Module 5: Advanced Mechanics

Ryne Echaluse

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

Outcomes
A student:
›​ selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information
using a range of appropriate media PH11/12-4
›​ analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information PH11/12-5
›​ solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills
and scientific processes PH11/12-6
›​ communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a
specific audience or purpose PH11/12-7
›​ describes and analyses qualitatively and quantitatively circular motion and motion in a
gravitational field, in particular, the projectile motion of particles PH12-12

Content Focus
Motion in one dimension at constant velocity or constant acceleration can be explained and analysed
relatively simply. However, motion is frequently more complicated because objects move in two or
three dimensions, causing the net force to vary in size or direction.

Students develop an understanding that all forms of complex motion can be understood by analysing
the forces acting on a system, including the energy transformations taking place within and around the
system. By applying new mathematical techniques, students model and predict the motion of objects
within systems. They examine two-dimensional motion, including projectile motion and uniform
circular motion, along with the orbital motion of planets and satellites, which are modelled as an
approximation to uniform circular motion.

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

Projectile Motion

Inquiry question: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be
used to analyse and make predictions?

●​ Analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into

horizontal and vertical components, making the following assumptions:
–​ Galileo’s analysis of projectile motion: Projectile motion consists of two
independent motions, namely the horizontal and vertical motion
➔​ The horizontal motion is under uniform velocity
➔​ The vertical motion is under uniform acceleration (gravity)
–​ Projectile motion assumes zero air resistance

●​ apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive

the relationships between the following variables:
–​ Initial velocity (U1):
➔​ The velocity at which an projectile is initially launched at
➔​ Is tangential to the start of the projectile’s parabolic trajectory
➔​ Can be separated into its vertical and horizontal components

–​ Launch angle (θ):

➔​ Angle at which the projectile is initially launched at
➔​ From U to the ground

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
–​ Maximum height (A):
➔​ The peak height of the projectile’s trajectory/ highest vertical position
along its trajectory
➔​ V = Vx (since Vy = 0)
➔​ Assuming symmetrical motion:

–​ Time of flight:
➔​ Total time in the air/Total time for object to complete trajectory
➔​ Determined by the vertical component of the motion (independent of
horizontal component)
➔​ Assuming symmetrical motion:

–​ Final velocity (U2):

➔​ The velocity at which the projectile finishes its trajectory
➔​ Can be calculated by finding the vertical/horizontal components of the
velocity

–​ Launch height:
➔​ The initial height at which the projectile is launched from

–​ Horizontal range of the projectile (R):

➔​ The horizontal displacement covered by the projectile along its
trajectory
➔​ Given by:

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
●​ conduct a practical investigation to collect primary data in order
to validate the relationships derived above.

[Link]
tile-motion-experiment/

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

●​ solve problems, create models and make quantitative predictions

by applying the equations of motion relationships for uniformly accelerated
and constant rectilinear motion

–​ When solving quantitative projectile motion problems, the equations of motion

are used to determine the missing variables. These include:
➔​ Vertical equations of motion:
◆​𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦𝑡
2 2
◆​𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑦𝑠𝑦
1 2
◆​𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑦𝑡

➔​ Horizontal equation of motion:

◆​𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥𝑡

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

Circular Motion

Inquiry question: Why do objects move in circles?

●​ Conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects

executing uniform circular motion, the relationships that exist between:

–​ Uniform circular motion: Objects moving at a constant speed in a circular path

➔​ Note: Object's velocity changes as direction of motion changes
➔​ Instantaneous velocity is tangential to its path

–​ Note:
➔​ Period (T): Time required for an object to complete one revolution
(seconds)
➔​ Frequency (f): Number of revolutions carried out per second (Hertz)

1 1
𝑓= 𝑇
↔𝑇 = 𝑓

2π𝑟
➔​𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇
➔​ Displacement = 0 → Average velocity = 0
➔​𝑙 = 𝑟θ
𝑙
➔​𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = θ = 𝑟

–​ Centripetal force/acceleration:
➔​ A changing velocity implies there is acceleration present
◆​ Net-force ≠ 0
➔​ Centripetal acceleration is always directed towards the centre of motion
◆​ Without this, object would fly off along tangential path

2
𝑣
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟

➔​ Centripetal force is responsible for circular motion

◆​ ALWAYS TOWARDS CENTRE OF MOTION
➔​ Note: not an additional force but is provided by other forces (E.g.
Tension, Normal Force, Gravitational Force etc.)

2
𝑚𝑣
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟
–​ Mass:

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
➔​ From centripetal force formula:
𝐹𝑐∝ 𝑚
2
𝐹𝑐 𝑣
➔​ Hence, graphing 𝑚
will produce a straight line (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟
)
–​ Speed:
2
➔​ 𝐹𝑐∝ 𝑣
–​ Radius:
1
➔​ 𝐹𝑐∝ 𝑟

●​ Analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular

motion in a variety of situations, for example:

–​ Cars moving around horizontal circular bends

➔​ Centripetal force is provided by sideways lateral friction between the
tyres and the road
➔​ Otherwise, car would continue to follow the tangential path as dictated
by inertia
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹 𝑓

–​ A mass on a string
➔​ A mass on a string rotating horizontally has its centripetal force
provided by tension in the string
➔​ A mass on a string rotating in a conical pendulum has BOTH tension
and weight forces acting on it
➔​ Horizontal component of tension provides centripetal force

➔​ Vertical component of tension opposes weight force (∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0)

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

–​ Objects on banked tracks

➔​ Banked tracks are incorporated into road design to increase the speed
at which a vehicle can execute a turn
➔​ Whilst on flat surfaces, only friction provides centripetal force, banked
corners allows horizontal component of normal force to provide
centripetal force
◆​ Note: Design speed = max speed achievable without drifting
higher or lower on track

➔​ Banked track questions can be modified as plane turning

◆​ Normal force = lift
◆​ No air resistance

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

–​ EXTRA: Vertical Circular Motion

➔​ Circular motion can also be seen on vertical planes
➔​ True Weight = W = mg
➔​ Apparent Weight: relies on Normal Force

Case 1 - Horizontal track: Apparent weight = True Weight, since N = W

Case 2 - Dipped track: Apparent weight > True Weight, since:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑁 − 𝑊
2
𝑚𝑣
𝑟
= 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔
2
𝑚𝑣
𝑁 = 𝑟
+ 𝑚𝑔
∴ 𝑁 > 𝑚𝑔

Case 3 - Humped track: Apparent weight < True Weight, since:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊 − 𝑁
2
𝑚𝑣
𝑟
= 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑁
2
𝑚𝑣
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑟
∴ 𝑁 < 𝑚𝑔

➔​ Common q: For cart to ‘just’ complete a loop → N=0

●​ Solve problems, model and make quantitative predictions about

objects executing uniform circular motion in a variety of situations, using
the following relationships:

–​ Angular velocity:
➔​ Consider two concentric circular motions, both with the same period
➔​ Larger circle has greater average velocity since travels greater
distance
➔​ BUT, both have = angular displacement Δθ over the same time t. Rate
−1
of change is angular velocity (ω) 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠

➔​ Now:

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

∆𝐿
𝑣= ∆𝑡
∆θ
∆𝐿 = 2π
× 2π𝑟
∆𝐿 = ∆θ𝑟
∆θ𝑟
𝑣= ∆𝑡
∴𝑣 = 𝑟ω

●​ Investigate the relationship between the total energy and work

done on an object executing uniform circular motion

–​ Conservation of mechanical energy: For a given system of bodies where there

are only kinetic and potential energy, then the total mechanical energy of the
system is conserved

𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝑈
➔​ 𝐸𝑚= Mechanical energy
➔​ 𝐸𝑘= Kinetic Energy
➔​ 𝑈 = Potential Energy
➔​ Change in U ⇔ Change in 𝐸𝑘

–​ Energy is the ability to do work (J)

–​ Work is the transfer of energy from one object to another
➔​ Force on an object resulting in a displacement in direction of force
➔​ Scalar

𝑊 = 𝐹‖𝑠 = 𝐹𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

–​ Force but no work:

➔​ Work only done when a force is applied IN THE DIRECTION OF
displacement
➔​ Hence, possible to produce force and result to no work as no energy
transformation (e.g. Holding books up)
➔​ In circular motion, centripetal force is perpendicular to
velocity/displacement at any given instant, so no work is done

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
●​ Investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical
systems and the applied torque
–​ Torque: Rotational effect created when force is applied to an object around a
pivot point
➔​ Dependent on the magnitude of the applied force + distance away from
pivot point
➔​ If force applied through pivot point, torque = 0
➔​ If force applied perpendicular to pivot point, torque is at maximum

τ = 𝑟⊥𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ

–​ Note: Torque is a vector

➔​ Clockwise/Anticlockwise

–​ Direction of torque is perpendicular to plane of rotation

➔​ Direction determined with right hand rule
➔​ Fingers curl in direction of rotation → thumb point in direction of torque

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

Motion in Gravitational Fields

Inquiry question: How does the force of gravity determine the motion of planets and
satellites?

●​ Apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal

Gravitation to:

–​ Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: Determines the gravitational force of

attraction between two masses
➔​ The force is proportional to the mass of each object
➔​ The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them
➔​ Hence Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation is given by:

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹 = 2
𝑟
➔​ Where:
◆​ F = gravitational force of attraction (N)
−11 2 −2
◆​ G = Universal gravitational constant, 6. 67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔
◆​ M = mass of the first body (kg)
◆​ m = mass of the second body (kg)
◆​ r = centre to centre distance of the two bodies (m)
➔​ Note: The gravitational force on the first mass is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the force on the second mass (Newton’s 3rd
law of motion)
​
–​ Gravitational Field: A gravitational field is the region within which any mass
will experience a gravitational force
➔​ Note: Vector quantity (magnitude + direction)
➔​ Fields are physical quantities that have values for each point in space

–​ Graphing Gravitational Force:

➔​ 𝐹𝑔 is below the x-axis (radius)
➔​ Force decreases as object approaches the Earth’s centre

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
–​ Drawing Gravitational Fields:
➔​ Density of lines indicates relative field strength
➔​ Arrows show direction of force
➔​ In small scale, lines parallel
➔​ Fields may influence one another

–​ Gravitational field strength: the acceleration due to gravity at a point

–​ Factors affecting gravitational field strength:

➔​ Mass of the planet/central body (M)
➔​ Distance from the centre of the planet/central body (r)
➔​ Location on earth since Earth is not perfect sphere (flattened at poles)
◆​ g slightly larger at poles since r is smaller
➔​ Different planetary/central bodies
◆​ g dependent on mass and radius which is different for every
planetary body

–​ Gravitational field strength calculated using:

𝐺𝑀
𝑔 = 2
𝑟
➔​ Where:
−2
◆​ g = gravitational field strength/acceleration (𝑚𝑠 )
−11 2 −2
◆​ G = Universal gravitational constant, 6. 67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔
◆​ M = mass of the first body (kg)
◆​ r = centre to centre distance of the two bodies (m)
➔​ Note: Gravitational field strength is INDEPENDENT of the mass of the
object m

−2
➔​ The value of g at the surface of Earth can be taken to be 9.8𝑚𝑠

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
➔​ To predict g at the surface of a planet, take r to be the radius of the
planet
➔​ To predict g at some altitude above the surface of the planet, take r to
be the radius of the planet + the altitude

●​ Investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites

when applying the relationships between the following quantities:
–​ Orbital motion can be considered as centripetal motion along a circular path
➔​ Note: in reality, path is elliptical (Kepler’s First Law)

–​ Gravitational force/Centripetal force:

➔​ All objects in circular motion have a net force acting towards the centre,
keeping it in a circular path (centripetal force)
➔​ Provided by gravitational force of attraction between the satellite and
the central body

–​ Centripetal acceleration:
➔​ Similarly, centripetal acceleration is provided by the gravitational force
of attraction between the satellite and the central body

–​ Mass:
➔​ Only the mass of the central body affects orbit, (i.e. Orbit is
independent of the mass of the satellite)

–​ Orbital radius:

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
➔​ Centre to centre distance from the satellite and the central mass
➔​ See diagram above to differentiate between altitude vs orbital radius
➔​ Found using:
2π𝑟
◆​𝑣𝑜 = 𝑇
3
𝑟 𝐺𝑀
◆​ Or Kepler’s third law: 2
= 2
𝑇 4π

–​ Orbital velocity:
➔​ Tangential speed of a planet or satellite orbiting a central mass
➔​ Can be found using the following 3 methods:

Method 1:
➔​ Equating formulas for centripetal force and gravitational force

𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹 𝑔
2
𝑚𝑣 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑟
= 2
𝑟
2 𝐺𝑀
𝑣 =
𝑟

𝐺𝑀
∴𝑣 =
𝑟

Method 2:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
➔​ Given, 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
:
◆​ For a circular orbit, distance = 2π𝑟
◆​ Time taken for one orbital rotation = T
◆​ Orbital velocity = v

2π𝑟
∴𝑣 = 𝑇
Method 3 (Not Common):

𝑣 = 𝑟𝑤

➔​ Note: v is INDEPENDENT of the satellite’s mass, only depends on:

◆​ Mass of central body
◆​ Orbital Radius

–​ Orbital period:

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
➔​ Refers to the time taken for the satellite to make one complete orbit
around the central mass
➔​ Found using:
2π𝑟
◆​ 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑇
3
𝑟 𝐺𝑀
◆​ Or Kepler’s third law: 2
= 2
𝑇 4π

●​ Predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and

satellites in a variety of situations, including near the Earth and
geostationary orbits, and relate these to their uses

–​ There are two main types of orbits/satellites around Earth:

➔​ Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Satellites near the Earth
➔​ Geostationary Orbit (GEO): satellites further from the Earth than LEO
and have a period equal to the Earth’s rotation (24 hours) → appear
stationary to observers on Earth
–​ Some of the properties are listed below:

PROPERTY LEO GEO

Altitude 250 - 1000 km 35,900 km

Period 1.5 - 5 hours 24 hours

Orbital speed 27,900 km/h 11,300 km/h

Drag and orbital decay Significantly affected Not significantly affected

Position relative to Earth Position changes as Earth Stationary and orbits

spins above the equator

View of the Earth Complete Limited (⅓ of the Earth)

Communication with Earth Quick but interrupted Delayed but constant

Applications/uses Military spying, Hubble Communication, weather

telescope, geo scanning detection, GPS
and geo mapping

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
–​ Newton’s thought experiment:
➔​ Newton reasoned a stone thrown off a tall tower would cover a
considerable range thrown off Throwing it faster will increase the range
➔​ If thrown fast enough, as the stone falls, the Earth’s surface curves
away, so the stone never lands and orbits the earth

●​ Investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

to the forces acting on, and the total energy of, planets in circular and
non-circular orbits using:

–​ Johannes Kepler established three laws of planetary motion:

Kepler’s First Law - Law of Ellipses:

“Each planet moves, not in a circle, but in an ellipse, with the sun, off centre, at a
focus”

➔​ Suggests that planets orbit in an elliptical path around the Sun, at one
focus, and nothing is at the other
➔​ Theory supported by the timing of the Earth’s solar equinoxes (2 days
where sun is directly above equator = day and night are equal length.)
Since orbit is not circular, days between have varying durations for day
and night

Kepler’s Second Law - Law of Equal Areas:

“The linear speed and angular speed of a planet are not constant, but the areal
speed of each planet is constant. That is, a line joining the sun to a planet sweeps
out equal areas in equal times.”

➔​ Suggests that planets sweep out an equal area in equal time as they
orbit
➔​ Supports his elliptical theory

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

Kepler’s Third Law - Law of Periods:

“For all planets, the cube of the average radius is proportional to the square of the
3
𝑅
orbital period; that is, 2 is a constant for all planets going around the Sun”.
𝑇

3
𝑟 𝐺𝑀
2 = 2
𝑇 4π

➔​ Where:
◆​ r = average orbital radius (m)
◆​ T = orbital period (s)
−11 2 −2
◆​ G = Universal gravitational constant, 6. 67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔
◆​ M = mass of the first body (kg)

➔​ Since the ratio is only dependent on M, the ratio is constant for all
satellites in orbit around the same central body

3 3
𝑟1 𝑟2
2 = 2
𝑇1 𝑇2

●​ Derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force

and gravitational potential energy in radial gravitational fields to a variety of
situations, including but not limited to:

–​ Gravitational Potential Energy (𝑈𝑔): Energy of a mass due to its position in a

gravitational field.
➔​ At a point X, 𝑈𝑔 is defined as the work required to move the object from
an infinite distance (the zero level) to X
◆​ 𝑈𝑔 at any point that is not at infinity is negative

➔​ By Law of Universal Gravitation, force of attraction is zero at a point

infinite distance away
◆​ Take 𝑈𝑔 to be zero at infinity
◆​ Gravity = force of attraction → work is done to move mass from
point X to infinity → gains potential energy
●​ 𝑈∞> 𝑈𝑥
●​ 𝑈∞ = 0 → 𝑈𝑥 < 0

➔​ 𝑈𝑔 of an object in a gravitational field is given by:

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈 = − 𝑟
➔​ Points further away → greater U

➔​ Graphing 𝑈𝑔 against r produces the following graph:

➔​ Change in 𝑈𝑔 / Work required to move an object between two points is

given by:

∆𝑈𝑔 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∆𝑈𝑔 =− 𝑟𝑓
− (− 𝑟𝑖
)

1 1
∴ ∆𝑈𝑔 = 𝐺𝑚𝑚( 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑓
)
𝑖

➔​ Used to find the energy change that occurs when satellites move
between orbits (same central body)

–​ Kinetic Energy (𝐸𝑘) of an orbiting object given by:

1 2
𝐸𝑘 = 2
𝑚𝑣
𝐺𝑀
But, 𝑣 =
𝑟

1 𝐺𝑀 2
Hence, 𝐸𝑘 = 2
𝑚( )
𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝐸𝑘 = 2𝑟

–​ Total Orbital Energy/Mechanical Energy (𝐸𝑚) is:

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes

𝐸𝑚 = 𝑈𝑔 + 𝐸𝑘

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= − 𝑟
+ 2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
= − 2𝑟

–​ Escape Velocity:

➔​ Consider Newton’s thought experiment:

◆​ A specific velocity is required for an object to achieve circular
orbit
◆​ If this velocity is exceeded, object follows an elliptical orbit
◆​ If the velocity is exceed further, the object follows a parabolic
path away
◆​ If exceeded, stone flies to infinity
◆​ If a stone is thrown up fast enough, it should continue to rise -
slowing down but never falling back to Earth, and coming to rest
when it escapes Earth’s gravitational field

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 HSC PHYSICS Module 5: Advanced Mechanics Notes
➔​ Escape Velocity: Lowest velocity an object must obtain to escape a
gravitational field and go to infinity

➔​ Derivation:
◆​ According to the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy, for
an object escaping a gravitational field:

𝐸𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝐸𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 + 𝑈𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0 (𝐸𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 0, since total orbital energy = 0)

1 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
2
𝑚𝑢 + (− 𝑟
) = 0

1 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
2
𝑚𝑢 = 𝑟

1 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
2
𝑚𝑢 = 𝑟

1 2 𝐺𝑀
2
𝑢 = 𝑟

2 2𝐺𝑀
𝑢 = 𝑟

2𝐺𝑀
𝑢= 𝑟

➔​ Note: u is independent of the mass of the object launched

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