events:

1. One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability of getting a king
or an ace?

Solution:

Let X be the event of „getting a king‟ and,

Y be the event of „getting an ace‟

We know that, in a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards there are 4 kings and 4 aces.

Therefore, probability of getting a king from well-shuffled deck of 52 cards = P(X) = 4/52 = 1/13

Similarly, probability of getting an ace from well-shuffled deck of 52 cards = P(Y) = 4/52 = 1/13

According to the definition of mutually exclusive we know that, drawing of a well-shuffled deck of
52 cards ‘getting a king‟ and „getting an ace‟ are known as mutually exclusive events.

We have to find out P(King or ace).

So according to the addition theorem for mutually exclusive events, we get;

P(X U Y) = P(X) + P(Y)

Therefore, P(X U Y) = 1/13 + 1/13

= (1 + 1)/13

= 2/13

Hence, probability of getting a king or an ace from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards = 2/13

2. A bag contains 8 black pens and 2 red pens and if a pen is drawn at random. What is the
probability that it is black pen or red pen?

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Solution:

Let X be the event of „getting a black pen’ and,

Y be the event of „getting a red pen’.

We know that, there are 8 black pens and 2 red pens.

Therefore, probability of getting a black pen = P(X) = 8/10 = 4/5

Similarly, probability of getting a red pen = P(Y) = 2/10 = 1/5

According to the definition of mutually exclusive we know that, the event of „getting a black
pen’ and „getting a red pen’ from a bag are known as mutually exclusive event.

We have to find out P(getting a black pen or getting a red pen).

So according to the addition theorem for mutually exclusive events, we get;

P(X U Y) = P(X) + P(Y)

Therefore, P(X U Y) = 4/5 + 1/5

= 5/5

=1

Hence, probability of getting „a black pen’ or „a red pen’ = 1

Mutually Non-Exclusive Events
Definition of Mutually Non-Exclusive Events:

Two events A and B are said to be mutually non exclusive events if both the events A and B
have atleast one common outcome between them.

The events A and B cannot prevent the occurrence of one another so from here we can say that
the events A and B have something common in them.

For example, in the case of rolling a die the event of getting an „odd-face‟ and the event of
getting „less than 4‟ are not mutually exclusive and they are also known as compatible event.

The event of getting an „odd-face‟ and the event of getting „less than 4‟ occur when we get either
1 or 3.

Let „X‟ is denoted as event of getting an „odd-face‟ and

„Y‟ is denoted as event of getting „less than 4‟

20
The events of getting an odd number (X) = {1, 3, 5}

The events of getting less than 4 (Y) = {1, 2, 3}

Between the events X and Y the common outcomes are 1 and 3

Therefore, the events X and Y are compatible events/mutually non-exclusive.

Addition Theorem Based on Mutually Non-Exclusive Events:

If X and Y are two mutually Non- Exclusive Events, then the probability of „X union Y‟ is the
difference between the sum of the probability of X and the probability of Y and the probability
of „X intersection Y‟ and represented as,

P(X ∪ Y) = P(X) + P(Y) - P(X ∩ Y)

Proof: The events X - XY, XY and Y - XY are pair-wise mutually exclusive events then,

X = (X - XY) + XY,

Y = XY + (Y - XY)

Now, P(X) = P(X - XY) + P(XY)

or, P(X - XY) = P(X) - P (XY)

Similarly, P(Y - XY) = P(Y) - P(XY)

Again, P(X + Y) = P(X - XY) + P(XY) + P(Y - XY)

⇒ P(X + Y) = P(X) - P(XY) + P(XY) + P(Y) - P(XY)

⇒ P(X + Y) = P(X) + P(Y) - P(XY)

⇒ P(X + Y) = P(X) + P(Y) - P(X) P(Y)

Therefore, P(X ∪ Y) = P(X) + P(Y) - P(X ∩ Y)

Worked-out problems on probability of Mutually Non-Exclusive Events:

1. What is the probability of getting a diamond or a queen from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards?

21
Solution:

Let X be the event of „getting a diamond‟ and,

Y be the event of „getting a queen‟

We know that, in a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards there are 13 diamonds and 4 queens.

Therefore, probability of getting a diamond from well-shuffled deck of 52 cards = P(X) = 13/52
= 1/4

The probability of getting a queen from well-shuffled deck of 52 cards = P(Y) = 4/52 = 1/13

Similarly, the probability of getting a diamond queen from well-shuffled deck of 52 cards = P(X
∩ Y) = 1/52

According to the definition of mutually non-exclusive we know that, drawing of a well-shuffled

deck of 52 cards „getting a diamond‟ and „getting a queen‟ are known as mutually non-exclusive
events.

We have to find out Probability of X union Y.

So according to the addition theorem for mutually non- exclusive events, we get;

P(X ∪ Y) = P(X) + P(Y) - P(X ∩ Y)

Therefore, P(X U Y) = 1/4 + 1/13 - 1/52

= (13 + 4 - 1)/52

= 16/52

= 4/13

Hence, probability of getting a diamond or a queen from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards = 4/13

2. A lottery box contains 50 lottery tickets numbered 1 to 50. If a lottery ticket is drawn at
random, what is the probability that the number drawn is a multiple of 3 or 5?

Solution:

Let X be the event of „getting a multiple of 3‟ and,

Y be the event of „getting a multiple of 5‟

The events of getting a multiple of 3 (X) = {3,6,9,12,15,18,21,24,27,30,

33,36,39,42,45,48}

22
Total number of multiple of 3 = 16

P(X) = 16/50 = 8/25

The events of getting a multiple of 5 (Y) = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50}

Total number of multiple of 3 = 16

P(X) = 10/50 = 1/5

Between the events X and Y the favorable outcomes are 15, 30 and 45.

Total number of common multiple of both the number 3 and 5 = 3

The probability of getting a „multiple of 3‟ and a „multiple of 5‟ from the numbered 1 to 50 =

P(X ∩ Y) = 3/50

Therefore, X and Y are non mutually exclusive events.

We have to find out Probability of X union Y.

So according to the addition theorem for mutually non- exclusive events, we get;

P(X ∪ Y) = P(X) + P(Y) - P(X ∩ Y)

Therefore, P(X U Y) = 8/25 + 1/5 - 3/50

= (16 + 10 -3)/50

= 23/50

Hence, probability of getting multiple of 3 or 5 = 23/50

Conditional Probability
Definition of Conditional Probability:
The probability of an event X is given then another event Y occurred is called conditional
probability of X given Y.

It is denoted by P(X/Y).

P(X/Y) = P(X ∩ Y)/P(y)

Similarly, when the probability of Y given X is

P(Y/X) = P(X ∩ Y)/P(X)

23
Proof: Let an experiment E be repeated N times under identical conditions and X, Y be two
events connected with E. Suppose, X occurs N(X) times and among these N(X) repetitions the
event Y also occurs (along with X) N(XY) times.

Then N(XY)/N(X) is called conditional frequency ratio of Y on the hypothesis that X has
occurred and denoted by f(Y/X). That is f(Y/X) = N(XY)/N(X). Let, limit n g ∞ f(Y/X) exists
then this limit is P(Y/X). That is conditional probability of Y on the hypothesis that X has
occurred.

Now, f(Y/X) = N(XY)/N(X)

= N(XY)/N/N(X)/N

= f(XY)/f(X)

Therefore, P(Y/X) = limit n ∞ f(Y/X) = P(XY)/P(X) ------------ (i)

Provided P(X) ≠ 0

Similarly if P(Y) ≠ P(X/Y) = P(XY)/P(Y) ------------ (ii)

Provided P(Y) ≠ 0

From (i) and (ii) we get the following multiplication rule;

P(XY) = P(X/Y) ∙ P(Y) = P(Y/X) ∙ P(X)

Provided P(X) ≠ 0 and P(Y) ≠ 0

Multiplication Theorem of Probability:

In an experiment suppose, X and Y are any two events then probabilities of both X and Y is given by

P(X ∩ Y) = P(X) ∙ P(Y/X) ------------ (i)

OR

P(X ∩ Y) = P(Y) ∙ P(X/Y) ------------ (ii)

If X and Y are independent, then

P (X/Y) = P(X) and P(Y/X) = P(Y)

Now substituting P(Y/X) = P(Y) in “equation (i)” , we get

P(X ∩ Y) = P(X) ∙ P(Y)

24
Similarly, substituting P(X/Y) = P(X) in “equation (ii)”, we get

P(X ∩ Y) = P(Y) ∙ P(X) = P(X) ∙ P(Y)

If X and Y are independent, then probabilities of both X and Y is given by

P(X ∩ Y) = P(X) ∙ P(Y).

Worked-out problems on Conditional probability:

1. Give the frequency interpretation of conditional probability.

Solution:

For a long sequence of repetitions of the random experiment under the uniform conditions, the
conditional frequency ratio, f(Y/X) taken to be an approximate value of the conditional
probability P(Y/X).

2. A mobile manufactured by a company consists of two types of mobile, red color mobile phone
and black color mobile phone. In the process of manufacturing of red color mobile phone, 91 out
of 100 are non defective. And in the manufacturing process of black color mobile phone, 95 out
of 100 are non defective. Calculate the probability that the assembled type is non defective.

Solution:

Let X denotes the event that red color mobile phone is non defective and
Y denotes the event that black color mobile phone is non defective.

Probability of non defective red color mobile phone P(X) = 91/100

Probability of non defective red color mobile phone P(Y) = 95/100

Here X and Y are independent

P(assembled type is non defective) = P(X ∩ Y) = P(X) ∙ P(Y)

= 91/100 ∙ 95/100

= 8645/10000

= 0.8645

Therefore, P(assembled type is non defective) = 0.8645

3. In class X, 20% of the students are boys and 80% of them are girls. The probability that boys
passed in mathematics is 0.5 and the probability that girls passed in mathematics is 0.10. One student
is selected at random. What is the probability that the selected student is passed in mathematics?

25
Solution:

Let X denote the event that boy is selected,

Y denote the event that girl is selected and

Z denotes the event that the selected student is passed in mathematics.

P(X) = P(boy is selected) = 20/100 = 1/5

P(Y) = P(girl is selected) = 80/100 = 4/5

P(Z/X) = P(selected boy passed in mathematics) = 0.5

P(Z/Y) = P(selected girl passed in mathematics) = 0.10

P(selected student is passed in mathematics) = P(boy is selected and he is passed in mathematics or

girl is selected and she is passed in mathematics)

So, required probability is

P(X ∩ Z) + P(Y ∩ Z) = P(X) ∙ P(Z/X) + P(Y) ∙ P(Z/Y)

= (1/5) × 0.5 + (4/5) × 0.1
= 0.10 + 0.08
= 0.18

Therefore, P(selected student is passed in mathematics) = 0.18

Theoretical Probability
or
Classical Probability
Moving forward to the theoretical probability which is also known as classical
probability or priori probability, we will first discuss about collecting all possible outcomes and
equally likely outcome.

Collecting all Possible Outcomes:

When an experiment is done at random we can collect all possible outcomes without actually
doing the experiment repeatedly.

For example:

1. If a coin is tossed, either a head (H) or a tail (T) will show.

2. If a die is rolled, it will show either 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6.
3. If two coins are tossed simultaneously, either HH or HT or TH or TT will show. (TH
means tail on the first coin and head on the second coin.)

26
Thus, the collection of all possible outcomes in tossing a coin consists H, T. So, there are only
two different outcomes in tossing a coin.

The collection of all possible outcomes in throwing a die consists of 1, 20, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, there
are only six different outcomes in a trail of throwing a die.

The collection of all possible outcomes in tossing two coins simultaneously consists of HH, HT,
TH, TT. So, there are only four different outcomes in a trail of tossing two coins.

Equally Likely outcome:

When an experiment is done at random, any one of the possible outcomes may take place. If the
possibility of each outcome taking place is the same, we say the outcomes are equally likely.

If a perfectly manufactured coin is tossed, the outcome H (head) and the outcome T(tail) are
equally likely. But if half of the coin on head's side is heavier then it is more likely that T will
appear on the top. So, if a defective (biased) coin is tossed the outcomes H and T are not equally
likely. In what follows all the outcomes in a trail will be assumed to be equally likely.

Classical Probability: The classical probability of an event E, denoted by P (E) is defined as

below
P(E) = Number of Outcomes Favourable to the Event E
Total Number of Possible Outcomes in the Experiment

Definition of Theoretical Probability:

Let a random experiment produce only finite number of mutually exclusive and equally likely
outcomes. Then the probability of an event E is defined as
P(E)= Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

The formula for finding the theoretical probability of an event is

P(E)= Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

Theoretical probability is also known as Classical or A Priori probability.

To find the theoretical probability of an event we need to follow the above explanation.

Problems based on Theoretical Probability or Classical Probability:

1. A fair coin is tossed 450 times and the outcomes were noted as: Head = 250, Tail = 200.

Find the probability of the coin showing up

27
(i) a head

(ii) a tail.

Solution:

Number of times coin is tossed = 450

Number of heads = 250

Number of tails = 200

(i) Probability of getting a head

P(H) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 250/450
= 5/9

(ii) Probability of getting a tail

P(T) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 200/450
= 4/9
2. In a cricket match the Sachin hit a boundary 5 times out of 30 balls he plays. Find the
probability that he

(i) hit a boundary

(ii) do not hit a boundary.

Solution:

Total number of balls Sachin played = 30

Number of boundary hit = 5

Number of times he did not hit a boundary = 30 - 5 = 25

(i) Probability that he hit a boundary

P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 5/30
=1/6

28
(ii) Probability that he did not hit a boundary
P(B) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 25/30
= 5/6
3. The record of weather stations report shows that out of the past 95 consecutive days, its
weather forecast was correct 65 times. Find the probability that on a given day:

(i) it was correct

(ii) it was not correct.

Solution:

Total number of days = 95

Number of correct weather forecast = 65

Number of not correct weather forecast = 95 - 65 = 30

(i) Probability of „it was correct forecast‟

P(X) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 65/95
= 13/19

(ii) Probability of „it was not correct forecast‟

P(Y) =
= 30/95
= 6/19

4. In a society 1000 families with 2 children were selected and the following data was recorded

Find the probability of a family, having:

(i) 1 boy

(ii) 2 boys

(iii) no boy.

29
Solution:

According to the given table;

Total number of families = 333 + 392 + 275 = 1000

Number of families having 0 boy = 333

Number of families having 1 boy = 392

Number of families having 2 boys = 275

(i) Probability of having „1 boy‟

P(X) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 392/1000
= 49/125

(ii) Probability of having „2 boys‟

P(Y) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 275/1000
= 11/40

(iii) Probability of having „no boy‟

P(Z) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 333/1000

More solved examples on theoretical probability or classical probability:

5. Two fair coins are tossed 225 times simultaneously and their outcomes are noted as:

(i) Two tails = 65,

(ii) One tail = 110 and

(iii) No tail = 50

Find the probability of occurrence of each of these events.

30
Solution:

Total number of times two fair coins are tossed = 225

Number of times two tails occur = 65

Number of times one tail occur = 110

Number of times no tail occur = 50

(i) Probability of occurrence of „two tails‟

P(X) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 65/225
= 13/45

(ii) Probability of occurrence of „one tail‟

P(Y) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 110/225
= 22/45

(iii) Probability of occurrence of „no tail‟

P(Z) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 50/225
= 2/9

6. A die is thrown randomly four hundred fifty times. The frequencies of outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 were noted as given in the following table:

Find the probability of the occurrence of the event

(i) 4

(ii) a number < 4

31
(iii) a number > 4

(iv) a prime number

(v) a number < 7

(vi) a number > 6

Solution:

Total number of times a die is thrown randomly = 450

(i) Number of occurrence of a number 4 = 75

Probability of the occurrence of „4‟

P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 75/450
= 1/6

(ii) Number of occurrence of a number less than 4 = 73 + 70 + 74 = 217

Probability of the occurrence of „a number < 4‟

P(B) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 217/450

(iii) Number of occurrence of a number greater than 4 = 80 + 78 = 158

Probability of the occurrence of „a number > 4‟

P(C) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 158/450
= 79/225

(iv) Number of occurrence of a prime number i.e. 2, 3, 5 = 70 + 74 + 80 = 224

Probability of the occurrence of „a prime number‟

P(D) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 224/450
= 112/225

32
(v) Number of occurrence of a number less than 7 i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 = 73 + 70 + 74 + 75 + 80
+ 78 = 450

Probability of the occurrence of „a number < 7‟

P(E) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 450/450
=1

(vi) Number of occurrence of a number greater than 6 = 0,

Because when a die is thrown all the 6 outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

so, there is no number greater than 6.

Probability of the occurrence of „a number > 6‟

P(F) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 0/450
=0

Solved example problem on classical probability:

7. Find the probability of getting a composite number in a throw of a die.

Solution:

Let E = the event of getting a composite number.

Total number of possible outcomes = 6 (Since any one of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can come).

Number of favourable outcomes for the event E = 2 (Since any one of 4, 6 is a composite
number).

Therefore,
P(E) = Number of Outcomes Favourable to the Event E
Total Number of Possible Outcomes
=

Playing Cards Probability

Playing cards probability problems based on a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards.

33
Basic concept on drawing a card:
In a pack or deck of 52 playing cards, they are divided into 4 suits of 13 cards each i.e.

spades ♠ hearts ♥ , diamonds ♦ ♣

, clubs .

Cards of Spades and clubs are black cards.

Cards of hearts and diamonds are red cards.

The card in each suit, are ace, king, queen, jack or knaves, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2.

King, Queen and Jack (or Knaves) are face cards. So, there are 12 face cards in the deck of 52
playing cards.

Worked-out problems on Playing cards probability:

1. A card is drawn from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the probability of:

(i) „2‟ of spades

(ii) a jack

(iii) a king of red colour

(iv) a card of diamond

(v) a king or a queen

(vi) a non-face card

(vii) a black face card

(viii) a black card

(ix) A non-ace

(x) Non-face card of black colour

(xi) Neither a spade nor a jack

(xii) Neither a heart nor a red king

Solution:

In a playing card there are 52 cards.

Therefore the total number of possible outcomes = 52

34
(i) „2‟ of spades:

Number of favourable outcomes i.e. „2‟ of spades is 1 out of 52 cards.

Therefore, probability of getting „2‟ of spade

P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 1/52

(ii) a jack

Number of favourable outcomes i.e. „a jack‟ is 4 out of 52 cards.

Therefore, probability of getting „a jack‟

P(B) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 4/52
= 1/13

(iii) a king of red colour

Number of favourable outcomes i.e. „a king of red colour‟ is 2 out of 52 cards.

Therefore, probability of getting „a king of red colour‟

P(C) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 2/52
= 1/26

(iv) a card of diamond

Number of favourable outcomes i.e. „a card of diamond‟ is 13 out of 52 cards.

Therefore, probability of getting „a card of diamond‟

P(D) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 13/52
= 1/4

(v) a king or a queen

Total number of king is 4 out of 52 cards.

35
Total number of queen is 4 out of 52 cards

Number of favourable outcomes i.e. „a king or a queen‟ is 4 + 4 = 8 out of 52 cards.

Therefore, probability of getting „a king or a queen‟

P(E) = Number of favourable outcome

Total number of possible outcome
= 8/52
= 2/13

(vi) a non-face card

Total number of face card out of 52 cards = 3 times 4 = 12

Total number of non-face card out of 52 cards = 52 - 12 = 40

Therefore, probability of getting „a non-face card‟

P(F) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 40/52
= 10/13

(vii) a black face card:

Cards of Spades and Clubs are black cards.

Number of face card in spades (king, queen and jack or knaves) = 3

Number of face card in clubs (king, queen and jack or knaves) = 3

Therefore, total number of black face card out of 52 cards = 3 + 3 = 6

Therefore, probability of getting „a black face card‟

P(G) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome
= 6/52
= 3/26

(viii) a black card:

Cards of spades and clubs are black cards.

Number of spades = 13

Number of clubs = 13

36
Therefore, total number of black card out of 52 cards = 13 + 13 = 26

Therefore, probability of getting „a black card‟

P(H) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 26/52
= 1/2

(ix) a non-ace:

Number of ace cards in each of four suits namely spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs = 1

Therefore, total number of ace cards out of 52 cards = 4

Thus, total number of non-ace cards out of 52 cards = 52 - 4

= 48

Therefore, probability of getting „a non-ace‟

P(I) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome
= 48/52
= 12/13

(x) non-face card of black colour:

Cards of spades and clubs are black cards.

Number of spades = 13

Number of clubs = 13

Therefore, total number of black card out of 52 cards = 13 + 13 = 26

Number of face cards in each suits namely spades and clubs = 3 + 3 = 6

Therefore, total number of non-face card of black colour out of 52 cards = 26 - 6 = 20

Therefore, probability of getting „non-face card of black colour‟

P(J) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 20/52
= 5/13

(xi) neither a spade nor a jack

37
Number of spades = 13

Total number of non-spades out of 52 cards = 52 - 13 = 39

Number of jack out of 52 cards = 4

Number of jack in each of three suits namely hearts, diamonds and clubs = 3

[Since, 1 jack is already included in the 13 spades so, here we will take number of jacks is 3]

Neither a spade nor a jack = 39 - 3 = 36

Therefore, probability of getting „neither a spade nor a jack‟

P(K) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome
= 36/52
= 9/13

(xii) neither a heart nor a red king

Number of hearts = 13

Total number of non-hearts out of 52 cards = 52 - 13 = 39

Therefore, spades, clubs and diamonds are the 39 cards.

Cards of hearts and diamonds are red cards.

Number of red kings in red cards = 2

Therefore, neither a heart nor a red king = 39 - 1 = 38

[Since, 1 red king is already included in the 13 hearts so, here we will take number of red kings
is 1]

Therefore, probability of getting „neither a heart nor a red king‟

P(L) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 38/52
= 19/26

38
2. A card is drawn at random from a well-shuffled pack of cards numbered 1 to 20. Find the
probability of

(i) getting a number less than 7

(ii) getting a number divisible by 3.

Solution:

(i) Total number of possible outcomes = 20 (since there are cards numbered 1, 2, 3, ..., 20).

Number of favourable outcomes for the event E

= number of cards showing less than 7 = 6 (namely 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).

So, P(E) = Number of Favourable Outcomes for the Event E
Total Number of Possible Outcomes
= =

(ii) Total number of possible outcomes = 20.

Number of favourable outcomes for the event F

39
 = number of cards showing a number divisible by 3 = 6 (namely 3, 6, 9, 12,
15, 18).
So, P(F) = Number of Favourable Outcomes for the Event F
Total Number of Possible Outcomes
= =

3. A card is drawn at random from a pack of 52 playing cards. Find the probability that the card
drawn is

(i) a king

(ii) neither a queen nor a jack.

Solution:

Total number of possible outcomes = 52 (As there are 52 different cards).

(i) Number of favourable outcomes for the event E = number of kings in the pack = 4.

So, by definition, P(E) = =

(ii) Number of favourable outcomes for the event F

= number of cards which are neither a queen nor a jack

= 52 - 4 - 4, [Since there are 4 queens and 4 jacks].

= 44

Therefore, by definition, P(F) = =

These are the basic problems on probability with playing cards.

Probability and Playing Cards
Probability and playing cards is an important segment in probability. Here different types of
examples will help the students to understand the problems on probability with playing cards.
All the solved questions are pertains to a standard deck of well-shuffled 52 cards playing cards.

Worked-out Examples on Probability and playing cards

1. The king, queen and jack of clubs are removed from a deck of 52 playing cards and then
shuffled. A card is drawn from the remaining cards. Find the probability of getting:

(i) a heart

40
(ii) a queen

(iii) a club

(iv) „9‟ of red color

Solution:

Total number of card in a deck = 52

Card removed king, queen and jack of clubs

Therefore, remaining cards = 52 - 3=49

Therefore, number of favorable outcomes = 49

(i) a heart

Number of hearts in a deck of 52 cards= 13

Therefore, the probability of getting „a heart‟

P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome
= 13/49

(ii) a queen

Number of queen = 3

[Since club‟s queen is already removed]

Therefore, the probability of getting „a queen t‟

P(B) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 3/49

(iii) a club

Number of clubs in a deck in a deck of 52 cards = 13

According to the question, the king, queen and jack of clubs are removed from a deck of 52
playing cards In this case, total number of clubs = 13 - 3 = 10

Therefore, the probability of getting „a club‟

P(C) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

41
 = 10/49

(iv) „9‟ of red color

Cards of hearts and diamonds are red cards

The card 9 in each suit, hearts and diamonds = 1

Therefore, total number of „9‟ of red color = 2

Therefore, the probability of getting „9‟ of red color

P(D) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 2/49
2. All kings, jacks, diamonds have been removed from a pack of 52 playing cards and the
remaining cards are well shuffled. A card is drawn from the remaining pack. Find the probability
that the card drawn is:

(i) a red queen

(ii) a face card

(iii) a black card

(iv) a heart

Solution:

Number of kings in a deck 52 cards = 4

Number of jacks in a deck 52 cards = 4

Number of diamonds in a deck 52 cards = 13

Total number of cards removed = (4 kings + 4 jacks + 11 diamonds) = 19 cards

[Excluding the diamond king and jack there are 11 diamonds]

Total number of cards after removing all kings, jacks, diamonds = 52 - 19 = 33

(i) a red queen

Queen of heart and queen of diamond are two red queens

Queen of diamond is already removed.

So, there is 1 red queen out of 33 cards

42
Therefore, the probability of getting „a red queen‟
P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 1/33

(ii) a face card

Number of face cards after removing all kings, jacks, diamonds = 3

Therefore, the probability of getting „a face card‟

P(B) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 3/33
= 1/11

(iii) a black card

Cards of spades and clubs are black cards.

Number of spades = 13 - 2 = 11, since king and jack are removed

Number of clubs = 13 - 2 = 11, since king and jack are removed

Therefore, in this case, total number of black cards = 11 + 11 = 22

Therefore, the probability of getting „a black card‟

P(C) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 22/33
= 2/3

(iv) a heart

Number of hearts = 13

Therefore, in this case, total number of hearts = 13 - 2 = 11, since king and jack are removed

Therefore, the probability of getting „a heart card‟

P(D) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 11/33
= 1/3

43
3. A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that the card
drawn is:

(i) a red face card

(ii) neither a club nor a spade

(iii) neither an ace nor a king of red color

(iv) neither a red card nor a queen

(v) neither a red card nor a black king.

Solution:

Total number of card in a pack of well-shuffled cards = 52

(i) a red face card

Cards of hearts and diamonds are red cards.

Number of face card in hearts = 3

Number of face card in diamonds = 3

Total number of red face card out of 52 cards = 3 + 3 = 6

Therefore, the probability of getting „a red face card‟

P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 6/52
= 3/26

(ii) neither a club nor a spade

Number of clubs = 13

Number of spades = 13

Number of club and spade = 13 + 13 = 26

Number of card which is neither a club nor a spade = 52 - 26 = 26

Therefore, the probability of getting „neither a club nor a spade‟

P(B) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

44
 = 26/52
= 1/2

(iii) neither an ace nor a king of red color

Number of ace in a deck 52 cards = 4

Number of king of red color in a deck 52 cards = (1 diamond king + 1 heart king) = 2

Number of ace and king of red color = 4 + 2 = 6

Number of card which is neither an ace nor a king of red color = 52 - 6 = 46

Therefore, the probability of getting „neither an ace nor a king of red color‟
P(C) = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 46/52
= 23/26

(iv) neither a red card nor a queen

Number of hearts in a deck 52 cards = 13

Number of diamonds in a deck 52 cards = 13

Number of queen in a deck 52 cards = 4

Total number of red card and queen = 13 + 13 + 2 = 28,

[Since queen of heart and queen of diamond are removed]

Number of card which is neither a red card nor a queen = 52 - 28 = 24

Therefore, the probability of getting „neither a red card nor a queen‟

P(D) = Number of favorable outcomes

Total number of possible outcome

= 24/52
= 6/13

(v) neither a red card nor a black king.

Number of hearts in a deck 52 cards = 13

Number of diamonds in a deck 52 cards = 13

45
Number of black king in a deck 52 cards = (1 king of spade + 1 king of club) = 2

Total number of red card and black king = 13 + 13 + 2 = 28

Number of card which is neither a red card nor a black king = 52 - 28 = 24

Therefore, the probability of getting „neither a red card nor a black king‟
P(E) = Number of favourable outcome
Total number of possible outcome

= 24/52
= 6/13

Probability of Rolling a Die

We will solve different type of problems on probability of rolling a die.

1. A die is thrown 200 times and the numbers shown on it are recorded as given below:

If the die is thrown at random, what is the probability of getting a

(i) 4

(ii) 4 or 5

(iii) Prime number

Solution:

(i) Total number of trials = 200.

Number of times 4 appears = 28.

Therefore, the probability of getting 4 = Frequency of 4 Appearing
Sum of all the Frequencies
= Number of Times 4 Appears
Total Number of Trials
=
=

(ii) Total number of trials = 200.

Number of times 4 or 5 appears = 28 + 26 = 54.

Therefore, the probability of getting 4 or 5 = Number of Times 4 or 5 Appears
Total Number of Trials
=

46
(iii) Total number of trials = 200.

Number of times a prime number appears = 48 + 36 + 26 = 110.

[Since 2, 3 and 5 are prime numbers and they appear 48, 36 and 26 times respectively).

Therefore, the probability of getting

a prime number = Number of Times a Prime Number Appears
Total Number of Trials

Probability for Rolling Two Dice

Probability for rolling two dice with the six sided dots such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 dots in each die.
When two dice are thrown simultaneously, thus number of event can be 62 = 36 because each die
has 1 to 6 numbers on its faces. Then the possible outcomes are shown in the below table.

Probability – Sample space for two dice (outcomes):

Note:

(i) The outcomes (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5) and (6, 6) are called doublets.

(ii) The pair (1, 2) and (2, 1) are different outcomes.

Worked-out problems involving probability for rolling two dice:

1. Two dice are rolled. Let A, B, C be the events of getting a sum of 2, a sum of 3 and a sum of 4
respectively. Then, show that

(i) A is a simple event

(ii) B and C are compound events

(iii) A and B are mutually exclusive

Solution:

Clearly, we have
A = {(1, 1)}, B = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} and C = {(1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 2)}.

(i) Since A consists of a single sample point, it is a simple event.

(ii) Since both B and C contain more than one sample point, each one of them is a compound
event.

(iii) Since A ∩ B = ∅, A and B are mutually exclusive.

47
2. Two dice are rolled. A is the event that the sum of the numbers shown on the two dice is 5,
and B is the event that at least one of the dice shows up a 3.
Are the two events (i) mutually exclusive, (ii) exhaustive? Give arguments in support of your
answer.

Solution:

When two dice are rolled, we have n(S) = (6 × 6) = 36.

Now, A = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (4, 1), (3, 2)}, and

B = {(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (1,3), (2, 3), (4, 3), (5, 3), (6, 3)}

(i) A ∩ B = {(2, 3), (3, 2)} ≠ ∅.

Hence, A and B are not mutually exclusive.

(ii) Also, A ∪ B ≠ S.

Therefore, A and B are not exhaustive events.

More examples related to the questions on the probabilities for throwing two dice.

3. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. Find the probability of:

(i) getting six as a product

(ii) getting sum ≤ 3

(iii) getting sum ≤ 10

(iv) getting a doublet

(v) getting a sum of 8

(vi) getting sum divisible by 5

(vii) getting sum of at least 11

(viii) getting a multiple of 3 as the sum

(ix) getting a total of at least 10

(x) getting an even number as the sum

(xi) getting a prime number as the sum

(xii) getting a doublet of even numbers

48
(xiii) getting a multiple of 2 on one die and a multiple of 3 on the other die

Solution:

Two different dice are thrown simultaneously being number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on their faces. We
know that in a single thrown of two different dice, the total number of possible outcomes is (6 ×
6) = 36.

(i) getting six as a product:

Let E1 = event of getting six as a product. The number whose product is six will be E1 = [(1, 6),
(2, 3), (3, 2), (6, 1)] = 4

Therefore, probability of getting „six as a product‟

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 4/36
= 1/9

(ii) getting sum ≤ 3:

Let E2 = event of getting sum ≤ 3. The number whose sum ≤ 3 will be E2 = [(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)]
=3

Therefore, probability of getting „sum ≤ 3‟

P( = Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 3/36
= 1/12

(iii) getting sum ≤ 10:

Let E3 = event of getting sum ≤ 10. The number whose sum ≤ 10 will be E3 =

[(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),

(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),

(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6),

(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)

(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5),

(6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4)] = 33

Therefore, probability of getting „sum ≤ 10‟

49
P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 33/36
= 11/12

(iv) getting a doublet: Let E4 = event of getting a doublet. The number which doublet will be
E4 = [(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)] = 6

Therefore, probability of getting „a doublet‟

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 6/36
= 1/6

(v) getting a sum of 8:

Let E5 = event of getting a sum of 8. The number which is a sum of 8 will be E5 = [(2, 6), (3, 5),
(4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2)] = 5

Therefore, probability of getting „a sum of 8‟

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 5/36

(vi) getting sum divisible by 5:

Let E6 = event of getting sum divisible by 5. The number whose sum divisible by 5 will be E6 =
[(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 6), (5, 5), (6, 4)] = 7

Therefore, probability of getting „sum divisible by 5‟

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 7/36

(vii) getting sum of at least 11:

Let E7 = event of getting sum of at least 11. The events of the sum of at least 11 will be E7 = [(5,
6), (6, 5), (6, 6)] = 3

Therefore, probability of getting „sum of at least 11‟

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

50
 = 3/36
= 1/12

(viii) getting a multiple of 3 as the sum:

Let E8 = event of getting a multiple of 3 as the sum. The events of a multiple of 3 as the sum will
be E8 = [(1, 2), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 2), (4, 5), (5, 1), (5, 4), (6, 3) (6, 6)] = 12

Therefore, probability of getting „a multiple of 3 as the sum‟

P( ) Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 12/36
= 1/3

(ix) getting a total of at least 10:

Let E9 = event of getting a total of at least 10. The events of a total of at least 10 will be E9 = [(4,
6), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)] = 6

Therefore, probability of getting „a total of at least 10‟

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 6/36
= 1/6

(x) getting an even number as the sum:

Let E10 = event of getting an even number as the sum. The events of an even number as the sum
will be E10 = [(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 1), (3, 5), (4, 4), (4, 2), (4, 6), (5,
1), (5, 3), (5, 5), (6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6)] = 18

Therefore, probability of getting „an even number as the sum

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 18/36
= 1/2

(xi) getting a prime number as the sum:

Let E11 = event of getting a prime number as the sum. The events of a prime number as the sum
will be E11 = [(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3), (5, 2), (5,
6), (6, 1), (6, 5)] = 15

Therefore, probability of getting „a prime number as the sum‟

51
 P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 15/36
= 5/12

(xii) getting a doublet of even numbers:

Let E12 = event of getting a doublet of even numbers. The events of a doublet of even numbers
will be E12 = [(2, 2), (4, 4), (6, 6)] = 3

Therefore, probability of getting „a doublet of even numbers‟

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 3/36
= 1/12

(xiii) getting a multiple of 2 on one die and a multiple of 3 on the other die:
Let E13 = event of getting a multiple of 2 on one die and a multiple of 3 on the other die. The
events of a multiple of 2 on one die and a multiple of 3 on the other die will be E13 = [(2, 3), (2,
6), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 6), (4, 3), (4, 6), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 6)] = 11

Therefore, probability of getting „a multiple of 2 on one die and a multiple of 3 on the other die‟
P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 11/36

4. Two dice are thrown. Find (i) the odds in favour of getting the sum 5, and (ii) the odds against
getting the sum 6.

Solution:

We know that in a single thrown of two die, the total number of possible outcomes is (6 × 6) =
36.

Let S be the sample space. Then, n(S) = 36.

(i) the odds in favour of getting the sum 5:

Let E1 be the event of getting the sum 5. Then,
E1 = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1)}
⇒ P(E1) = 4
Therefore, P(E1) = n(E1)/n(S) = 4/36 = 1/9
⇒ odds in favour of E1 = P(E1)/[1 – P(E1)] = (1/9)/(1 – 1/9) = 1/8.

52
(ii) the odds against getting the sum 6:
Let E2 be the event of getting the sum 6. Then,
E2 = {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 2), (5, 1)}
⇒ P(E2) = 5
Therefore, P(E2) = n(E2)/n(S) = 5/36
⇒ odds against E2 = [1 – P(E2)]/P(E2) = (1 – 5/36)/(5/36) = 31/5.

5. Two dice, one blue and one orange, are rolled simultaneously. Find the probability of getting

(i) equal numbers on both

(ii) two numbers appearing on them whose sum is 9.

Solution:

The possible outcomes are

(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),

(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),

(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6),

(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)

(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)

(6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)

Therefore, total number of possible outcomes = 36.

(i) Number of favourable outcomes for the event E

= number of outcomes having equal numbers on both dice

= 6 [namely, (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)].
So, by definition, P(E) =

(ii) Number of favourable outcomes for the event F

= Number of outcomes in which two numbers appearing on them have the sum 9

=4 [namely, (3, 6), (4, 5), (5, 4), (3, 6)].

Thus, by definition, P(F) =

53
These examples will help us to solve different types of problems based on probability for rolling
two dice.
Probability for Rolling Three Dice
Probability for rolling three dice with the six sided dots such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 dots in each
(three) dies.
When three dice are thrown simultaneously/randomly, thus number of event can be 63 = (6 × 6 ×
6) = 216 because each die has 1 to 6 number on its faces.

Worked-out problems involving probability for rolling three dice:

1. Three dice are thrown together. Find the probability of:

(i) getting a total of 5

(ii) getting a total of at most 5

(iii) getting a total of at least 5.

(iv) getting a total of 6.

(v) getting a total of at most 6.

(vi) getting a total of at least 6.

Solution:

Three different dice are thrown at the same time.

Therefore, total number of possible outcomes will be 63 = (6 × 6 × 6) = 216.

(i) getting a total of 5:

Number of events of getting a total of 5 = 6

i.e. (1, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1), (3, 1, 1), (2, 2, 1), (2, 1, 2) and (1, 2, 2)

Therefore, probability of getting a total of 5

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 6/216
= 1/36

(ii) getting a total of at most 5:

Number of events of getting a total of at most 5 = 10

54
i.e. (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1), (1, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1), (3, 1, 1), (2, 2, 1) and (1, 2, 2).

Therefore, probability of getting a total of at most 5

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 10/216
= 5/108

(iii) getting a total of at least 5:

Number of events of getting a total of less than 5 = 4

i.e. (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1) and (2, 1, 1).

Therefore, probability of getting a total of less than 5

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 4/216
= 1/54

Therefore, probability of getting a total of at least 5 = 1 - P(getting a total of less than 5)

= 1 - 1/54

= (54 - 1)/54

= 53/54

(iv) getting a total of 6:

Number of events of getting a total of 6 = 10

i.e. (1, 1, 4), (1, 4, 1), (4, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1) and (2, 2,
2).

Therefore, probability of getting a total of 6

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 10/216
= 5/108

(v) getting a total of at most 6:

Number of events of getting a total of at most 6 = 20

55
i.e. (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1), (1, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1), (3, 1, 1), (2, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2), (1, 1, 4),
(1, 4, 1), (4, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1) and (2, 2, 2).

Therefore, probability of getting a total of at most 6

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 20/216
= 5/54

(vi) getting a total of at least 6:

Number of events of getting a total of less than 6 (event of getting a total of 3, 4 or 5) = 10

i.e. (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1) (1, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1), (3, 1, 1), (1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1).

Therefore, probability of getting a total of less than 6

P( Number of favorable outcomes
Total number of possible outcome

= 10/216
= 5/108

Therefore, probability of getting a total of at least 6 = 1 - P(getting a total of less than 6)

= 1 - 5/108

= (108 - 5)/108

= 103/108

These examples will help us to solve different types of problems based on probability for rolling
three dice.

Solved Probability Problems

Solved probability problems and solutions are given here for a concept with clear understanding.

Students can get a fair idea on the probability questions which are provided with the detailed
step-by-step answers to every question.

Solved probability problems with solutions:

56
1.

The graphic above shows a container with 4 blue triangles, 5 green squares and 7 red circles. A
single object is drawn at random from the container.

Match the following events with the corresponding probabilities:

(i) The objects is not a circle (a) 5/16

(ii) The objects is a triangle (b) 4/16

(iii) The objects is not a triangle (c) 7/16

(iv) The objects is not a square (d) 9/16

(v) The objects is a circle (e) 12/16

(vi) The objects is a square (f) 11/16

Solution:

Number of blue triangles in a container = 4

Number of green squares = 5

Number of red circles = 7

Total number of objects = 4 + 5 + 7 = 16

(i) The objects is not a circle:

P(the object is a circle)

= Number of circles/Total number of objects

= 7/16

P(the object is not a circle)

= 1 - P(the object is a circle)

57
= 1 - 7/16

= (16 - 7)/16

= 9/16

(ii) The objects is a triangle:

P(the object is a triangle)

= Number of triangle/Total number of objects

= 4/16

(iii) The objects is not a triangle:

P(the object is a triangle)

= Number of triangles/Total number of objects

= 4/16

P(the object is not a triangle)

= 1 - P(the object is a triangle)

= 1 - 4/16

= (16 - 4)/16

= 12/16

(iv) The objects is not a square:

P(the object is a square)

= Number of squares/Total number of objects

= 5/16

P(the object is not a square)

= 1 - P(the object is a square)

58
= 1 - 5/16

= (16 - 5)/16

= 11/16

(v) The objects is a circle:

P(the object is a circle)

= Number of circles/Total number of objects

= 7/16

(vi) The objects is a square:

P(the object is a square)

= Number of squares/Total number of objects

= 5/16

Match the following events with the corresponding probabilities as shown below:

(i) The objects is not a circle (d) 9/16

(ii) The objects is a triangle (b) 4/16

(iii) The objects is not a triangle (e) 12/16

(iv) The objects is not a square (f) 11/16

(v) The objects is a circle (c) 7/16

(vi) The objects is a square (a) 5/16

59
2. A single card is drawn at random from a standard deck of 52 playing cards.

Match each event with its probability.

Note: fractional probabilities have been reduced to lowest terms. Consider the ace as the highest
card.

(i) The card is a diamond (a) 1/2

(ii) The card is a red king (b) 1/13

(iii) The card is a king or queen (c) 1/26

(iv) The card is either a red or an ace (d) 12/13

(v) The card is not a king (e) 2/13

(vi) The card is a five or lower (f) 1/4

(vii) The card is a king (g) 4/13

(viii) The card is black (h) 7/13

Solution:

Total number of playing cards = 52

(i) The card is a diamond:

Number of diamonds in a deck of 52 cards = 13

60
P(the card is a diamond)

= Number of diamonds/Total number of playing cards

= 13/52

= 1/4

(ii) The card is a red king:

Number of red king in a deck of 52 cards = 2

P(the card is a red king)

= Number of red kings/Total number of playing cards

= 2/52

= 1/26

(iii) The card is a king or queen:

Number of kings in a deck of 52 cards = 4

Number of queens in a deck of 52 cards = 4

Total number of king or queen in a deck of 52 cards = 4 + 4 = 8

P(the card is a king or queen)

= Number of king or queen/Total number of playing cards

= 8/52

= 2/13

(iv) The card is either a red card or an ace:

Total number of red card or an ace in a deck of 52 cards = 28

P(the card is either a red card or an ace)

= Number of cards which is either a red card or an ace/Total number of playing cards

= 28/52

= 7/13

61
(v) The card is not a king:

Number of kings in a deck of 52 cards = 4

P(the card is a king)

= Number of kings/Total number of playing cards

= 4/52

= 1/13

P(the card is not a king)

= 1 - P(the card is a king)

= 1 - 1/13

= (13 - 1)/13

= 12/13

(vi) The card is a five or lower:

Number of cards is a five or lower = 16

P(the card is a five or lower)

= Number of card is a five or lower/Total number of playing cards

= 16/52

= 4/13

(vii) The card is a king:

Number of kings in a deck of 52 cards = 4

P(the card is a king)

= Number of kings/Total number of playing cards

= 4/52

= 1/13

(viii) The card is black:

Number of black cards in a deck of 52 cards = 26

62
P(the card is black)

= Number of black cards/Total number of playing cards

= 26/52

= 1/2

Match the following events with the corresponding probabilities are shown below:

(i) The card is a diamond (f) 1/4

(ii) The card is a red king (c) 1/26

(iii) The card is a king or queen (e) 2/13

(iv) The card is either a red or an ace (h) 7/13

(v) The card is not a king (d) 12/13

(vi) The card is a five or lower (g) 4/13

(vii) The card is a king (b) 1/13

(viii) The card is black
(a) 1/2

3. A bag contains 3 red balls and 4 black balls. A ball is drawn at random from the bag. Find the
probability that the ball drawn is

(i) black

(ii) not black.

Solution:

(i) Total number of possible outcomes = 3 + 4 = 7.

Number of favourable outcomes for the event E.

= Number of black balls = 4.

So, P(E) = Number of Favourable Outcomes for the Event E
Total Number of Possible Outcomes

63
(ii) The event of the ball being not black = .
Hence, required probability = P( )

= 1 - P(E)

=1-
=

4. If the probability of Serena Williams a particular tennis match is 0.86, what is the probability
of her losing the match?

Solution:

Let E = the event of Serena Williams winning.

From the question, P(E) = 0.86.

Clearly, = the event of Serena Williams losing.
So, P( ) = 1 - P(E)

= 1 - 0.86

= 0.14

=
=

5. Find the probability of getting 53 Sunday in a leap year.

Solution:

A leap year has 366 days. So, it has 52 weeks and 2 days.

So, 52 Sundays are assured. For 53 Sundays, one of the two remaining days must be a Sunday.

For the remaining 2 days we can have

(Sunday, Monday), (Monday, Tuesday), (Tuesday, Wednesday), (Wednesday, Thursday),

(Thursday, Friday), (Friday, Saturday), (Saturday, Sunday).

So, total number of possible outcomes = 7.

Number of favourable outcomes for the event E = 2, [namely, (Sunday, Monday), (Saturday,
Sunday)].

So, by definition: P(E) =

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6. A lot of 24 bulbs contains 25% defective bulbs. A bulb is drawn at random from the lot. It is
found to be not defective and it is not put back. Now, one bulb is drawn at random from the rest.
What is the probability that this bulb is not defective?

Solution:

25% of 24 = 6.

So, there are 6 defective bulbs and 18 bulbs are not defective.

After the first draw, the lot is left with 6 defective bulbs and 17 non-defective bulbs.

So, when the second bulb is drawn, the total number of possible outcomes = 23 (= 6+ 17).

Number of favourable outcomes for the event E = number of non-defective bulbs = 17.

So, the required probability = P(E) = .

The examples can help the students to practice more questions on probability by following the
concept provided in the solved probability problems.

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