# Discovery of Fundamental
farticles:
(E) Electron :>
Atomic Structure-
3
→→ Discovered by JJ Thomson in
Cathode Ray* Properties of
Expearment
s:
→When high valtage (>10"
v) is applied across
discharge tube
containing a gas at very low
pressure (0.01mmHg), then
a ray flow from cathode to anode.
→→ This ray
Cathode
es called Cathode Ray'•
B
Ano
de
-ZAS
Scree
n
(p=[Link]
mity) A
elilile
1710,000
4
*Properties of Cathode
Rays =>
Bischarg
e
Tube
1) Travel in straight line with
high speed (cast
Shadow).
fight
Canal Rays
=
" Travel in st. ifne with very high speed. 3
Carry the
char
ge
& momentum
33 Behave like particle an
motion. HJ characteristics
of anode rays depends.
upon
nature
of
gas
taken in discharge tube gas
taken in discharge tube,
then say consists
of tvely
charged particles called
SIT H2
'proton
Mass of
proton⋅
Neutron :-
a 1·007amu = 1.66x10
→ Discovered J.
Chadwick.
b
y
co & A2 Line) (ne)
2atom Zatem
(220)
3 atom
# Thomson's
Model of Atom
(22€)
3 atom
→ Also known as plum
pudding/watermelon
model.
> According to JJ Thomson,
atom consists
of uniform sphere of the charge in which the electrons are distributed uniformly,
Drawbacks =>
-27
(Ato
m)
→→ When Beryllium (Be)
nucleus bombarded with d-
particles (He nuclef) then
neutions emitted.
авет
2
He
(∞x-
particle
)
Nuclear Reaction
21 Behaves like particle in
motion. 3) Carry charge (gets
deflected towards tre
plate in
electric field). 4) Corry
momentum (Rotates ifte
paddle) 51 Affects
photographic plate
'Green Glow' when strike wall
beyond anode. p-particle ie
and
produc
es
6j can pass through metal
sheets
Is Contains -vely charged
electrons
12
c+ in
(Neut
ren)
૧૦ખર
işlo
1840
aM4
Particle
Representation
Charg
e
Mass
-
parti
cle
He
72e
-e
115
440
a34
Position
B+1.0
0
te
IS
Proton it or if
te
Neutron
in
zero
NOTE
Specific
Charge =
|
9B
cin
g
→→ Path of e- in uniform EF is
parabolic →
Path of e în uniform MF
is Cascular Is Charge by mass ratio
(~14) = 1.76 X 10" scharge of I was
discovered in Mulliken off exp•
4 Moving mass of
2 (m) =
Mo
√1-
Vic)
85 Characteristics of
cathode rays are
(1 Rest
MOS
E)
cathode rays are
independent
of gas nature of gas taken in
discharge tube,
(11)
Proton
:
→ Discovered by Goldstein &
Rutherford in "Anode
Ray
Experiment.
* Mass considered
evenly spread
over the atom.
* It is a static model. Doesn't
riflet
movement
o
f
* couldn't explain stability of
atom- * Failed to explain
Rutherford 2-parrotacle
experiment.
#Rutherford Model & d-particle
Expartment: Rutherford
bombarded particle on a thin
gold
foil.
Observations →
* Most of the a-
particles
pass trisough the
gold foll
underrated. * Few
a-particles get
deflected by some
angle.
* Very few & particles (1 fm
20,000) returned
back to it's
original path.
1.007 amy Conclusions →
1.008amy
charge of 1
partide)
Mass
of I partice Order of SC; e->p> <-
particle >n
#Iso-Series:
I) Isotopes => Same I but
different A· E: H≤TH & 3, H
3) Isobars => Same A but
different 2,
C &
14
N
3) Isodiaphers =>
Same no.
3
1
15
PÅ
35
17
of (n-p) on
(A-22)
CI
→ Experimental setup is same as above.
The only 4 Isotones
diff. is that here instead of
Anode, Cathode Es perforated
(Cathode with holes).
→ Canal / Anode Rays' flow
from holes of Cathode.
H2
24+
+ 2e
(Anode Rays)
(Cathode Rays)
E
gi
same no. of neutrons (A-2) 140 & 160
B
G
5) Isoelectronic species =>
species having same
number
o
f
e
A13
4
Eg: Not,
Mght Als
C
1) Most of the atom
is empty.
31 Magort by mass
concentrated at centre în very
small region called "Nucleus"
3) Nucleus is very small as
compared to
atom.
Yatoon 10-
10
Ynucle
ys 105
i
4) Nucleus is tvely
charged.
Sy Protons and neutrons
are present in
nucleus.
since an atom is neutral, in an atom
è
No. of
proten
= No.
of e
De revolves around the nucleas in a
definite path
called of bit,
Distance of Closest
approach :→→
→ Minimum distance from
nucleus at which 2-particle stops
due to repulsion & goes back.
F Ne
(KE=
O)
6) Isosters = Isoelectronic
species having
same no. of
atoms/molecules.
R
Kze
MYL
* Let the no. of particles scattered
an angle σ be N(O), then
by
t = thickness
N(0) L
Sin" (012)
α
=2
of four
શ્
t
KE= Kinetic
乂
(KE)
energy of
a-particle
if
Drawbacks of Rutherford Model :->
→ According to EMR theory of maxwell,
charged particle accelerate around oppositely charged particle, it
continuosly
lose energy.
-> As a result of
which, e would have collapsed in nucleus in 10-8 sec
is stable.
But atom
→ Failed to explain atomic spectrum. → Nothing said about è
configuration. #Electromagnetic Theory of Radiation :
* Light rays, X-rays, Trays, etc emit energy Continuously in form of a wave
called "Electromagnetic wave'
* These waves consists of oscillating
electric
and magnetic field in phose ton to each other and dign ton to
propogation of wave.
•* All EM waves travel with same speed equal to speed of light
(C=3x108m4).
* According to this theory,
Energy of light & Intensity of light (5)
wave
(Intensity of light is energy per unit area
peer whit time)
* This theory,
Interference of light" Successfully exploens Diffraction of light
Black body radiation >Photoelectric effect.
Failed to explain
#Plank's Quantum Theory & → Radfort energy is emitted of absorbed
continuosly in the form of small energy packets called photon' on
quantum'
->
→ Energy of 1 photon, Eph. = h = he
→Total energy emitted or absorbed is always
quantised.
=
Etotal như
→ Energy of Imol· photon is called a
Einstein energy.
1 Einstein Chergy = NA⋅hD
→ According to this theory.
FLor
α
* Energy
is Independent of Intensity of light,
→ Here, Intensply of light means no. of
photons emitted per second.
-> This Theory,
Successfully explains
black body Radiation
>
Photo electic effect. FoRls to explain peffraction of light
•Interference of light
NOTE: Above both theories are correct and light has dual characteristics Le it can
behave like a wave as well
as like particle (photon).
E=
12400 ev A(in λ)
#Black Body Radiation
→ A perfect body which emits an absorbs radiation of all frequencies
is called 'Black body'
Τι
Black Body
T2>T
73>T2
T42 T3
Red
→ Blue → whate
I
on Ising temp of a black body, it's colour changes;
→ This emission of e' is called photo-
electric effect.
→ Experimental set-ups
Cathode
77%
Anode.
e-
1/4/17 @
A
Ep (Motocurrent)
→ The -ve porntial aft con anode, at which
e stop coming towards anode is called Stopping Potential (Vo)"
related
→ Stopping Potential is hence to max- possible
KE of the photo electron-
(KE) mox
= evo
Saturation (attent
น
Nol & Visgra
Work Function ($) ~
I la o Intensity of 19ght
→ Minimum energy required to efect on e- from
the metal surface.
→ It is energy corresponding to threshold
frequency & wavelength.
пс
0=h√2 = ne
Renstein's Egh of PEE =>
Elight
ק
λο
KEmax + $
hy = KE max + ho
Intensity of light is
frequency."
* Colour change occurs because of change
of frequency. This indicates that energy independent depends upon
frequency. *Frequency distribution of radiations from a black body (ie
graph b/w intensity vis frequency OR Intensity vis wavelength)
depends only upon temperature. #Photoelectric Effect :
swhen a monochromatic (same frequency) radiation of appropriate
wavelength strike on a photo-sensitive metol surface
e are emitted.
KE
KE increases with T'se in frequency of light.
#Bohr Model of Atom:
Assumptions :-> "An electron in an atom has certain definite
stationary state /energy
of motion + allowed to it. Energy of these state is fixed.
2)
levels
when an e- revolve in these stationary states. It does not radiate energy.
But when e famps from
higher energy level to lower energy level
then it emits a photon of energy equal to energy difference b/w two
stationary
31
States.
LE
EPhoton = Ej - Eq
-Ej Only those stationary states are allowed for electronic motion
whose angular momentum is integral multiple of
Le
L= min=
nh 277
1120
4) Path of electron in these stationary
stake is circulor and the centripetal force is given by electrostatic force of
attraction.
Fc = mv
Tn
=
kze
Important Relations for Bont's model :->
Atomic Structure-2.
Jonization Energy Energy required to take on
electron from ground state to out of the atom
if (n=al
(= +13.6eV (IE) +
A-like specte
= +13.6(z2)ev
(IE) Ayäregen Excitation Energy Energy required to excite
an e- from ground state to some higher stationary state if [no1 → n=1+k,
KEN]
the
Separation Energy Energy required to excite an
from some nth orbit to out atom gf (n=n⋅
e*
JRydberg's Formula :->
n=αs)
of
#Hydrogen Spectrum •
White lines => Emission
spectrum
Black Lines » Absorption
spectrum
* Absorption line spectrum of it is due to excitation of e- from lower
energy level to higher energy level,
Emission line spectrum of his due to de-excitation of e- from higher
energy level to lower energy level.
* Entire H-spectrum is divided into 6 series.
"Lewer "Higher Region of EMR
Series name
Lymann
It gives be the expression of wavelength Balmer of photon radiated to
due to de-excitation Paschen. of ane.
A
Az2
= 1·09×10
nž
L
2 3
55
2,3
3,4,~~
88 88
altraviolet
Visible
14,5, 100 Infrared Ray
Bracket
h
56.
Pfund Humphrey
S
6,7.
6
7,8
1
8
IR
IR
IR
→→ Radius (Jn);
*=
-Velocity (Vn)':
Vn-
~ Frequency of revolution &
Akc
h
4π2 Kme2
X
=
쓸 = 0.529%
27Ke2 Z
+= No. of revolutions
second
Time Period:
h
Le 201
1# Spectrum : (22) A
Spectrum is the impression when a white light is analysed through a prism.
=2018 X10 (27) MLS Continuous spectrum :->
when a white light is passed through a potsm at diffracts into several colours
(VIBGYOR). These colour overlap with each other on a screen, therefore called
Continuous spectrum
=)
T= 2πJ => To h3
6
Energy of an electron in nth orbit
Total Energy (E) = -2x2X2 mer
पर
X
E = −13•6 (22) ev = −2·18X16-18
KE = -PE = -PE kzez
#Energy Level Diagram :
For a hydrogen atom
FA=0.8SEY
E3 Elster
E2=-3ader
0.66ev
I
1.89ev
E-134
10.2ev
3
27-
-4400
h=4(320
Z2
(2/2)
Absorption spectrum :→
When a white light is passed through a prism and vapour of a substance is
present bow light source and prism then we get a spectrum in which few dork
lines appear,
Light Substance Source
vapour
Frism
#Line Spectrum &
Screen
Dark fines in the
Spectrum Endecates
that energy corresponding to these lines are absorbed by vapours of the
substance.
The light source present during absorption spectrum analyst's is removed and
only the
"excited state) radiations coming from vapours of substance
are analysed through prism where we get 'Line Spectrum'
h=3(2nd excited state)
·λ=2 (1st excited sta
-n=1 (Ground state) Vapours
P295m
* Lane spectram of each
element is diff, this It is considered as
* Ter shortest // highest & => (ne =∞)
For longest λ / lowest ) => (ME = nower 11) Terms used for spectrol lines es
a Fine as 1st fine of series Bline and line of series Y line 3rd line of series
of Maximo.
∙of spectral lines when è gumps from (nth orbit → n=1).
Slime =4 line
Max. no-
・of lines =
π(n-1)
2
series
* Max. no. of spectral lines when & jumpe
from (12->n)
Max- no. of Ifnes = (M2-hi) (k2-h1ti) = Σ(n2-n1)
2
Eg: e transitions from n=y to n=2, Sel" No. of spectral = (1-2) (7-2+1) = E(7-
2)
lines
#Drawbacks of
5×6
2
5x6 = Σ (s)
دام
= 15 =
(5+4+3+2+1)
Bohr's Model :
* Applicable only for Hyike atoms Mons. *No explaination for
quantisation of angular
momentum.
in
* couldn't explain splitting spectral line "Finger point of the clement" presence
of E' (Stork effect) on B (zeeman effect)
* Failed to explain de-Broglie's hypotheses and
Helsenberg uncertainty principle. #De-Broglie Hypothers :
→> According to de-brogli, every particle in
motion has wave characteristics, so ane behaves like a particle as well as wave.
*Electrons exist in 30 orbitals (not circular)
*Electrous move like a
standing wave about nucleus.
For an orbital, total no. RN are counted from nucleus. 45 orbital
25) 35) HS => Total RN = 3
* The egh of e" wave was given by Schrodinger C is 25) 35) 45
Wave Equation •
32 X
+ dxc2
J4
+
t
8nm (E-V) = 0
dyz
Jz2
→→ The wavelength of any moving particle/body Supon
solving this egn, we get 4 (wave-
can be
given by
1= h
P
ハ
hpLineat momentum
mv
M→ Mass of body
·VaVelocity of borly
Important Relations of de-brogle wavelength=
1=
√2M KE
charge particle
accelerated by 'V' potential
150
function) and three unique constants which quantum no. (n, I, m)
are called
* For a particulan subshell
No. of orbitals (21+1)
Schrodinger's Egn for H-atom :->
Only fore accelerated by
'V' potential
1
Explaination of Quantised momentum=" *e can be present only in orbits whose
circumference as multiple of λ of e, as an è can be treated as a standing
wave ace to De-Broglie's hypothesis.
(n=1)
2=r=n
(n=2)
275=
nh
(n=3)
→mut = nh
my
27T
#Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
->Position and momentum of a moving microscopic particle (here e) can never be
determined accurately, simultaneously.
Le sxc. Ap 71 Ахар
нет
and [Link] >
h 475M
›
Uncertainty in De-Broglic λ =
Ax· AX 12
HIT
Uncertainty in Kinetic Energy
Ax. AE hv
на
Uncertainty in Energy and time =>
[Link]
h 475
#Quantum Mechanical Model:
حا
Difficult to solve in Cartesian coordinates, therefore converted into polor
coordinates Probabi¡PFy amplitude of
and solved.
x = [Link] y= rsino, sing
N=ycose
é
RN
RN RN
For an ortital
No. of RN = (n-1-1) No. of AN =
= (n-1)
Totol no. of nodes =
NOTE: For an
orbital, no.
is equal to no-
of
of finite soin
#Graphs R(J) VIS of
0
RN COA
R()=0
(8) Nucleus is present at origin (assumption) (99) For any s-crbitof, curve statos
from max-value (m) for any pidit ortital, curve starts from zero a No. of cuts =
No. of RN for orbital (~) After each RN, sign of & changes, so change Y =
R()⋅ A(0.4)
the sign of curve (+← ~) Radful Part/ Angular Part/ (VF) As & T'ses => Radial Probability
Anguloa Probability
amplitude
• height of successive peak uses Amplitude (vii) At the end, curve gets paralled
to x-axis
[R2 (3) Vis & curve is alsways tve, so take mirror] Emage of -ve part of Ro)
vis& graph about
* 4 is product of two independent equations
•physical significance.
and has no
* But y2 = Probabilfly ← It gives us prob.
Volume
x-axis
For s-orbitals =>
density of e-
RUY
* For a given volume dv,
Probabilpey of = [Link]
fendinge-
Thus,
R2 (1) -> Radial Probability density. A2 (0.4) → Angulos, Probability density
Conclusion
1) Every S-ortita) as spherical/non-directional
and has no angulos part.
Le
4 cc-orbital) = R(d) (ACO. $)=0 for all s-orbitals)
21 NODE: Locus of points where probability of
findrud e- is zero.
Rid)
(15-05694al)
(15-01-1970)
RU)
R2(2)
(25-0069tal)
(25-orbital)
RLY
A2 (1)
(3-s orbital)
(3s-orbital)
6+2 6+2)+
For p.d.t or biopes [Graph of up, had &, all are some]
IP 42 dV=0 = p2 = 0 = R(t) & A(0.0)=0 RUP
Radial Node
|RG)=0 Le spherical like
regions
same type of orbital of successive
shell are separated
* Can only determine probability of finding e, by RN.
not exact location."
15) 25 AN
2PX 3PX RN
Angulat NODE A(0.9)=0 L 2-0
(2p=3a='74)
Px - Yz plane
->
Planes
(
dxy
by → xy plane! +
jxz &
P2 -> xy plane Y2
Plane 42 conical surfaces
P
(4p=5d=6+)
(RN = 3) A
(2p=3a=ht)
(4pxsd=6+) (RN=2)
#Radial Probatility Distribution Function * It gives us probability of
finding e over
a spheric of surface.
*For
any
crbitof
Porj = R2 (8). 14782
Rules for Play vis & Graph:
1 Carve starts from zero for any orbital 31 Curve is present only in Ift
quadrant
for all orbitals.
31 No. of RNE ab- of P.O. I of curve with sc-MÍS 4) No⋅ at peaks =
(No. of cuts) +1
55 As rises, peak of successive curves I'ses. 15/2p/30/41 orbital
P(x)
35-crofted
P(r)
In
૩૧.
43
2P
P(r)-
4p-orbital
In
Ymax :-> It is the distance corresponding to highest peak of Post vis & curve for
an
orbitd.
→In order to calculate &max, put
dPG)=0
dr
- For Is orbital of Haton
Tmax
= 90 =
#Quantum Numbers:
0.529 A
* These are the set of numbers, used to locate the position of an
e- in an atom- *Every e- has a unique set of quantum
numbers.
*Two electrons of an atom can never have
same quantum numbers.
бате
"J
Atomic Structure- 3
11 Principal Quantum Number (n) :- + Indicates : size and energy of
orbit
Voistance of e from nucleus
*Values: n=1,2,3,4.
ии
* Angulah Momentum = nh * Total no. of c- in an orbit = 2n2
* Total no.
* Total no.
orbitals in an orbit = n2
of Subshell in an orbit = n
2 Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) :-
→ Also called Secondasy / subsidiary / Angular
Quantum Number.
* Given by = Sommerfield
Values = 0,1,2,3.
—— — (n-1) (s) (4) (a) (4)
* Indicates = Subshell / suborbit.
* Toto no. of orbitals in a subshell = (24+1) Total no. of electrons in a subshell 2 (2011) *
Orbital angular momentum = √(ff1) h
- For hydrogen & hydrogen-like species, all
the subshells of a shell have same energy.
31 Magnetic Quantum Number (m) %-
* Given by = Linde * Indicates: Orientation of
electrondensity.
*Max. no. of e" in an orbital = 2 * Value: (1) to (D)
oriide/dirn
For p subshell =)
Px
Py
Pz
For d-subshells day dyz dz2 dxy drży?
Means Values can
be interchanged
0 +1
Spin Bavoutum Number(3/Ms) %
*
-> Given by 'Unlenback' & 'Goudsmit'· → Values of 5 an (+1) & (-1)
→ Totok valve of spin in an atom
1=
(Total no. (+) x no. of unpaired e)
→ spin angulos momentum = √s(st1) __b__
S(STI) h
# Rules for filling of electrons :
1 Aufbau Principle: →
→ The electrons are filled up in an Tsing
of the
the energy
order
in subshells.
6
162 252 2pb 352 3p6 452 3510 40° 552 4010 5p6 652 4414 5210 606 752 5+14
6010
Le
Ins2 (n-2)gth (n-1) d'o
пре
(htf)Rule => The subshell with lowest (nt)
value is filled up first.
→When two subshells have same (nt) value then the subshell with lowest value
of
'n' is filled first.
3 Pauli's Exclusion Principle ☀→
-> No two è in an atom can have same
value of all four quantum numbers.
the
*) Hund's rule of Max. multiplicity :·
→ Electrons are distributed among orbitals of subshell in such a give max. no. of
unpaired e- with paralle spin.
a way
to
→ Thus, no pairing of e- take place until
every orbital is occupped by a single
of same spin.
11111 (x) 11111 ](-)