Units, Dimensions

01 and Vectors

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

Physics is the study of nature and its laws. Feynman has given a wonderful description of what is
"understanding the nature". Suppose we do not know the rules of chess but are allowed to watch the moves
of the players. If we watch the game for a long time, we may make out some of the rules. With the knowledge
of these rules we may try to understand why a player played a particular move. However, this may be a
very difficult task. Even if we know all the rules of chess, it is not so simple to understand all the
complications of a game in a given situation and predict the correct move. Knowing the basic rules is,
however, the minimum requirement if any progress is to be made.
One may guess at a wrong rule by partially watching the game. The experienced player may make use of a
rule for the first time and the observer of the game may get surprised. Because of the new move some of
the rules guessed at may prove to be wrong and the observer will frame new rules.
Physics goes the same way. The nature around us is like a big chess game played by Nature. The events in
the nature are like the moves of the great game. We are allowed to watch the events of nature and guess at
the basic rules according to which the events take place. We may come across new events which do not
follow the rules guessed earlier and we may have to declare the old rules inapplicable or wrong and
discover new rules.

Physical Quantities:
All quantities that can be measured and used to define laws of nature are called physical quantities.
eg. time, length, mass, force, work done, etc. In physics we study about physical quantities and their inter
relationship.
Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Its Numerical value) (unit) = (n) (u)
Magnitude of a physical quantity always remains constant, it will not change if we express it in some other
unit. So,
(n)(u) = constant

1 n1u1 = n2u2
n
u

1
Numerical value 
unit

Measurement:
Measurement is the comparison of a quantity with a standard of the same physical quantity.

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There are two type of physical quantities.
(i) Fundamental quantities (ii) Derived quantities

(i) Fundamental (Basic) Quantities:

• These are the elementary quantities which cover the entire span of physics.
• Any other quantity can be derived from these.
• All the basic quantities are chosen such that they are independent of each other (i.e., distance (d),
𝑑
time (t) and velocity (v) cannot be chosen as basic quantities, because they are related as V = ).
𝑡
An International Organization named CGPM : General Conference on weights and Measures, choose
seven physical quantities as basic or fundamental.

Length Time Mass Temperature Electrical Luminous Amount of

current Intensity Substance
[L] [T] [M] [K] [A] [Cd] [mol]

These are the elementary quantities (in our planet) that’s why chosen as basic quantities.
In fact, any set of independent quantities can be chosen as basic quantities by which all other
physical quantities can be derived. i.e.,

(A) (V) () (S) (R) (Cd) (mol)

Area Velocity Density Sp. Heat Resistance Luminous mole
Capacity Intensity

Can be chosen as basic quantities (on some other planet, these might also be used as basic quantities)
But,

(L) (A) (V)

Length Area Velocity

Cannot be used as basic quantities as

Area = (Length)2 so they are not independent.

(ii) Derived Quantities:

Physical quantities which depend upon fundamental quantities or which can be derived from
fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities.
Examples:- Volume, Pressure, Density etc.

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Units:
All physical quantities are measured w.r.t. standard magnitude of the same physical quantity and these
standards are called UNITS. eg. second, meter, kilogram, etc.
So, the four basic properties of units are:
1. They must be well defined.
2. They should be easily available and reproducible.
3. They should be invariable e.g. step as a unit of length is not invariable.
4. They should be accepted by all.

FPS (Foot Pound Second) or British Engineering System:

In this system length, mass and time are taken as fundamental quantities and their base units are foot (ft),
pound (lb) and second (s) respectively.

CGS (Centimeter Gram Second) or Gaussian System:

In this system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time and their respective units are
centimetre (cm), gram (g) and second (s).

MKS (Meter Kilogram Second) System:

In this system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time but their fundamental units are metre
(m), kilogram (kg) and second (s) respectively.

International System (SI) of Units:

This system is modification over the MKS system, so it is also known as Rationalised MKS system. Besides
the three base units of MKS system seven fundamental and two supplementary units are also included in
this system.

Classification of Units:
The units of physical quantities can be classified as follows :

Fundamental or Base Units:

The units of fundamental quantities are called base units. In SI there are seven base units.

[Link]. Physical Quantity SI unit Symbol

1. Length Metre m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Electric current Ampere A
6. Luminous intensity Candela cd
7. Amount of substance Mole mol

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Derived units:
The units of derived quantities or the units that can be expressed in terms of the base units are called
derived units
eg. → Area =  × b = m2

Volume = × b × h = m3
𝑀 𝑘𝑔
Density = = = kg/m3 = kg – m–3
𝑉 𝑚3
𝑚
Force = M × a = kg × 2 = kg – m – s–2
𝑠
Force 𝑘𝑔−𝑚− 𝑠 2
Pressure = = = kg – m–1 – s–2
Area 𝑚2

Illustration 1:
Find the unit of speed.
Solution:
Unit of distance Metre -1
Unit of speed = = = ms
Unit of time Second
Some derived units are named in honour of great scientists.
• Unit of force – Newton (N)  (kgms–2)
• Unit of frequency – Hertz (Hz)  (s–1) etc.

Supplementary units:
The units defined for the supplementary quantities namely plane angle and solid angle are called the
supplementary units. The unit for plane angle is radian and the unit for the solid angle is steradian.

Dimensions:
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities must be raised to
represent the given physical quantity.

Illustration 2:
Find the dimensions of force
Where, Force (Quantity) = Mass × Acceleration
Solution:
Force (Quantity) = Mass × Acceleration
Velocity Length
= Mass × = Mass ×
Time (Time)2
= Mass × Length × (Time)–2
So, dimensions of force : 1 in mass
1 in length
–2 in time

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Dimensional formula:
The physical quantity that is expressed in terms of the base quantities is enclosed in square brackets to
remind that the equation is among the dimensions and not among the magnitudes. Thus, above equation
may be written as [force] = [MLT–2].
Such an expression for a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities is called the dimensional formula.
Thus, the dimensional formula of force is [MLT–2]. The two versions given below are equivalent and are
used interchangeably.
(a) The dimensional formula of force is [MLT–2].
(b) The dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and –2 in time.
The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is that expression which represents how and which of
the base quantities are included in that quantity.
a. Mass → M b. Length → L
c. Time → T d. Temp. → , K
e. Current → I, A f. Amount of substance → Mol

Illustration 3:
Find dimensional formula of power.
Solution:
Energy Work 𝑘𝑔−𝑚2 − 𝑠 −2
Power (P) = = =
Time Time 𝑠
1 2 −2
𝑀 𝐿 𝑇
= = 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 − 𝑠 – 3 = [M1L2T–3]
𝑇1

Illustration 4:
Torque is defined as moment of force and is given by
Torque = force × perpendicular distance
Find dimensional formula of Torque.
Solution:
Torque,  (Tau) = Force × Distance
= kg-m-s–2 × m
= kg-m2-s–2
= [M1L2T–2]

Illustration 5:
Find dimensional formula of Angular momentum.
Solution:
Angular Momentum (L) = M × V × r
= kg-m-s–1-m
Unit Dimension = kg-m2-s–1
= [M1L2T–1]

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Illustration 6:
Find dimensions of coefficient of viscosity. Viscous force is given by
Fv = 6rv
Where, Fv= Viscous force
 = coefficient of viscosity
r = radius of sphere
v = velocity of object
Solution:
Coefficient of Viscosity ()
−2
𝐹𝑣 [𝑀𝐿𝑇 ]
[𝜂] = [ −1 −1
6𝜋𝑟𝑉
]= −1 = [𝑀𝐿 𝑇 ]
[𝐿][𝐿𝑇 ]

Illustration 7:
Find dimensional formula of pressure.
Solution:
Force 𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2
Pressure (P) = =
Area 𝐿2
Dimension of P = [M1L–1T–2]
Unit = kg-m–1 – s–2 = 1 pascal

Illustration 8:
Surface tension of a liquid is defined as force on imaginary line per unit length. Find its dimensional
formula.
Solution:
Force
Surface Tension (S) =
Length
𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2
=
𝐿
Dimension of (S) = [M1L0T–2]
Unit = kg-s–2

Illustration 9:
Find dimensional formula for universal gravitational constant (G).
Solution:
Universal Gravitational Constant (G)
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= 2
𝑟
𝑔𝑟2
𝐺= 𝑀
𝑚 𝑠−2 𝑚2
𝐺=
𝑘𝑔
G = [M L3T–2]
–1

Unit of G = kg–1-m3-s–2

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Units and Dimensions of Physical Quantities
Quantity Common Symbol SI unit Dimension
Displacement s METRE (m) L
Mass m, M KILOGRAM (kg) M
Time t SECOND (s) T
Area A m2 L2
Volume V m3 L3
Density  kg/m3 M/L3
Velocity v, u m/s L/T
Acceleration a m/s2 L/T2
Force F Newton (N) ML/T2
Work W Joule (J) (=N – m) ML2/T2
Energy E, U, K Joule (J) ML2/T2
Power P Watt (W) (=J/s) ML2/T3
Momentum p kg-m/s ML/T
Gravitational constant G N-m2/kg2 L3/MT2
Angle ,  Radian
Angular velocity  Radian/s T–1
Angular acceleration  Radian/s2 T–2
Angular momentum L kg-m2/s ML2/T
Moment of inertia I kg-m2 ML2
Torque  N-m ML2/T2
Angular frequency  Radian/s T–1
Frequency  Hertz (Hz) T–1
Period T s T
Young's modulus Y N/m2 M/LT2
Bulk modulus B N/m2 M/LT2
Shear modulus  N/m2 M/LT2
Surface tension S N/m M/T2
Coefficient of viscosity  N-s/m2 M/LT
Pressure P, p N/m2, Pa M/LT2
Wavelength  m L
Intensity of wave I W/m2 M/T3
Temperature T KELVIN (K) K
Specific heat capacity c J/kg–K L2/T2K
Stefan's constant  W/m2–K4 M/T3K4
Heat Q J ML2/T2
Thermal conductivity K W/m–K ML/T3K

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Illustration 10:
(a) Can there be a physical quantity which has no unit and dimensions
(b) Can a physical quantity have unit without having dimensions
Solution:
(a) Yes, strain (b) Yes, angle with unit radian

Illustration 11:
If velocity (V), time (T) and force (F) were chosen as basic quantities, find the dimensions of mass.
Solution:
Dimensionally :
Force = Mass × Acceleration
Velocity
Force = Mass ×
Time
Force × Time
Mass =
Velocity
[Mass] = [FTV–1]

Principle of homogeneity
Two physical quantities having same dimensions can be added or subtracted but there is no such
restriction in division and multiplication.
● Suppose in any formula, (L + ) term is coming (where L is length). As length can be added only
with a length, so  should also be a kind of length.
So [] = [L]
● Similarly consider a term (F – ) where F is force. A force can be added/subtracted with a force
only and give rise to a third force. So  should be a kind of force and its result (F – ) should also be
a kind of force.

F–
A third force
 should be a kind of
and its dimension
force  [] = [M1L1T–2]
will also be M1L1T–2

Illustration 12:
𝛼 𝛽
2 = Fv + 2
𝑡 𝑥
Find dimensional formula for [] and [] (here t = time, F = force, v = velocity, x = distance).
Solution:
Since dimension of Fv = [Fv] =[M1L1T–2] [L1T–1] = [M1L2T – 3],
𝛽 [𝛽]
So [ 2 ] should also be [M1L2T– 3] ; 2 = [M1 L2T–3] ; [] = [M1L4T – 3]
𝑥 [𝑥 ]
𝛽
And [𝐹𝑣 + 2] will also have dimension M 1L2T – 3 , so L.H.S. should also have the same dimension M1L2T –3
𝑥
[𝛼]
so, = [M1L2T – 3]  [] = [M1L2T – 1]
[𝑡 2 ]

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Key Points about Dimension:
(i) Angles and trigonometric functions are 'Dimensionless Quantities'.
Proof: Angle are 'dimensionless' [] = M0L0T0

r
 s

𝑠 Arc length 𝐿
[𝜃] = [ ] = [
𝑟 Radius length
] = 𝐿 = 𝐿0

Proof: 'Trigonometric' functions are dimensionless as they are angle function.

 [] = M0L0T0
[sin] = M0L0T0

Illustration 13:
cos(x), where x = distance
Tell the dimension of .
Solution:
 [x] = [M0L0T0] =1 (Trigonometric function)
[] [x] = [M0L0T0] =1
or    =  L−1 

Illustration 14:
𝑘𝑥
sin ( )
𝑡
Find the dimension of k where x = distance.
Solution:
𝑘𝑥
sin ( )
𝑡
[k] = [TL–1]

(ii) All exponents are 'Dimensionless' (Base should be a numerical value).

2
𝑒 −𝛼𝑡  [–t2] = [M0L0T0]=1 (Both base and exponent must be dimensionless)
−𝛼𝑡 2
[𝑒 ] = [M0L0T0]

(iii) Logarithm functions and its argument are dimensionless.

log(a)  [a] = [M0L0T0] = 1
[log a] = [M0L0T0]

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Illustration 15:
𝐹
 = 2 sin (t) (Here v = velocity, F = force, t = time). Find the dimension of  and .
𝑣
Solution:
𝐹
𝛼 = 2 sin (t)
𝑣
Dimensionless
Dimensionless  [] [t] = 1
[] = [T–1]
[𝐹] [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2 ]
So [] = = = M1L –1T0
[𝑣 2 ] [𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ]2

Illustration 16:
𝐹𝑣 2 2𝜋𝛽
= loge ( 2 ) ; Where F = force, v = velocity. Find the dimensions of  and .
𝛽2 𝑣
Solution:

𝐹𝑣 2 2𝜋𝛽
𝛼=
𝛽 2 log 𝑒 𝑣 2

Dimensionless Dimensionless

[2𝜋][𝛽]
 =1
[𝑣 2 ]
[1][𝛽]
 =1  [] = [L2T – 2]
[𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
[𝐹][𝑣 2 ] [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2 ][𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
as [] =  [] =  [] = [M1L – 1 T0]
[𝛽2 ] [𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]2

Illustration 17:
The time dependence of physical quantity P is found to be of the form
2
P = 𝑃0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
Where ‘t’ is the time and  is some constant.
Then the constant  will
(A) be dimensionless (B) have dimensions of T–2
(C) have dimensions of P (D) have dimensions of P multiplied by T–2
Ans. (B)
Solution:
Since in ex, x is dimensionless
 t2 should be dimensionless
[t2] = [M0L0T0]
[] = [M0L0T–2]

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Applications of dimensional analysis:
First application
To find the dimensions of unknown physical quantities.
Illustration 18:
Using the theory of dimensions, determine the dimensions of constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ in Vander Wall’s equation
𝑎
𝑃 + 2 (V – b) = RT.
𝑉
Solution:
𝑎
must have the same dimensions as that of P (because it is added to P)
𝑉2
Dimension of b must be same as that of V.
[𝑎]
= [ML–1T–2]
𝐿6
[a] = [ML5T–2]
[b] = [L3]
Second Application:
To check correctness of an equation using principle of homogeneity of dimension :
Principle of homogeneity : According to this, only same physical quantities can be added or subtracted
eg. (i) x=A  B  [x] = [A] = [B]
1 2
s = ut + at
2
  
L LT −1T LT −2T 2
=L =L
 dimensionally correct
Illustration 19:
Find the correct relation
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2
F = 2 or
𝑟 𝑟
Solution:
Checking the dimensional correctness of relation
𝑚𝑣 2
F= 2
𝑟
[L.H.S.] = [MLT–2]
[𝑀(𝐿𝑇 −1 )2 ]
[R.H.S]. = = [ML0T–2] ; [LHS]  [RHS]
[𝐿2 ]
𝑀𝑣 2
F=
𝑟
[LHS] = [MLT–2]
[𝑀(𝐿𝑇 −1 )2 ]
[RHS] = = [MLT–2] ; [LHS] = [RHS]
[𝐿]
Hence dimensionally second relation is correct.
Limitation:
Every physically correct equation must be correct dimensionally, but dimensionally correct equation may
or may not be correct physically.

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Illustration 20:
Check whether this equation may be correct or not.
3 𝐹𝑣 2
Pr = 2 2
𝜋 𝑡 𝑥
Solution:
3 𝐹𝑣 2
Pressure, Pr = 2 2 (where Pr = Pressure, F = force , v = velocity , t = time , x = distance)
𝜋 𝑡 𝑥
Dimension of L.H.S = [Pr] = [M1L– 1T – 2]
[3] [𝐹] [𝑣 2 ] [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 -2 ] [𝐿2 𝑇 -2 ]
Dimension of R.H.S = = = [M1L2T – 6]
[𝜋2 ] [𝑡 2 ] [𝑥] [𝑇 2 ] [𝐿]
Dimension of L.H.S and R.H.S are not same. So, the relation cannot be correct.

Note:
Sometimes a question is asked which is beyond our syllabus, then certainly it must be the question of
dimensional analyses.

Third Application:
To derive relationship between different physical quantities:
Using the same principle of homogeneity of dimensions, new relations among physical quantities can be
derived if the dependent quantities are known.

Illustration 21:
It is known that the time of revolution T of a satellite around the earth depends on the universal
gravitational constant G, the mass of the earth M, and the radius of the circular orbit R. Obtain an expression
for T using dimensional analysis.
Solution:
We have [T] = [G]a [M]b [R]c
[M]0 [L]0 [T]1 = [M]–a [L]3a [T]–2a × [M]b × [L]c = [M]b–a [L]c+3a [T]–2a
Comparing the exponents
1
For [T] : 1 = –2a  a= −2
1
For [M] : 0 = b – a  b=a=−
2
3
For [L] : 0 = c + 3a  c = –3a =
2

𝑅3
Putting the values, we get T = G–1/2 M–1/2 R3/2 = √
𝐺𝑀

𝑅3
 T = 𝐾 √𝐺𝑀 (Where K is proportionality constant)

3
𝑅
So, the actual expression is T = 2𝜋√ (Experimentally K = 2).
𝐺𝑀

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Illustration 22:
When a small sphere moves at low speed through a fluid, the viscous force F opposing the motion, is found
experimentally to depend on the radius ‘r’, the velocity v of the sphere and the viscosity  of the fluid. Find
the force F (Stoke’s law).
Solution:
F = f ( ; r ; v)
F = k . x. ry. vz
[F] = [x. [r]y. [v]z
[MLT–2] = [ML–1T–1]x [L]y [LT–1]z
[MLT–2] = [Mx L–x + y + z T–x–z]
Comparing coefficients
x = 1 , –x + y + z = 1 ; – x – z = – 2
x=y=z=1
So, F = kvr
F = 6vr (As through experiments : k = 6)

Illustration 23:
If velocity (V), force (F) and time (T) are chosen as fundamental quantities, express (i) mass and (ii) energy
in terms of V, F and T.
Solution:
Let M = (some Number) (V)a (F)b (T)c
Equating dimensions of both the sides
[M1L0T0] = [L1T–1]a [M1L1T - 2]b [T1]c
[M1L0T0] = [MbLa + b T– a – 2b + c]
Get a = – 1, b = 1, c = 1
M = (Some Number) (V–1 F1 T1)  [M] = [V–1 F1 T1]
Similarly, we can also express energy in terms of V, F, T
Let [E] = [some Number] [V]a [F]b [T]c
 [ML2T–2] = [M0L0T0] [LT–1]a [MLT–2]b [T]c
 [M1L2T–2] = [Mb La + b T–a – 2b + c]
 1 = b; 2 = a + b ; – 2 = –a – 2b + c
Get a =1 ; b = 1 ; c = 1
 E = (some Number) V1F1T1 or [E] = [V1][F1][T1].

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Illustration 24:
In a new system, force (F), momentum (p) and length (L) are taken as fundamental quantities. Find
dimension of energy in this new system ?
Solution:
E = k Fa pb Lc
[M1 L2 T–2] = [M1 L1 T–2]a [M1 L1 T–1]b [L]c
[M1 L2 T–2] = [Ma + b La + b + c T–2a – b]
By comparing
1=a+b ...(i)
2=a+b+c …(ii)
2 = 2a + b …(iii)
From equation (i), (ii) and (iii)
 a=1
b=0
c=1
So, E = k F1 P0 L1
E=kFL

Conversion of units:
If units are u1, u2 and u3 and numerical values of physical quantity are n1, n2 and n3 then,
n1u1 = n2u2 = n3u3
nu = constant
For example : 1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm
When unit become smaller, numerical value increase.

Illustration 25:
Find value of 1N in C.G.S. system.
Solution:
[𝐹] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
n1u1 = n2u2
kg-m g-cm
𝑘𝑔−𝑚 𝑔−𝑐𝑚 1 = 105
1 2 = 𝑛2 2 sec2 sec2
𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠2
𝑛2 = 1 𝑔 𝑐𝑚 2
𝑠 Newton Dyne
n2 = 105
 1 N = 105 dyne

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Illustration 26:
Find the value of 1 Joule energy in C.G.S. system.
Solution:
[E] = [M1L2T–2]
n1u1 = n2u2
𝑘𝑔−𝑚2 𝑔−𝑐𝑚2
1 2 = 𝑛2 kg-m2 g-cm2
𝑠 𝑠2 = 107
1
𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 𝑠2 s2 s2
𝑛2 = 1 𝑔
𝑐𝑚2 𝑠2
10 𝑔 100𝑐𝑚 2
3
𝑛2 = 1 ( ) Joule Erg
𝑔 𝑐𝑚
n2 = 103 × 104
n2 = 107
 1 Joule = 107 Erg

Illustration 27:
Convert G from SI system to C.G.S. system.
Dimensional formula = [M–1L3T–2]
Universal gravitational constant G is given as
𝑚3
G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
𝑘𝑔.𝑠 2
Solution:
(100𝑐𝑚)3
G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
1000𝑔.(1 𝑠)2
106 𝑐𝑚3
G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
103 𝑔.𝑠 2
𝑐𝑚3
G = 6.67 × 10-8
𝑔.𝑠 2

Conversion of a Quantity from a Given System to New Hypothetical System:

Illustration 28:
In a particular system, the unit of length, mass and time are chosen to be 10cm, 10gm and 0.1s respectively.
The unit of force in this system will be equivalent to
1
(A) N (B) 1N (C) 10N (D) 100 N
10
Ans. (A)
Solution:
Dimensionally
[F] = [MLT–2]
In C.G.S system
1 dyne = 1g 1 cm (1s)–2

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In new system
1x = (10g) (10 cm) (0.1s)–2
1 dyne 1𝑔 1𝑐𝑚 10𝑠 −2
= × ( )
1𝑥 10𝑔 10𝑐𝑚 1𝑠
1
1 dyne = × 1x
10,000
104 dyne = 1x
10 x = 105 dyne = 1 N
1
x= N
10

Illustration 29:
If the units of length and force are increased four times, then the unit of energy will
(A) increase 8 times (B) increase 16 times (C) decreases 16 times (D) increase 4 times
Ans. (B)
Solution:
Dimensionally
[E] = [ML2T–2]
[E] = [MLT–2] [L]
E' = (4) (MLT–2) (4L)
E' = 16 (ML2T–2)

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:

• It yields only empirical formula
ℓ
From Dimensional analysis we get, T = (Some Number) √
𝑔
So, the expression of T can be

ℓ ℓ
T = 2√ T = √ sin (.....)
𝑔 𝑔
or or
ℓ ℓ
T = 50√ T = √ log (......)
𝑔 𝑔
or or
ℓ ℓ
T = 2√ T = √ + (t0)
𝑔 𝑔
• Dimensional analysis doesn’t give information about the “some Number”.

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
• This method is useful only when a physical quantity depends on other quantities by multiplication
and power relations.
(i.e., f = xa yb zc)
It fails if a physical quantity depends on sum or difference of two quantities
(i.e., f = x + y – z)
i.e., we cannot get the relation
1
S = ut + at2
2
From dimensional analysis.
• This method will not work if a quantity depends on another quantity as sine or cosine, logarithmic
or exponential relation. The method works only if the dependence is by power functions.
• In mechanics, we equate the powers of M, L and T hence we get only three equations. So, we can
have only three variables (only three dependent quantities)
So dimensional analysis will work only if the quantity depends only on three parameters, not more
than that.

Trigonometry:
Angle: P
Consider a revolving line OP.
Suppose that it revolves in anticlockwise direction starting from
its initial position OX .
The angle is defined as the amount of revolution that the revolving

line makes with its initial position. O X
From fig. the angle covered by the revolving line OP is  = POX
The angle is taken positive if it is traced by the revolving line in anticlockwise direction and the angle is
taken negative if it is covered in clockwise direction.
1° = 60' (minute)
1' = 60" (second)
1 right angle = 90° (degrees)
𝜋
Also 1 right angle = rad (radian)
2
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of the circle, whose length is equal to the
radius of the circle.
180∘
1 rad = = 57.3°
𝜋 r
𝜋
To convert an angle from degree to radian multiply it by  = 1 rad = r
180°
180°
To convert an angle from radian to degree multiply it by
𝜋

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Illustration 30:
A circular arc is of length  cm. Find angle subtended by it at the centre in radian and degree.

 cm


Solution:
𝑠 𝜋 cm 𝜋
𝜃 = 𝑟 = 6 cm = 6 rad
180°
As, 1 rad =
𝜋
𝜋 180°
So, = × = 30°
6 𝜋

Illustration 31:
When a clock shows 4 o'clock, how much angle do its minute and hour needles make?
𝜋 2𝜋
(A) 120° (B) rad (C) rad (D) 160°
3 3
Ans. (AC)
Solution:

12
11 1

10 2


9 3

8 4

7 5
6

2𝜋
From diagram angle θ = 4 × 30° = 120° = rad
3

Trigonometric ratios (or T ratios):

Let two fixed lines XOX' and YOY' intersect at right angles Y
P
to each other at point O.
Then,
X'  90° X
(i) Point O is called origin. O M
(ii) XOX' is known as X-axis and YOY' as Y-axis.
(iii) Portions XOY, YOX', X'OY' and Y'OX are called I, II,
Y'
III and IV quadrants respectively.

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Consider that the revolving line OP has traced out angle  (in I quadrant) in anticlockwise direction. From
P, draw perpendicular PM on OX. Then, side OP (in front of right angle) is called hypotenuse, side MP
(in front of angle ) is called opposite side or perpendicular and side OM (making angle  with hypotenuse)
is called adjacent side or base.
The three sides of a right-angled triangle are connected to each other through six different ratios, called
trigonometric ratios or simply T-ratios :
Perpendicular 𝑀𝑃 Base 𝑂𝑀
sin  = = cos  = =
Hypotenuse 𝑂𝑃 Hypotenuse 𝑂𝑃
Perpendicular 𝑀𝑃 Base 𝑂𝑀
tan  = = cot  = =
Base 𝑂𝑀 Perpendicular 𝑀𝑃
Hypotenuse 𝑂𝑃 Hypotenuse 𝑂𝑃
sec  = = cosec  = =
Base 𝑂𝑀 Perpendicular 𝑀𝑃
It can be easily proved that :
1 1 1
cosec  = sec  = cot  =
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
sin2 + cos2 =1 1+ tan2 = sec2 1+ cot2 = cosec2

Illustration 32:
Given sin  = 3/5. Find all the other T-ratios, if  lies in the first quadrant.
Solution:
3 P
In  OMP, sin  =
5
5
So MP = 3 and OP = 5 3
 OM = √(5)2 − (3)2 = √25 − 9 = √16= 4 
O M
𝑂𝑀 4 𝑀𝑃 3
Now, cos  = = tan  = =
𝑂𝑃 5 𝑂𝑀 4
𝑂𝑀 4 𝑂𝑃 5 𝑂𝑃 5
cot  = = sec  = = cosec  = =
𝑀𝑃 3 𝑂𝑀 4 𝑀𝑃 3

Table: The T-ratios of a few standard angles ranging from 0° to 180°

Angle () 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
1 1 √3 √3 1 1
sin  0 1 0
2 √2 2 2 √2 2
√3 1 1 1 1 √3
cos  1 0 − − − –1
2 √2 2 2 √2 2
1  1
tan  0 1 √3 −√3 –1 − 0
√3 (not defined) √3

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Four Quadrants and ASTC Rule*:
90°
In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive.
In second quadrant, only sin and cosec are positive. IInd quadrant Ist quadrant
Sin All
In third quadrant, only tan and cot are positive. 0°
180° 360°
In fourth quadrant, only cos and sec are positive
Tan Cos
* Remember as Add Sugar To Coffee or After School To College. IIIrd quadrant IVth quadrant

Trigonometrical Ratios of General Angles: 270°

(Reduction Formulae)
(i) Trigonometric function of an angle (2n + ) where n=0, 1, 2, 3……. will be remain same.
sin(2n + ) = sin  cos(2n + ) = cos  tan(2n + ) = tan 
𝑛𝜋
(ii) Trigonometric function of an angle ( 2 + 𝜃) will remain same if n is even and sign of trigonometric
function will be according to value of that function in quadrant.
sin(–) = + sin  cos( − ) = – cos  tan( − ) = – tan 
sin(+)= –sin  cos( + ) = – cos  tan( + ) = + tan 
sin(−)= –sin  cos( − ) = + cos  tan( − ) = – tan 
𝑛𝜋
(iii) Trigonometric function of an angle ( + 𝜃) will be changed into co-function if n is odd and sign of
2
trigonometric function will be according to value of that function in quadrant.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin (2 + 𝜃) = + cos θ cos (2 + 𝜃) = − sin θ tan (2 + 𝜃) = − cot θ
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin (2 − 𝜃) = + cos θ cos (2 − 𝜃) = + sin θ tan (2 − 𝜃) = + cot θ

(iv) Trigonometric function of an angle – (negative angles)

sin(–) = –sin  cos(–) = + cos  tan(–) = –tan 

sin(90° + ) = cos  sin(180°– ) = sin  sin(– ) = – sin  sin(90°– ) = cos 

cos(90° + ) = – sin  cos(180°– ) = – cos  cos(– ) = cos  cos(90°– ) = sin 
tan(90° + ) = – cot  tan(180°– ) = – tan  tan(– ) = – tan  tan (90°– ) = cot 
sin(180° + ) = – sin  sin(270°– ) = – cos  sin(270° + ) = – cos  sin(360°– ) = – sin 
cos(180° + ) = – cos  cos(270°– ) = – sin  cos(270° + ) = sin  cos(360°– ) = cos 
tan(180° + ) = tan  tan (270°– ) = cot  tan (270° + ) = – cot  tan(360°– ) = – tan 

Illustration 33:
Find the value of
(i) cos (–60°) (ii) tan 210° (iii) sin 300° (iv) cos 120°
Solution:
1 1
(i) cos (–60°) = cos 60° = (ii) tan 210° = tan (180° + 30°) = tan 30° =
2 √3
√3 1
(iii) sin 300° = sin (270° + 30°) = – cos 30° = − (iv) cos 120° = cos (180° – 60°) = – cos60° = −
2 2

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
A few important trigonometric formulae:

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵 tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵

tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵 1 + tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵

sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2 A = cos2 A – sin2 A

2 tan 𝐴 cos 2 A = 2 cos2 A – 1 = 1 – 2sin2 A
tan 2 A =
1−tan2 𝐴

𝐴 𝐴
1 + cos A = 2 cos2 1 – cos A = 2sin2
2 2

Small Angle Approximation

If  is small (say < 5°) then sin  , cos   1 and tan    Here  must be in radians.

VECTORS
Scalar Quantities:
A physical quantity which can be described completely by its magnitude only and does not require a
direction is known as a scalar quantity.
It obeys the ordinary rules of algebra.
Ex: Distance, mass, time, speed, density, volume, temperature etc.

Vector Quantities:
If a physical quantity in addition to magnitude -
(a) It has a specified direction.
(b) It obeys commutative law of additions: 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
(c) It obeys the rule of vector algebra.
Then only it is said to be a vector.
If any of the above conditions is not satisfied the physical quantity cannot be a vector.
If a physical quantity is a vector it has a direction, but the converse may or may not be true, i.e. if a physical
quantity has a direction, it may or may not be a vector. For example, Electric current has direction but is
not vector because it does not obey rule of vector algebra.
Ex.: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.

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Representation of Vector
• A vector is represented by a line headed with an arrow.
• Its length is proportional to its magnitude and arrow indicates direction.
𝐴⃗ is a vector.
𝑄
𝐴⃗ Head

𝑃 Tail

𝐴⃗ = 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Magnitude of 𝐴⃗ = |𝐴⃗| or 𝐴.

Important Points:
• If a vector is displaced parallel to itself it does not change (see Figure)

𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ = 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝐶⃗
Transition of a vector
𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐵 parallel to itself

• If a vector is rotated through an angle other than multiple of 2 (or 360°) it changes (see Figure).

⃗⃗
𝐵 𝐴⃗
θ

𝐴⃗ ≠ 𝐵
⃗⃗ Rotation of a vector

• If the frame of reference is translated or rotated the vector does not change (though its components
may change). (see Figure).

𝑆′
𝐴⃗

𝑂′
𝑂 𝑆
Moving frame

Angle between Vectors:

• Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are
placed tail to tail or head to head by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (i.e. 0    ).
⃗⃗
𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝐵
⃗⃗
𝐵

𝐴⃗
𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗

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Types of Vector:
• Parallel Vectors:
Those vectors which have same direction are called parallel vectors.
𝐴⃗
𝐵⃗⃗

Angle between two parallel vectors is always 0°.

• Equal Vectors:
Vectors which have equal magnitude, same direction and they represent same physical quantity
are called equal vectors.
𝐴⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗

𝐴⃗
⃗⃗
𝐵

• Anti–Parallel Vectors:
Those vectors which have opposite direction are called anti–parallel vector.
𝐴⃗
⃗⃗
𝐵

Angle between two anti–parallel vectors is always 180°.

• Negative (or Opposite) Vectors:

Vectors which have equal magnitude but opposite direction are called negative vectors of each
other.

A B

A B

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 are negative vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝐴𝐵 = −𝐵𝐴

• Co-Initial Vectors:
Co-initial vectors are those vectors which have the same initial point.
In figure 𝑎⃗, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑏 and 𝑐⃗ are co-initial vectors.

𝑐⃗

𝑏⃗⃗
𝑎⃗

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• Collinear Vectors:
The vectors lying in the same line are known as collinear vectors.
Angle between collinear vectors is either 0° or 180°.
Example:
(i)   ( = 0°) (ii) → → ( = 0°) (iii)  → ( = 180°) (iv) →  ( = 180°)

• Coplanar Vectors:
Vectors located in the same plane are called coplanar vectors.
Two vectors are always coplanar.

• Concurrent Vectors: 𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗

Those vectors which pass through a common point are
called concurrent vectors.
In the given figure 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ are concurrent vectors. 𝑐⃗

• Null or Zero Vector:

A vector having zero magnitude is called null vector. The direction of a null vector is indeterminate.

Sum of two vectors is always a vector so, (𝐴⃗) + (−𝐴⃗) = ⃗0⃗.

⃗0⃗ is a zero vector or null vector.

• Unit Vector:
A vector having unit magnitude is called unit vector. It is used to specify direction. A unit vector is
represented by 𝐴̂ (Read as A cap or A hat or A caret).
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
Unit vector in the direction of 𝐴⃗ is, 𝐴̂ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
| 𝐴|

Vector
(Unit vector = Magnitude of the vector)

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴̂ = |𝐴⃗|𝐴̂
A unit vector is used to specify the direction of a vector.

Base Vectors:
In an XYZ co-ordinate frame there are three unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂, these are used to indicate X, Y and Z
directions respectively and are called as base vectors.
Y

𝑗̂
𝑖̂
X

Z 𝑘̂

These three unit vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other.

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Illustration 34:
Find the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗.
B
C

30°
A
Solution:
By rearranging vectors, we get
B

30°
A
So, angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗ = 30° + 90° = 120°.

Illustration 35:
A regular hexagon is shown in figure. Find angle between (a) 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ (b) 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗.
⃗⃗
𝐷

𝐸⃗⃗ 𝐶⃗

𝐹⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐵
𝐴⃗
Solution:

B B
(a)
120°
60° 60°
A A

So, angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ = 60°.
(b) Angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗ = 60° + 60° = 120°.

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar:

Multiplying a vector 𝐴⃗ with a positive number  gives a vector 𝐵 ⃗⃗ (= 𝐴⃗) whose magnitude is changed by
the factor  but the direction is the same as that of 𝐴⃗. Multiplying a vector 𝐴⃗ by a negative number  gives
⃗⃗ whose direction is opposite to the direction of 𝐴⃗ and whose magnitude is  times.
a vector 𝐵

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If, ⃗⃗ = 2𝐴⃗
𝐵

𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗ = 2𝐴⃗
𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
If, 𝐶⃗ = 2


𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗
𝐶⃗ =
2
If, ⃗⃗ = −𝐴⃗
𝐷

𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗ = −𝐴⃗
𝐷

Illustration 36:
A physical quantity (m = 3kg) is multiplied by a vector 𝑎⃗ such that 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗. Find the magnitude and
direction of 𝐹⃗ if
(i) 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑚/𝑠 2 East wards (ii) 𝑎⃗ = –4m/s2 North wards
Solution:
(i) 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ = 3 × 3 ms–2 East wards = 9 N East wards
(ii) 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗= 3 × (–4) N North wards = – 12N North wards = 12 N South wards.

Addition of Two Vectors:

Vector addition can be performed by using following methods
(i) Graphical methods
(ii) Analytical methods
Addition of two vectors is quite different from simple algebraic sum of two numbers.

Triangle Law of Addition of Two Vectors:

If two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in same order then their sum or 'resultant vector'
is given by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order of the first two vectors.

B Vector addition
B
B
 
A A A
Step (i) Step (ii)

To add two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ shift any of the two vectors parallel to itself until the tail of 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is at the head
of 𝐴⃗. The sum 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ is a vector 𝑅⃗⃗ drawn from the tail of 𝐴⃗ to the head of 𝐵
⃗⃗, i.e., 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑅⃗⃗. As the figure
formed is a triangle, this method is called ‘triangle method’ of addition of vectors.
Sum of two vectors is also called resultant vector of these two vectors. Resultant 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗.

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Length of 𝑅⃗⃗ is the magnitude of vector sum i.e. |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗|.

 |𝑅⃗⃗ | = |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗| = √(𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝐵 sin 𝜃)2 R
B
= √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃  
Here : angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗. A B cos 
𝐵 sin 𝜃
Let direction of 𝑅⃗⃗ make  angle with 𝐴⃗ ∶ tan 𝛼 =
𝐴+𝐵 cos 𝜃

Parallelogram Law of Addition of Two Vectors:

D C
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram which are directed away from their common point ⃗⃗
𝐵
then their sum (i.e. resultant vector) is given by the diagonal of the 
parallelogram passing away through that common point.  
A B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑅⃗⃗ 𝐴⃗
𝐵 sin 𝜃
 𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃, tan  =
𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝐴 sin 𝜃
and tan  =
𝐵 + 𝐴 cos 𝜃

Illustration 37:
Two forces of magnitudes 3N and 4N respectively are acting on a body. Calculate the resultant force if the
angle between them is :
(i) 0° (ii) 180° (iii) 90°
Solution:
(i)  = 0°, both the forces are parallel, 𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 3N
Net force or resultant force 𝑅 = 3 + 4 = 7𝑁
4N
Direction of resultant is along both the forces.

(ii)  = 180°, both the forces are antiparallel, 𝑅 = 𝐴 − 𝐵

3N 4N
∴ Net force or resultant force 𝑅 = 4– 3 = 1𝑁
Direction of net force is along larger force i.e. along 4𝑁.

(iii)  = 90°, both the forces are perpendicular

3N R
3N
4N  4N

then 𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 9 0° = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 = √32 + 42 = 5𝑁

3 3
tan 𝛼 = 4  𝛼 = tan−1 (4) = 37°
Magnitude of resultant is 5N which is acting at an angle of 37° from 4N force.

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Illustration 38:
Figure shows a parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷. Prove that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
𝐵𝐷 = 2𝐵𝐶
Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ [Applying triangle law of vectors] D C
Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐷
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 2𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
But ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵𝐷 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + 2𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 2𝐵𝐶 A B

Illustration 39:
Two forces each numerically equal to 10 dynes are acting as shown in the figure, then find resultant of
these two vectors.

60° 10 dyne

Solution:
The angle  between the two vectors is 120° and not 60°.
𝑅 = √(10)2 + (10)2 + 2(10)(10)(𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 20°) = √100 + 100 − 100 = 10 dyne

Important Points:
• Vector addition is commutative 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗.
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
• Vector addition is associative 𝐴⃗ + (𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗) + 𝐶⃗.
• Vectors representing same physical quantity only, can be added.
• Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when they are parallel i.e. angle between them is zero.
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗|
𝑚𝑎𝑥
= √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 0 ° = √(𝐴 + 𝐵)2 = 𝐴 + 𝐵

or |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗|
𝑚𝑎𝑥
= |𝐴⃗| + |𝐵
⃗⃗|

• Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when they are antiparallel i.e. angle between them
is 180°.
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗| = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 80° = √(𝐴 − 𝐵)2 = |𝐴 − 𝐵|

 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ||𝐴⃗| − |𝐵
⃗⃗|| ⇒ |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗|
𝑚𝑖𝑛
= ||𝐴⃗| − |𝐵
⃗⃗||

• The resultant of three non-coplanar vectors can never be zero, or minimum number of
non-coplanar vectors whose sum can be zero is four.
• If two vectors have equal magnitude i.e. |𝐴⃗| = |𝐵 ⃗⃗| = a and angle between them is  then resultant
⃗⃗ and its magnitude is equal to 2𝑎 cos 𝜃.
will be along the angle bisector of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 2
𝜃
|𝑅⃗⃗ | = |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗| = 2𝑎 cos
2

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Special Case: B R = 2a cos /2
If  = 120°
120° a
then 𝑅 = 2𝑎 cos 2 = 𝑎 a
i.e., if θ = 120° /2
then |𝑅⃗⃗ | = |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗| = |𝐴⃗| = |𝐵
⃗⃗| = 𝑎 /2 A

Addition of More Than Two Vectors (Law of Polygon):

If some vectors are represented by sides of a polygon in same order, then their resultant vector is
represented by the closing side of polygon in the opposite order.
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗ + 𝐷
⃗⃗
𝐶⃗
⃗⃗
𝐷

⃗⃗ 𝐶⃗
𝐵
𝐴⃗  𝑅⃗⃗

⃗⃗
𝐵
⃗⃗
𝐷 𝐴⃗
• In a polygon if all the vectors taken in same order are such that the head of the last vector coincides
with the tail of the first vector then their resultant is a null vector.
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗ + 𝐷⃗⃗ + 𝐸⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗
𝐶⃗
⃗⃗
𝐷

⃗⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵

• If n coplanar vectors of equal magnitude are arranged at equal angles of separation then their
resultant is always zero.

Subtraction of Two Vectors:

Let 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are two vectors. Their difference i.e. 𝐴⃗ – 𝐵
⃗⃗ can be treated as ⃗⃗
𝐵
sum of the vector 𝐴⃗ and vector (−𝐵⃗⃗).
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ from 𝐴⃗, reverse the direction of 𝐵
⃗⃗ and add to 𝐴⃗ according to
𝜃 𝐴⃗
To subtract 𝐵
law of triangle. 𝛼
|𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗| = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos(𝜋 − 𝜃) ⃗⃗
−𝐵
𝐵 sin 𝜃
= √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 & tan 𝛼 = ⃗⃗
−𝐵
𝐴 − 𝐵 cos 𝜃
Where  is the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.

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Important Points:
• Vector subtraction does not follow commutative law i.e. 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 ⃗⃗ − 𝐴⃗.
⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐵
• Vector subtraction does not follow associative law i.e. (𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗) − 𝐶⃗ ≠ 𝐴⃗ − (𝐵
⃗⃗ − 𝐶⃗).
• If two vectors have equal magnitude, i.e. |𝐴⃗| = |𝐵 ⃗⃗| = 𝑎 and  is the angle between them, then

⃗⃗| = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎2 cos 𝜃 = 2𝑎 sin 𝜃

|𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 2
Special case:
𝜃 ⃗⃗| = 𝑎 at  = 60°
If 𝜃 = 60∘ then 2𝑎 sin 2 = 𝑎 i. e., |𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗| = |𝐴⃗| = |𝐵
Change in a vector physical quantity means subtraction of initial vector from the final vector.
⃗⃗initial
−𝑉
⃗⃗final
𝑉
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗final
𝑉
Δ𝑉
⃗⃗initial
𝑉

• The parallelogram formed by two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ will have two diagonals, one diagonal represents
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ and another diagonal represents 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗.

⃗⃗
𝐵

𝐴⃗

Illustration 40:
The magnitude of pairs of displacement vectors are given. Which pairs of displacement vectors cannot be
added to give a resultant vector of magnitude 13 cm?
(A) 4 cm, 16 cm (B) 20 cm, 7 cm (C) 1 cm, 15 cm (D) 6 cm, 8 cm
Ans. (C)
Solution:
Resultant of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ must satisfy |𝐴 − 𝐵| ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 𝐴 + 𝐵.

Illustration 41:
If |𝑎̂ + 𝑏̂| = |𝑎̂ − 𝑏̂|, then find the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.
Solution:
Let angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be 
 |𝑎̂ + 𝑏̂| = |𝑎̂ − 𝑏̂|

 √12 + 12 + 2(1)(1) cos 𝜃 = √12 + 12 − 2(1)(1) cos θ

 2 + 2 cos  = 2 – 2 cos 
 cos  = 0
  = 90°

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Illustration 42:
The resultant of two velocity vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐴⃗. Magnitude of Resultant is 𝑅⃗⃗ equal to
half magnitude of 𝐵 ⃗⃗. Find the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗.
Solution:
Since 𝑅⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐴⃗. Figure shows the three
vectors 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝑅⃗⃗ angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ is  –  𝑅⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐵
𝑅 𝐵 1
sin  = = =
𝐵 2𝐵 2
  = 30° 𝐴⃗
 Angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 150°.

Illustration 43:
If the sum of two unit vectors is also a unit vector. Find the magnitude of their difference.
Solution:
Let 𝐴̂ and 𝐵̂ are the given unit vectors and 𝑅̂ is their resultant then |𝑅̂ | = |𝐴̂ + 𝐵̂ |.
2 2
1 = √|𝐴̂| + |𝐵̂| + 2|𝐴̂||𝐵̂| cos 𝜃
1
1 = 1 + 1 + 2 cos   cos  = –
2

⃗⃗| = √|𝐴̂|2 + |𝐵̂|2 − 2|𝐴̂||𝐵̂| cos 𝜃 = √1 + 1 − 2 × 1 × 1 (− 1) = √3

|𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 2

Components of Vector:
𝑐⃗
𝑑⃗
𝑏⃗⃗
𝑏⃗⃗
𝑎⃗
𝑅⃗⃗ 𝑅⃗⃗
𝑎⃗

𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗

𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are components of 𝑅⃗⃗ . 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗ and 𝑑⃗ are components of 𝑅⃗⃗.
• A vector can be expressed as a vector sum of two or more than two vectors, then these vectors are
known as components of vectors.
• Any vector can be expressed in two way:
(i) Non-rectangular components
(ii) Rectangular components
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗

𝑅⃗⃗
𝑏⃗⃗

𝑎⃗

(𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are non-rectangular components.)

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and 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗

𝑅⃗⃗ 𝑏⃗⃗

𝑎⃗

(𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are rectangular components.)

If the vectors are perpendicular to each other or the angle between the component vector is 90º,
then it is known rectangular.

Resolution of Vectors into Rectangular Components in Two Dimensions:

When a vector is splitted into components which are at right angles to each other, then the components are
called rectangular or orthogonal components of that vector.
𝑌 (𝑗̂)

𝐶 𝐴

𝑎⃗
𝑎 sinα

𝛼 (𝑖̂)
𝑂
𝑎 cosα 𝐵 𝑋

(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in 𝑋 − 𝑌 plane, makes angle  from X-axis. Draw perpendiculars AB and AC from
Let vector 𝑎⃗ = 𝑂𝐴
A on the X-axis and Y-axis respectively.
(ii) The length OB is called projection of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 on 𝑋-axis or component of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐴 along X-axis and is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on 𝑌-axis and is represented by 𝑎𝑦 .
represented by 𝑎𝑥 . Similarly, OC is the projection of 𝑂𝐴
According to law of vector addition.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝑎⃗ = 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus 𝑎⃗ has been resolved into two parts, one along 𝑂𝑋 and the other along 𝑂𝑌, which are mutually
perpendicular.
𝑂𝐵
In 𝑂𝐴𝐵, 𝑂𝐴 = cos   𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴 cos   𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼
𝐴𝐵
and = sin  𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴 sin  = 𝑂𝐶  𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝛼
𝑂𝐴
 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼 and 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠in 𝛼
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 cos 𝑖̂ and 𝑂𝐶
If 𝑖̂ and 𝑗̂ denote unit vectors along 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑂𝑌 respectively then 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎 sin 𝑗̂.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
So according to rule of vector addition 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ = 𝑎 cos 𝛼 𝑖̂ + 𝑎 sin 𝛼 𝑗̂

𝑎𝑦
So |𝑎⃗| = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 and tan 𝛼 = .
𝑎𝑥

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Rectangular Components of a Vector in Three Dimensions:
(i) Consider a vector 𝑎⃗ represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴, as shown in figure. Consider O as origin and draw a
rectangular parallelopiped with its three edges along the X, Y and Z axes.
(ii) Vector 𝑎⃗ is the diagonal of the parallelopiped; its projections on 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 axes are 𝑎⃗𝑥 , 𝑎⃗𝑦 and
𝑎⃗𝑧 respectively. These are the three rectangular components of 𝐴⃗.
Using triangle law of vector addition ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐸 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐴
Using parallelogram law of vector addition ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐸 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐷
Y
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = (𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐷 ) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐴 C
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ay
∵ 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶
A
∴ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 
𝑎⃗
Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑂𝐶 = 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ax B
O
∴ 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ X
az
Also (𝑂𝐴)2 = (𝑂𝐸)2 + (𝐸𝐴)2 D
E
But (𝑂𝐸)2 = (𝑂𝐵)2 + (𝑂𝐷)2 and 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶 Z
(𝑂𝐴)2 = (𝑂𝐵)2 + (𝑂𝐷)2 + (𝑂𝐶)2

or 𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑧 2 ⇒ 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑧 2

Direction Cosines:
Y
Let 𝑎⃗ makes angle :  with 𝑋 axis,  with 𝑌 axis and  with 𝑍 axis
𝑎 a
• cos α = 𝑎𝑥  𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 
𝑎𝑦 
• cos β = 𝑎  𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 cos  
•
𝑎
cos γ = 𝑎𝑧  𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎 cos  Z  X

cos , cos  and cos  are direction cosines of the vector.

Putting the value of 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 and 𝑎𝑧 in eq. (i) we get 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 cos2 𝛼 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝛽 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝛾

 cos 2 𝛼 + 𝑐os 2 𝛽 + cos2 𝛾 = 1  ( 1 − sin2 𝛼) + (1 − sin2 𝛽) + (1 − sin2 𝛾) = 1

 3 − (sin2 𝛼 + sin2 𝛽 + sin2 𝛾) = 1  sin2 𝛼 + sin2 𝛽 + sin2 𝛾 = 2
• A vector can be resolved into infinite number of components.
𝑖̂ 𝑖̂ 𝑖̂
For example: 10𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑖̂ + 𝑖̂ … 10 times; or + + … 20 times and so on.
2 2 2
• Maximum number of rectangular components of a vector in a plane is two. But maximum number
of rectangular components in space (3-dimensions) is three which are along 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 axes.
• A vector is independent of the orientation of axes but the components of that vector depend upon
the orientation of axes.
• The component of a vector along its perpendicular direction is always zero.

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Illustration 44:
A mass of 2 kg lies on an inclined plane as shown in figure. Resolve its
weight along and perpendicular to the plane. (Assume g = 10m/s2)
Solution:
30°
Component along the plane

20 sin30°
20 cos30°
30°

20 N

= 20 sin 30 = 10N
Component perpendicular to the plane = 20 cos 30 = 10√3N.

Illustration 45:
A vector makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. If horizontal component of the vector is 250.
Find magnitude of vector and its vertical component.

𝐴⃗
30°

Solution:
Let vector is 𝐴⃗
𝐴 √3 500
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 30° = 250 = 2
 𝐴 = 𝐴 sin 30° 𝐴⃗
√3
500 1 250 30°
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 30° = × 2 =
√3 √3 𝐴 cos 30°

Illustration 46:
Find the angle made by (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂) vector from 𝑋 and 𝑌 axes respectively.
Solution:

𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 = √12 + 12 = √2 Y

𝑎 1
cos 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑥 =
√2
𝑎𝑦 1
  = 45° and cos β = 𝑎 =
√2

  = 45° X

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Illustration 47:
Find out the angle made by 𝐴⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ vector from 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 axes respectively.
Solution:
Given 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑧 = 1

So 𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 = √1 + 1 + 1 = √3
𝐴 1
cos 𝛼 = 𝑥 =
𝐴 √3
1 𝐴𝑦 1
 𝛼 = cos −1 ; cos 𝛽 = 𝐴 =
√3 √3
1 𝐴 1
 𝛽 = cos−1 ; cos 𝛾 = 𝐴𝑧 =
√3 √3
1
 𝛾 = cos−1
√3

Illustration 48:
A force of 4N is applied at an angle of 60° from the vertical. Find out its components along horizontal and
vertical directions.

𝐴⃗
Vertical

60°

Horizontal

Solution:
Vertical component = 4 cos 60° = 2N
Horizontal component = 4 sin 60° = 2√3N.

Addition & Subtraction in Component Form:

Suppose there are two vectors in component form. Then the addition and subtraction between these two are
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 ± 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑦 ± 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑧 ± 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ ± 𝐵
Also, if we are having a third vector present in component form and this vector is added or subtracted from
the addition or subtraction of above two vectors then
𝐶⃗ = 𝐶𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐶𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐶𝑧 𝑘̂
⃗⃗ ± 𝐶⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 ± 𝐵𝑥 ± 𝐶𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑦 ± 𝐵𝑦 ± 𝐶𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑧 ± 𝐵𝑧 ± 𝐶𝑧 )𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ ± 𝐵

Note:
Modulus of vector A is given by -

|𝐴⃗| = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧

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Position vector (P.V.) of a point: 𝑌
Let a point O in space (or plane) be taken as origin. If P is any point then 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 is called the position vector (P.V.) of the point P with respect to O.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
If the position coordinates of 𝑃 are (x, y, z) then the position vector 𝑂𝑃
O
is given by Origin 𝑋
𝑍
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Displacement vector: 𝑌
Change in position vector is known as displacement vector.
𝑠⃗
If 𝑟⃗𝑖 = 𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂ and 𝑟⃗𝑓 = 𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂
Then displacement vector (𝑠⃗) = 𝑟⃗𝑓 − 𝑟⃗𝑖
O
= (𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂ ) − (𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂ ) Origin
𝑋
𝑍
= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂

Illustration 49:
Determine that vector which when added to the resultant of 𝑃⃗⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 7𝑗̂ − 10𝑘̂ and 𝑄
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ gives
a unit vector along X-axis.
Solution:
Resultant = (2𝑖̂ + 7𝑗̂ − 10𝑘̂ ) + (𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ ) = 3𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ − 7𝑘̂
But 𝑅⃗⃗+ required vector = 𝑖̂, so required vector = 𝑖̂ − 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ − (3𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ − 7𝑘̂ ) = −2𝑖̂ − 9𝑗̂ + 7𝑘̂

Illustration 50:
The sum of three vectors shown in figure, is zero. What is the magnitude of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 & ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶 ?
C
45° B
O

A = 10N

Solution:
Resolve ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶 into two rectangular components.
C E
𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 cos 45° and 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐶 sin 45°
For zero resultant 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐴 or 𝑂𝐶 sin 45° = 10N 45° B
1 O
 𝑂𝐶 × = 10𝑁  ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 10√2𝑁
|𝑂𝐶 D
√2

and 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐵 A = 10N
1
 𝑂𝐶 cos 45° = 𝑂𝐵  10√2 × = 𝑂𝐵
√2

 𝑂𝐵 = 10𝑁

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Illustration 51:
For shown situation, what will be the magnitude of minimum force in newton that can be applied in any
direction so that the resultant force is along east direction?
North

3N
5N

37°
West East
4N

South
Solution:
Let force be F so resultant is in east direction
 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + (5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 7°𝑖̂ + 5 sin 3 7°𝑗̂) + 𝐹⃗ = 𝑘𝑖̂
 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 𝐹⃗ = 𝑘𝑖̂
 8𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂ + 𝐹⃗ = 𝑘𝑖̂
 𝐹⃗ = (𝑘 − 8)𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂ ⇒ 𝐹 = √(𝑘 − 8)2 + (6)2
 𝐹min = 6𝑁
OR
3
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 = y-components of existing forces = 3N + 5N sin37° = 3N +5N ( ) = 6N
5

Illustration 52:
Person A is at (2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ – 4𝑘̂ ) and moving with velocity (𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ). Person B is at (– 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂– 𝑘̂ ), with
what velocity should B move to meet A after 3 sec?
Solution:
Final position of A = Final position of B
2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 4𝑘̂ + 3(𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) = −2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ + 3𝑣⃗
7𝑖̂−4𝑗̂
 = 𝑣⃗
3

Multiplication of Vectors:
Scalar Product:
The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗, denoted as 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ (read 𝐴⃗ dot 𝐵
⃗⃗) is defined as
the product of their magnitude with cosine of angle between them. Thus, 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = AB cos  (here  is the
angle between the vectors).

Properties:
It is always a scalar which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e. < 90°) and negative if angle
between them is obtuse (i.e. 90° <   180°)

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
It is commutative, i.e., 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
It is distributive, i.e. 𝐴⃗ ⋅ (𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐶⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = AB cos  The angle between the vectors  = cos−1 [𝐴⋅𝐵]
As by definition 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗ = A(B cos ) = B(A cos )
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
Geometrically, B cos  is the projection of 𝐵 ⃗⃗ onto 𝐴⃗ and A cos  is the projection of 𝐴⃗ onto 𝐵
⃗⃗ as shown. So
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ is the product of the magnitude of 𝐴⃗ and the component of 𝐵 ⃗⃗ along 𝐴⃗ and vice versa.
⃗⃗
𝐵

⃗⃗
𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝐵
θ θ θ
𝐴⃗ 𝐵 cos θ 𝐴⃗
𝐴⃗

• Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos  = max = 1, i.e.,  = 0°, i.e., vectors are
parallel
 (𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗) = 𝐴𝐵
max
• If the scalar product of two nonzero vectors is zero then the vectors are perpendicular.
• The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by
2
(𝐴⃗) = 𝐴⃗. 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴 cos  = 𝐴𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐴2  𝐴 = √𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗
• In case of unit vector 𝑛̂,
𝑛̂ ⋅ 𝑛̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 0° = 1  𝑛̂ ⋅ 𝑛̂ = 𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 1
In case of orthogonal unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ ; 𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂ = 0
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ ) ⋅ (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ ) = [𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 ]
In general, 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵

Illustration 53:
If the vectors 𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and 𝑄
⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ are perpendicular to each other. Find the value(s) of a.
Solution:
⃗⃗ are perpendicular.
If vectors 𝑃⃗⃗ and 𝑄
 ⃗⃗ = 0
𝑃⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑄  (a𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ ). (𝑎𝑖̂ – 2𝑗̂ – 𝑘̂) = 0  a2 – 2a – 3 = 0
 a2 – 3a + a – 3 = 0  a(a – 3) + 1(a – 3) = 0  a = –1, 3

Illustration 54:
Find angle between 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 12𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂.
Solution:
We have
𝐴⃗⋅𝐵
⃗⃗ (3𝑖̂+4𝑗̂ )⋅(12𝑖̂+5𝑗̂ )
cos  = =
𝐴𝐵 √32 +42 √122 +52
36+20 56 56
cos  = =  = cos–1
5×13 65 65

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Units, Dimensions and Vectors
⃗⃗ on 𝑩
Projection of 𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗

𝐴⃗


⃗⃗
𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

(i) ⃗⃗ = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴 𝐴.𝐵 = 𝐴.𝐵 = 𝐴⃗. 𝐵̂
In scalar form : Projection of 𝐴⃗ on B 𝐴𝐵 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴.𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(ii) In vector form : Projection of 𝐴⃗ on ⃗B⃗ = (𝐴 cos 𝜃)𝐵̂ = 𝐵 𝐵̂ = (𝐴⃗. 𝐵̂)𝐵̂

Illustration 55:
Find the component of 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ along 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂.
Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Component of 𝐴⃗ along 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is given by 𝐴.𝐵, hence required component
𝐵
(3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂) ⋅ (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂) 7
= =
√2 √2

7 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ 7
In vector form = = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂)
√2 √2 2

Vector Product:
The vector product or cross product of any two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗, denoted as 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ (read 𝐴⃗ cross 𝐵
⃗⃗) is
defined as: 𝐴⃗  𝐵
⃗⃗= AB sin  𝑛̂.
Here  is the angle between the vectors and the direction 𝑛̂ is given by the right-hand-thumb rule.

Right-Hand-Thumb Rule:
To find the direction of 𝑛̂, draw the two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ with both the tails coinciding. Now place your
stretched right palm perpendicular to the plane of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ in such a way that the fingers are along the
vector 𝐴⃗ and when the fingers are closed they go towards 𝐵 ⃗⃗.

⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
𝑉 ⃗⃗

𝑛̂
⃗⃗
𝐵

𝐴⃗

The direction of the thumb gives the direction of 𝑛̂.

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Properties:
• Vector product of two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors i.e. orthogonal to both the vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗, though the vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ may or may not be
orthogonal.
• Vector product of two vectors is not commutative i.e. 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗.
⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐵
But |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗| = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
⃗⃗| = |𝐵

⃗𝐴⃗ × ⃗𝐵⃗ = ⃗𝐶⃗

⃗⃗
𝐵 ⃗𝐵⃗
⃗⃗
𝐴 ⃗⃗
𝐴

⃗⃗ = −𝐶⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐴
𝐵

• The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained i.e.
𝐴 × (𝐵⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ × 𝐶⃗.
• The magnitude of vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin max = 1, i.e.  = 90°.
|𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗|
𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝐴𝐵 i.e., magnitude of vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
• The magnitude of vector product of two non–zero vectors will be minimum when |sin| = minimum = 0,
i.e.  = 0° or 180° and |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗|
𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 0 i.e. if the vector product of two non–zero vectors vanishes,
the vectors are collinear.
• The self cross product i.e. cross product of a vector by itself vanishes i.e. is a null vector.
𝐴⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0°𝑛̂ = ⃗0⃗.
⃗⃗  𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
In case of unit vector 𝑛̂, 𝑛̂ × 𝑛̂ = 0 ⃗⃗
• In case of orthogonal unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ in accordance with right-hand-thumb-rule,
𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂

𝑗̂ 𝑗̂

𝑖̂ 𝑘̂ 𝑖̂
𝑘̂ (A) (B)

• In terms of components,
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
𝐴 𝐴𝑧
⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | = 𝑖̂ | | − 𝑗̂ | 𝑥 | + 𝑘̂ | |
𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) + 𝑗̂(𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 ) + 𝑘̂ (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵

Examples of Vector Product:

(i) Torque : 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
(ii) Angular momentum : 𝐽⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
(iii) Velocity : 𝑣⃗ = 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗
(iv) Tangential Acceleration : 𝑎⃗ = 𝛼⃗ × 𝑟⃗

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Geometrical Meaning of Vector Product of Two Vectors:
(i) Consider two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝑄
⃗⃗ which are represented by 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ∠𝑃𝑂𝑄 = 𝜃
(ii) Complete the parallelogram 𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑄. Join 𝑃 with 𝑄. Here 𝑂𝑃 = 𝐴 and 𝑂𝑄 = 𝐵. Draw 𝑄𝑁 ⊥ 𝑂𝑃.

Q R

⃗⃗
𝐵


O N P
𝐴⃗

(iii) Magnitude of cross product of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗
|𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗| = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 = (𝑂𝑃) (𝑂𝑄 sin 𝜃) = (OP) (NQ) (𝑁𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 sin 𝜃)
= Base × height = Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑄
Base × height (𝑂𝑃) (𝑁𝑄) 1
Area of 𝛥𝑃𝑂𝑄 = = = |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗|
2 2 2
 Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑄 = 2[area of 𝑂𝑃𝑄] = |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗|

Formulae to Find Area:

⃗⃗ are two adjacent sides of a triangle, then its area = 1 |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗|.
2
If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then its area = |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗|.
⃗⃗ are diagonals of a parallelogram then its area = 1 |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗|.
2

Illustration 56:
𝐴⃗ is Eastwards and 𝐵
⃗⃗ is downwards. Find the direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗.
Solution:
Applying right hand thumb rule we find that 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ is along North.

Illustration 57:
If 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗|, find angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.
Solution:
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵 ⃗⃗|  AB cos  = AB sin   tan  = 1   = 45°
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗ × 𝐵

Illustration 58:
⃗⃗ are inclined to each other at an angle . Find a unit vector which is perpendicular to
Two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
both 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.
Solution:
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗= AB sin 𝑛̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵
 𝑛̂ = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 here 𝑛̂ is perpendicular to both 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗
𝐵
(–𝑛̂) = – = is also perpendicular to both 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗.
𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃

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Illustration 59:
⃗⃗, if 𝐴⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ and 𝐵
Find 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂.
Solution:
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |1 −2 4| = 𝑖̂ [– 4 – (– 4)] – 𝑗̂ (2 – 8) + 𝑘̂ [– 1– (– 4)] = 6𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂.
2 −1 2

To check co-planarity:
𝐴⃗ ⋅ (𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗) = 𝐵
⃗⃗ ⋅ (𝐴⃗ × 𝐶⃗) = 𝐶⃗ ⋅ (𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) = 0.

Illustration 60:
Prove that the following vectors are coplanar.
𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂, 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂ and 𝐶⃗ = 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ − 4𝑘̂
Solution:
Given, 𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ , 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂ and 𝐶⃗ = 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ − 4𝑘̂
For three vectors to be coplanar.
𝐴⃗ ⋅ (𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗) = 0
So, (2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) ⋅ [(𝑖 − 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂ ) × (3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ − 4𝑘̂ )]
 (2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) ⋅ [−8𝑖̂ − 11𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂ ]
 – 16 + 11 + 5 = –16 + 16 = 0
So, 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ are coplanar.

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 02 Kinematics

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Kinematics
Kinematics deals with study of motion of a particle without any regard to cause of motion.

Motion and Rest

Motion is a combined property of the object and the observer. There is no meaning of rest or motion
without the observer. Nothing is in absolute rest or in absolute motion.
An object is said to be in motion with respect to an observer, if its position changes with time with respect
to that observer. It may happen by both ways either observer moves or object moves.
Mechanics is classified under two streams namely kinematics and dynamics.

MECHANICS

Kinematics Dynamics

The word kinematics means 'science of Study of forces and their effect
motion'. Branch of mechanics which deals on objects in motion
with study of motion without going into the
cause of motion, i.e. force, torque etc.

Types of Motion
1-D Motion: The motion which can be captured along a straight line.
Example – A train moving on a straight track.

2-D Motion: The motion which can be captured on a plane but not on a straight line.
Example – Motion of a cricket ball.

3-D Motion: The motion which cannot be captured even on a plane.

Example – Motion of a kite or bird.

Parameters of Motion
Position
The position of a particle refers to its location in the space at a certain moment of time. It is concerned with
the question− “where is the particle at a particular moment of time?”

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Displacement
The change in the position of a moving object is known as displacement. It is the
Δ𝑟
vector joining the initial position ( r1 ) of the particle to its final position ( r2 ) 𝑟2

during an interval of time. 𝑟1

Displacement can be negative, positive or zero.
Δr = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
Distance
The length of the actual path travelled by a particle during a given time interval is called as distance. The
distance travelled is a scalar quantity which is quite different from displacement. In general, the distance
travelled between two points may not be equal to the magnitude of the displacement between the same
points. Distance can never be negative.

Illustration 1:
2
Ram takes path 1 (straight line) to go from P to Q and Shyam takes path 2 (semicircle).
(a) Find the distance travelled by Ram and Shyam.
P Q
(b) Find the displacement of Ram and Shyam. 1
100 m
Solution:
(a) Distance travelled by Ram = 100 m
Distance travelled by Shyam = (50 m) = 50 m
(b) Displacement of Ram = 100 m
Displacement of Shyam = 100 m

Illustration 2:
A particle starts from point (1, 1, 1) m and reaches at point (4, 5, 13) m. Find:
(i) Initial position vector
(ii) Final position vector
Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) y
Initial position vector (𝑂𝐴 B (4, 5, 13)

𝑂𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
Final position vector (𝑂𝐵
O x
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ + 13𝑘̂
𝑂𝐵
Displacement, 𝛥𝑟 = (4 − 1)𝑖̂ + (5 − 1)𝑗̂ + (13 − 1)𝑘̂ = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 12𝑘̂ z

Average and instantaneous rate of change

Average:
Average rate of change is defined for an interval. Average rate of change of y with respect to x is written
𝛥𝑦
as .
𝛥𝑥

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Instantaneous:
Instantaneous rate of change is defined for a given instant. Instantaneous rate of change of y with respect
dy
to (w.r.t.) x is written as which is also known as differentiation of y with respect to x.
dx
(eg.) Average Instantaneous
q dq
Current  I = I=
t dt
P dP
Force  F = F=
t dt
r dr
Velocity  v = v=
t dt

Derivatives of Commonly Used Functions

dy dy
• y = constant  =0 • y = xn  = nx n−1
dx dx
dy dy 1
• y = ex  = ex • y = lnx  =
dx dx x
dy dy
• y = sin x  = cos x • y = cos x  = − sin x
dx dx
dy dy
• y = tan x  = sec2 x • y = cot x  = −cosec2 x
dx dx
dy dy
• y = sec x  = sec x tan x • y = cosec x  = −cosec x cot x
dx dx

Method of Differentiation :
dy
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), let us denote = f '( x )
dx
• Sum or Subtraction of two functions
dy
y = f ( x )  g(x )  = f '( x )  g '( x )
dx
• Product of two functions (Product rule)
dy
y = f (x ) g(x )  = g ( x ) f '( x ) + f ( x ) g '( x )
dx
• Division of two functions (Quotient rule)
f (x) dy g ( x ) f ' ( x ) − f ( x ) g ' ( x )
y=  =
g( x ) dx  g ( x )
2

• Chain Rule
dy
y = f  g ( x )  = g ' ( x ) f ' g ( x )
dx

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Illustration 3:
dy
Find the value of if -
dx
3
1
(i) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 –2 (ii) y = ( x ) 4 (iii) y =
x
Solution:
dy d −6
(i) = 3 x −2 = 3 ( −2) x −2−1 = 3
dx dx x

dy d 34 3 34 −1 3 −41
(ii) = x = x = x
dx dx 4 4

dy d  1  d −1 ( ) −1−1 −1
(iii) =  = x = −1 x = 2
dx dx  x  dx x

Illustration 4:
dy
Find , when - (i) y = x , (ii) y = x5 + x4 + 7, (iii) y = x2 + 4x–1/2 – 3x–2
dx
Solution:
dy d d 1 1 1
(i) = ( x ) = ( x 1/2 ) = x 1/2−1 = x −1/2 =
dx dx dx 2 2 2 x
dy d d d d
(ii) = (x5 + x4 +7) = (x5) + (x4) + (7) = 5x4 + 4x3 + 0 = 5x4 + 4x3
dx dx dx dx dx
dy d d d d
(iii) = (x2 + 4x–1/2 – 3x–2) = (x2) + (4x–1/2) – (3x–2)
dx dx dx dx dx
d d d  1
= (x2) + 4 (x–1/2) –3 (x–2) = 2x + 4  −  x–3/2 –3(–2)x–3 = 2x – 2x–3/2 + 6x–3
dx dx dx  2

Illustration 5:
dx 1
Find value of if : x = t + +1
dt t
Solution:
dx d ( 1/2 −1/2
= t +t + 1)
dt dt

1 12 −1  −1  −21 −1
= t +  t +0
2  2 

1 1 1  1
= − = 1 − 
2 t t
3/2
2 t 2t

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Illustration 6:
dy x2
Find , when y = .
dx sin x
Solution:
 dx 2  2  d sin x 
sin x  −x  
 dx  = (sin x )2x − x cos x
2
dy  dx 
=
dx (sin x )2 ( sinx )2
• If y = c sin (ax + b)
dy
= c cos(ax + b)a
dx

Illustration 7:
dy
Find if -
dt
(a) y = 3 sin (2t + 4) (b) y = 4 cos (3t)
Solution:
dy
(a) = [3cos(2t + 4)][2]
dt
= 6 cos (2t + 4)
dy
(b) = 4[− sin(3t )][3]
dt
= –12 sin 3t

Illustration 8:
dy
Find the value of if -
dx
(i) y = sin ( x 2 ) (ii) y = e x

Solution:
dy d d
(i) = sin ( x 2 ) = cos ( x 2 )  ( x 2 )
dx dx dx
= 2x cos ( x 2 )
dy d d
(ii) = e x
=e x
x
dx dx dx
1
= e x

2 x

Average Velocity (in an interval)

The average velocity of a moving particle over a certain time interval is defined as the displacement divided
by the lapsed time.
Displacement
Average velocity v =
Time interval

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For straight line motion, along x-axis, we have

x x f − xi
vav = v = <v> = =
t t f − ti

The dimension of velocity is [LT–1] and its SI unit is m/s.

The average velocity is a vector in the direction of displacement. For motion in a straight line, directional
aspect of a vector can be taken care of by +ve and -ve sign of the quantity.

Instantaneous Velocity (at an instant)

The velocity at a particular instant of time is known as instantaneous velocity. The term “velocity” usually
means instantaneous velocity.

 x  dx
Vinst. = lim  =
t → 0  t 
  dt
In other words, the instantaneous velocity at a given moment (say, t) is the limiting value of the average
velocity as we let t approach zero. The limit as t → 0 is written in calculus notation as dx/dt and is called
the derivative of x with respect to t.

Note:
● The magnitude of instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed are equal.
● The determination of instantaneous velocity by using the definition usually involves calculation of
dx
derivative. We can find v = by using the standard results from differential calculus.
dt
● Instantaneous velocity is always tangential to the path.

Illustration 9:
A particle starts from a point A and travels along the solid curve shown in figure. Find approximately the
position B of the particle such that the average velocity between the positions A and B has the same
direction as the instantaneous velocity at B.
y

A
4m

2m

0 x
2m 4m 6m

Solution:
The given curve shows the path of the particle starting at y = 4 m.
Displacement
Average velocity =
Time taken

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Kinematics
Where displacement is straight line distance between y
points.
A
Instantaneous velocity at any point is the tangent 4m
B
drawn to the curve at that point.
Now, as shown in the graph, line AB shows
2m
displacement as well as the tangent to the given curve.
Hence, point B (x = 5m, y = 3m) is the point at which x
0
direction of AB shows average as well as instantaneous 2m 4m 6m
velocity.

Average Speed (in an interval)

Average speed is defined as the total path length travelled divided by the total time interval during which
the motion has taken place. It helps in describing the motion along the actual path.
distance travelled
Average speed v =
time interval
The dimension of speed is [LT–1] and its SI unit is m/s.

Note:
● Average speed is always positive in contrast to average velocity which being a vector, can be
positive or negative.
● If the motion of a particle is along a straight line and in same direction then, magnitude of average
velocity = average speed.
v =| v |
● Average speed is, in general, greater than or equal to the magnitude of average velocity.
v | v |

Illustration 10: 2
In the Illustration 1, if Ram takes 4 seconds to go from P to Q by path 1 and
Shyam takes 5 seconds to go from P to Q by path 2 find: P Q
(a) Average speed of Ram and Shyam. 1
100 m
(b) Average velocity of Ram and Shyam.
Solution:
100
(a) Average speed of Ram = m/s = 25 m/s
4
50
Average speed of Shyam = m/s = 10 m/s
5
100
(b) Average velocity of Ram = m/s = 25 m/s (From P to Q)
4
100
Average velocity of Shyam = m/s = 20 m/s (From P to Q)
5

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Illustration 11:
A particle travels half of total distance with speed v1 and next half with speed v2 along a straight line. Find
out the average speed of the particle.
Solution:
Let total distance travelled by the particle be 2s.
s
Time taken to travel first half =
v1

s
Time taken to travel next half =
v2

Total distance covered 2s 2v1v2

Average speed = = =
Total time taken s s v1 + v2
+
v1 v2

(𝑣1 , average speed and 𝑣2 are in harmonic progression)

Illustration 12:
A person travelling on a straight line moves with a uniform velocity v1 for some time and with uniform
velocity v2 for the next equal time. The average velocity v is given by -
Solution:
S1 S2
A B
t/2 C t/2

As shown, the person travels from A to B through a distance S, where first part S1 is travelled in time t/2
and next S2 also in time t/2.
So, according to the condition:
S1 S
v1 = and v2 = 2
t /2 t /2

v1t v2t
+
Total displacement S +S 2 2 v +v
Average velocity = = 1 2 = = 1 2
Total time taken t t 2

Average acceleration (in an interval)

The average acceleration for a finite time interval is defined as :
Change in velocity
Average acceleration =
Time interval

Average acceleration is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of the change in velocity.
v v − vi
aav = = f
t t

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Since for a straight-line motion the velocities are along a line, therefore
v v − vi
aav = = f
t t f − ti

(where one has to substitute vf and vi with proper signs in one dimensional motion)

Instantaneous Acceleration (at an instant)

The instantaneous acceleration of a particle is its acceleration at a particular instant of time. It is defined
as the derivative (rate of change) of velocity with respect to time. We usually mean instantaneous
acceleration when we say “acceleration”. For straight motion we define instantaneous acceleration as:
dv  v  dv  v 
a= = lim   and in general a = = lim  
dt  t → 0
 t  dt  t → 0
 t 
The dimension of acceleration is [LT–2] and its SI unit is m/s2.

Illustration 13:
t3 3 2
Position of particle moving along x-axis is given as x = − t + 2t + 5 .
3 2
Find:(a) position at t = 2 sec. (b) velocity at t = 2 sec.
(c) acceleration at t = 2 sec. (d) acceleration when velocity = 0
(e) velocity when acceleration = 0 (f) avg. acceleration from t = 2 sec. to t = 3 sec.
Solution:
(2)3 3 2
(a) xt =2 = − (2) + 2 2 + 5
3 2
8 8 − 18 + 12 + 15
= − 3 2 + 4 + 5 =
3 3
35 − 18 17
= = m
3 3
dx 3t 2 3
(b) Velocity = = − 2t + 2
dt 3 2
Velocity = t2 – 3t + 2
vt=2 = 4 – 6 + 2
= 0 m/s
dv
(c) Acceleration = = 2t − 3
dt
a = 2t – 3
at=2 = 2 × 2 – 3
at=2 = 1 m/s2

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(d) v = t 2 − 3t + 2
0 = t2 – 3t + 2
t2 – 2t – t + 2 = 0
(t – 2)(t – 1) = 0
t = 2, t = 1
 a = 2t – 3
=2×2–3
= 1m/s2
a = 2t – 3
=2×1–3
= –1 m/s2
(e) a = 2t – 3
0 = 2t – 3
2t = 3
3
t=
2
v = t2 – 3t + 2
2
3 3 9 9
=   − 3 + 2 = − + 2
2 2 4 2
9 − 18 + 8 −1
 v= = m/s
4 4
v3 − v2 v3 = 32 − 3 3 + 2 = 9 − 9 + 2 = 2 
(f)  a = v = (2)2 − 3 2 + 2 = 4 − 6 + 2 = 0
3−2  2 
2−0
=
1
= 2m/s2

Illustration 14:
Position of a particle as function of time is given by

r = t 2 iˆ + 2t ˆj + (sin t )kˆ
Find velocity and acceleration as function of time.
Solution:
dr
(a) Velocity, v = = 2t iˆ + 2 ˆj + cos t kˆ
dt
dv
(b) Acceleration, a = = 2 iˆ + ( − sin t ) kˆ
dt

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Illustration 15:
Position of a particle moving along 𝑥-axis is given as:
x = 8t – t2
Find displacement and distance travelled from 0 to 5 sec.
Solution:
s = xf – xi = x5 – x0 = (8 (5) – 52) – (0 – 0)
Displacement, s = 15 m
To determine the distance first let us find the turning point.
dx
v= = 8 − 2t
dt
v = 2(4 – t)
0 = 2(4 – t)
 t = 4 sec. turning point

t=0 x = 15

x=0 x = 16
𝑥4 = 8 × 4 − 42 = 16𝑚
t=4
t=5

Distance = |x4 – x0| + |x5 – x4|

= |16 – 0| + |15 – 16|
= 16 + 1 = 17 m

Uniformly accelerated motion

If a particle is accelerated with constant acceleration in an interval of time, then the motion is termed as
uniformly accelerated motion in that interval of time.
For uniformly accelerated motion along a straight line (x-axis) during a time interval of t seconds, the
following important results can be used.
s
u v

Initial position Final position

First equation of motion:

v −u
a= or v = u + at
t
Second equation of motion:
v +u
S = (vav)t vav =
2
 v +u  1
S = t or s = ut + at 2
 2  2
1 2 1 2
or s = vt – at or xf = xi + ut + at
2 2

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Third equation of motion:

v 2 = u2 + 2as

Displacement in nth second:

snth = displacement in n seconds – displacement in (n–1) seconds

snth = sn − sn−1

 1   1 2
snth =  un + an2  −  u ( n − 1) + a ( n − 1) 
 2   2 

a
snth = u + (2n –1)
2

u = Initial velocity (at the beginning of interval)

a = Acceleration
v = Final velocity (at the end of interval)

s = Displacement (xf − xi)

xf = Final coordinate (position)
xi = Initial coordinate (position)

snth = Displacement during the nth sec

Motion with uniform velocity (a = 0):

Consider a particle moving along x-axis with uniform velocity u starting from the point x = xi at t = 0.
Equations of x, v, a are: x (t) = xi + ut; v (t) = u; a (t) = 0

Directions of vectors in straight line motion:

In straight line motion, all the vectors (position, displacement, velocity and acceleration) will have only
one component (along the line of motion) and there will be only two possible directions for each vector.
Select any one direction as positive and another as negative.
– +
Line of motion
Line of motion
+
–

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Illustration 16:
Initial velocity of a particle is 20m/s. Its acceleration is 5m/s2 in the opposite direction as shown in the
figure. Fill the table for the asked time intervals.
a = 5m/s2

20m/s 15m/s 10m/s 5m/s 5m/s 10m/s 15m/s 20m/s 25m/s 30m/s
0
t=0 t=1 t=2 t=3 t=4 t=5 t=6 t=7 t=8 t=9 t = 10

We take +ve

u v a t S

t = 0 sec. to t = 3 sec.

t = 2 sec. to t = 4 sec.

t = 1 sec. to t = 5 sec.

t = 1 sec. to t = 7 sec.

t = 4 sec. to t = 7 sec.

t = 1 sec. to t = 9 sec.
Solution:
u v a t s
t = 0 sec. to t = 3 sec. +20 +5 –5 3 +ve
t = 2 sec. to t = 4 sec. +10 0 –5 2 +ve
t = 1 sec. to t = 5 sec. +15 –5 –5 4 +ve
t = 1 sec. to t = 7 sec. +15 –15 –5 6 0
t = 4 sec. to t = 7 sec. 0 –15 –5 3 –ve
t = 1 sec. to t = 9 sec. +15 –25 –5 8 –ve

Illustration 17:
a = 10m/s
2 +ve
Initial velocity of a particle is 20m/s. Its acceleration is
10m/s2 in the same direction as shown in the figure. 20 m/s
Find its velocity and position at t = 1 and 3 sec. t=0
Solution: x=0
0 to 1 sec. 0 to 3 sec.
u = + 20 u = +20
a = +10 a = +10
t=1 t=3
v = u + at v = u + at

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v = 20 + 10 × 1 v = 20 + 10 × 3
v = 30m/s v = 50 m/s
 v +u   v +u 
s = t s = t
 2   2 
 30 + 20   50 + 20 
=  1 =   3 = 35 × 3
 2   2 
= 25m = 105 m
 s = xf – xi s = xf – xi
25 = xf – 0 105 = xf – 0
xf = 25 m xf = 105 m

Illustration 18:
A car starting from rest travels 10m in first second. Find distance travelled from 5s to 7s if car has constant
acceleration.
Solution:
0 to 1 sec. 0 to 5 sec. 5 to 7 sec.
u=0 u=0 t=2
s = 10 m t = 5 sec. a = 20 m/s
t = 1 sec a = 20 u = 100 m/s
1 v = 0 + 20 × 5 1
s = ut + at 2 s = 100  2 +  20  2  2
2 = 100 m/s 2
1 = 200 + 40
10 = 0  1 +  a  1
2 = 240 m
a
10 = 0 +
2
a = 20m/s2

Reaction Time:
When a situation demands our immediate action. It takes some time before we really respond. Reaction
time is the time a person takes to observe, think and act.

Illustration 19:
A car is moving with 54 km/hr. Driver sees the traffic signal changing from green to red and applies the
brakes after a reaction time of 0.3 sec. If retardation of the car is 3 m/s2 then find the distance travelled by
the car before it stops.
Solution:
v = 54 km / hr = 15 m / s
0.3s
s1 = 15 0.3 = 4.5m …(i) s1 s2
v2 = u2 + 2as2

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0 = 225 − 2 3 s2
225
s2 = = 37.5m …(ii)
6
s = s1 + s2 = 42m

Illustration 20:
A driver of a car which is going with 20 m/s and was at x = 0 at t = 0 applies brake on seeing a red signal.
Signal is at x = 100m. Find the distance travelled by car after 6 sec. if brakes produced retardation of 4 m/s2.
Solution:
First let's check when the car stops
v = u + at
0 = 20 +(–4t)
4t = 20
t = 5 sec.
So, distance travelled by the car in 6 sec. is same as travelled in 5 sec.
0 to 5 sec.
u = 20 m/s
a = –4m/s2
t = 5 sec.
1
s = ut + at 2
2
1
s = 20  5 +  ( −4) 5  5
2
s = 100 – 50
s = 50 m

Illustration 21:
A particle is moving with a speed of 10m/s. A constant acceleration of t=0
10m/s
2m/s2 acts in the opposite direction. Find distance travelled from
2m/s2
(i) 0 to 3 sec., (ii) 3 to 6 sec.
Solution:
Let's check the turning point-
v = u + at
0 = 10 – 2 × t
−10
=t  t = 5 sec.
−2

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(i) 0 to 3 sec.
t=3
a = –2
u = 10
Displacement = distance
1
s = 10  3 +  −2  (3)2
2
s3 = 30 – 9
s3 = 21 m
1
(ii) s5 = 10  5 +  −2  5  5
2
 s5 = 50 − 25

s5 = 25m

1
s6 = 10  6 +  ( −2)  6  6 = 60 – 36 = 24 m
2
d3–6 = |25 – 21| + |24 – 25| = 5m

Note:
• If acceleration is in same direction as velocity, then speed of the particle increases.
• If acceleration is in opposite direction to the velocity then speed decreases i.e., the particle slows down.
This situation is known as retardation.
• If particle is retarding or decelerating, then it means speed is decreasing. It does not mean negative
acceleration.

Illustration 22:
A particle starts with velocity 10 ms–1 and deceleration of 5 ms–2. Find displacement and distance travelled in
6 sec.
Solution:
Displacement uniform acceleration  equations of motion can be used
u = 10 ms–1 ; a = – 5 ms–2; t = 6 sec; s = ? +ve
1 v=0
s = ut + at2
2
0
1
s = 10 × 6 + × (–5) × 6 × 6 = 60 – 90 = – 30 m 30 x
2
For finding distance travelled we should find displacement for v = 0
u = 10, a = – 5, v = 0
 v2 = u2 + 2ax

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v 2 − u2 (0)2 − (10)2
 x= = = 10 m
2a 2( −5)
Total distance =|10–0 |+|–30-10|= 50 m

Objective:
To emphasise that in equation of motion ‘S’ stands for displacement not for distance. To calculate distance,
first find the turning point and break the motion.

Illustration 23:
A
Two particles A and B are situated at same place initially. Particle A moves 20m/s; a = 0
with constant speed 20 m/s while B starts moving with constant acceleration B
5 m/s2 in the same direction. Find where and when they will cross each other. a = 5 m/s2
u=0
Solution:
s1 = s2
1 1
u1t + a1t 2 = u2t + a2t 2
2 2
1 1 5t 2
20  t +  0  t 2 = 0  t +  5  t 2  20t =
2 2 2
t2 = 8t  t2 – 8t = 0  t(t – 8) = 0
 t = 0, t=8 t = 0 means both particles were together initially.
1
sA = 20 × 8 + × 0 × 8 × 8 = 20 × 8 = 160 m
2

Illustration 24:
A police inspector in a jeep is chasing a pickpocket on a straight road. The jeep is going at its maximum
speed v (assumed uniform). The pickpocket rides on the motorcycle of a waiting friend when the jeep is at
a distance d away, and the motorcycle starts with a constant acceleration a. Show that the pick pocket will
be caught if v  2ad .
Solution:
Suppose the pickpocket is caught at a time t after motorcycle starts. The distance travelled by the
motorcycle during this interval is
1
s = at 2 ...(1) v a
2
During this interval the jeep travels a distance u=0
s + d = vt ...(2)
By (1) and (2),
d
1 2 v  v − 2ad
2
at + d = vt or, t=
2 a
The pickpocket will be caught if t is real and positive. This will be possible if
v 2  2ad or, v  2ad

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Illustration 25:
A man is standing 40 m behind the bus. Bus starts with 1 m/sec2 constant acceleration and also at the same
instant the man starts moving with constant speed 9 m/s. Find the time taken by man to catch the bus.

a=1m/sec2
v=9m/s

x=0 40 m t=0
t=0 x = 40

Solution:
Let after time ‘t’ man will catch the bus
For bus
1 2 1
x = x0 + ut + at , x = 40 + 0(t) + (1) t2
2 2
t2
x = 40 + ...(i)
2
For man, x = 9t ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
t2
40 + = 9t  t = 8 s or t = 10s.
2
Man catches the bus at t = 8s.

Illustration 26:
A car can travel at maximum speed of 180 km/hr and can have maximum acceleration of 5 m/s2 and
retardation of 3 m/s2. How fast can it start from rest and come to rest in travelling 300 m?

300 m

Solution:
vmax = 180 km/hr = 50 m/s
a = 5 m/s2; r = 3 m/s2; v = 0; u = 0; s = 300 m
Part-I : Let's assume car accelerates for x m.
u = 0; a = 5m/s2
v = v1
v1 = 10x m/s

10x
t1 = sec
5

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Part-II: Retarding
s = (300 – x) meter
u = 10x ; v = 0; a=–3
v 2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 10x + 2(300 – x)(– 3)
 10x = 6(300 – x)  x = 112.5
Solving for t1
t1 = 3 5
10x 10  112.5 1125
t2 = = = = 125 = 5 5
3 3 9
Total time taken = 3 5 + 5 5 = 8 5 sec

Illustration 27:
A particle moving rectilinearly with constant acceleration is having initial velocity of 10 m/s. After some
time, its velocity becomes 30 m/s. Find out velocity of the particle at the mid-point of its path.
Solution:
Let the total distance be 2x.
 Distance up to midpoint = x
Let the velocity at the mid-point be v and acceleration be a.
From equations of motion
v2 = 102 + 2ax ...(1)
302 = v2 + 2ax ...(2)
Equation (2) – (1) gives
v2 – 302 = 102 – v2
 v2 = 500  v = 10 5 m/s

Illustration 28:
Mr. Sharma brakes his car with constant acceleration from a velocity of 25 m/s to 15 m/s over a distance of
200 m.
(a) How much time elapses during this interval?
(b) What is the acceleration?
(c) If he has to continue braking with the same constant acceleration, how much longer would it take for
him to stop and how much additional distance would he cover?
Solution:
(a) We select positive direction for our coordinate system to be the direction of the velocity and choose
the origin so that xi = 0 when the braking begins. Then the initial velocity is ux = +25 m/s at t = 0, and
the final velocity and position are vx = +15 m/s and x = 200 m at time t.

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Since the acceleration is constant, the average velocity in the interval can be found from the average
of the initial and final velocities.
1 1
 vav, x = (ux + vx) = (15 + 25) = 20 m/s.
2 2
x
The average velocity can also be expressed as vav, x = . With x = 200 m
t
x 200
and t = t − 0, we can solve for t : t = = = 10 s.
vav , x 20

(b) We can now find the acceleration using vx = ux + axt

v x − ux 15 − 25
ax = = = – 1 m/s2.
t 10
The acceleration is negative, which means that the positive velocity is becoming smaller as brakes are
applied (as expected).
(c) Now with known acceleration, we can find the total time for the car to go from velocity ux = 25 m/s to
vx = 0. Solving for t, we find
v x − ux 0 − 25
t= = = 25 s.
ax −1

1 2
The total distance covered is x = xi + uxt + axt
2
1
= 0 + (25) (25) + (−1) (25)2 = 625 – 312.5 = 312.5 m.
2
Additional distance covered = 312.5 – 200 = 112.5 m.

Motion Under Gravity (Free Fall)

In the absence of air, it is found that all bodies (irrespective of the size, weight or composition) fall with the
same acceleration near the surface of the earth. This motion of a body falling towards the earth from a
small altitude is called motion under gravity. Free fall means acceleration of body is equal to acceleration
due to gravity.
Acceleration produced in the body by the force of gravity, is called acceleration due to gravity. It is
represented by the symbol g.
m
Value of g = 9.8
s2
cm
or g = 980
s2
ft
or g = 32
s2

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If a Body is Projected Vertically Upward:
v=0 Positive / Negative directions
 are matter of choice. Here
H upward direction is taken
positive.
u You may take another choice.

(i) Equation of motion:

Taking initial position as origin and direction of motion (i.e. vertically up) as positive
a = – g [As acceleration is downwards while motion upwards]
So, if the body is projected with velocity u and after time t it reaches up to height h then
v = u − gt
1
h = ut − gt 2
2
v2 = u2 − 2gh
g
hnth = u − (2n – 1)
2
(ii) For maximum height v = 0
So, from above equation
u=gt
It is called time of ascent (t1) = u/g ...(i)
For total time –
1
s = ut + at 2
2
g
0 = uT − T 2
2
2u
T= ...(ii)
g
If time of descent is t2 then-
2u
Total time of flight T = t1 + t2 =
g
So, t2 = u/g
So, in case of motion under gravity, time taken to go up is equal to the time taken to fall down through
the same distance.
Time of descent (t2) = time of ascent (t1) = u/g
1
H = gT 2 and u2 = 2gH
2
u2
 H=
2g

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If a body is dropped from some height (initial velocity zero):

u=0
h


Equations of motion:
Taking initial position as origin and direction of motion (i.e., downward direction) as a positive, here we
have
u=0 [As body starts from rest]
a = +g [As acceleration is in the direction of motion]
v=gt …(i)
1 2
h= gt …(ii)
2

Illustration 29:
Analyse the motion of a particle thrown vertically upwards with initial velocity of 30 m/s.
Solution:
O to C O to F
u = + 30 u = + 30
v=0 v=?
a = –10 a = –10
s=H s=0
 v2 = u2 + 2as  v2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 302 + 2(–10)H v2 = (30)2 + 2 × (–10) × 0
302
H= = 45m v = –30
2 10
t=? t=?
1
v = u + at s = ut + at 2
2
1
0 = 30 + (–10)t1 0 = 30t + ( −10)t 2
2
30 2  30
t= = 3sec. t= = 6sec.
10 10
v = u + at
u+v 
v = 30 + (–10)t s = t
 2 
 30 + 20 
v1 = 30 – 10 = 20 m/s s0 to 1 =   1 = 25m
 2 
 20 + 10 
v2 = 30 – 20 = 10 m/s s1 to 2 =   1 = 15m
 2 

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 10 + 0 
v 3 = 30 – 30 = 0 m/s s2 to 3 =   1 = 5m
 2 
 0 − 10 
v4 = 30 – 40 = –10 m/s s3 to 4 =   1 = −5m
 2 
 −10 − 20 
v5 = 30–50 = –20 m/s s4 to 5 =   1 = −15m
 2 
 −20 − 30 
v6 = 30–60 = –30 m/s s5 to 6 =   1 = −25m
 2 

t = 3s

C
5m
+ve
t = 2s 10m/s 10m/s t = 4s

15m

t = 1s 20m/s 20m/s t = 5s

25m

t = 0s 30m/s 30m/s t = 6s

O F

Illustration 30:
If a particle is thrown vertically upwards with initial velocity of 20 m/s, then find :

20m/s

At t = 0

(a) time of flight (b) maximum height reached (c) displacement in 2nd sec.
Solution:
(a) A to B
B
u = + 20
a = – 10
v=0
+ve
v = u + at
0 = 20 + (–10)t A
t = 2 sec.
 t = 2, T = 4 sec.

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(b) s in 0 to 2 sec
t=2
u = 20
 u + v   20 + 0 
s = t =   2 = 20m
 2   2 
(c) s in 1 to 2 sec
v=0
a = –10
1 2 1 10
 s = vt – at = 0  1 −  ( −10) 1 = =5m
2 2 2

10m/s
Illustration 31: +ve
O
A particle is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 10 m/s from
a tower of height 40 m. Find time of flight and velocity just before 40m
v
hitting the ground.
Solution: A
u = – 10
a = + 10
s = + 40
1 2
s = ut + at
2
1
 40 = –10 × t + × 10 × t2
2
10 2
40 + 10 t = t
2
10t2 = 80 + 20t
10t2 – 20t – 80 = 0
t2 – 2t – 8 = 0
t2 – 4t + 2t – 8 = 0
(t – 4) (t + 2) = 0
t = 4, t = –2 (reject)
 v = u + at
v = –10 + 10 × 4
v = – 10 + 40
v = 30 m/s

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Illustration 32:
t=0 t=2
Particle A is dropped at t = 0. Another particle B is dropped from B +ve
A
the same point at t = 2s. When and where will they cross?
30m/s
Solution:
sA = sB
1 1
ut + at 2 = u ( t − 2) + a (t − 2)
2

2 2
1 1
 10  t 2 = 30  (t − 2) +  10  (t − 2)2
2 2
5t2 = 30t – 60 +5(t2 + 4 – 4t)
5t2 = 30t – 60 + 5t2 + 20 – 20t
40 = 10t
t = 4 sec.
1 1
s = ut + at 2 = 0  4 +  10  16 = 80 m
2 2

Illustration 33:
A particle is dropped from height 100 m and another particle is projected vertically up with velocity
50 m/s from the ground along the same line. Find out the position where two particles will meet.
(Take g = 10 m/s2)
Solution:
Let the upward direction is positive.
Let the particles meet at a distance y from the ground.
For particle A,
y0 = + 100 m y = 100m A
u = 0 m/s
u = 0 m/s
a = − 10 m/s2
1 1
y = 100 + 0(t) − 10 × t2 [y = y0 + ut + at2]
2 2
= 100 – 5t2 ...(1)
For particle B, u = 50 m/s
y = 0m
y0 = 0 m B

u = + 50 m/s
a = − 10 m/s2
1
y = 50(t) − 10t2
2
= 50t − 5t2 ...(2)

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According to the Illustration;
50t − 5t2 = 100 − 5t2
t = 2 sec
Putting t = 2 sec in equation (1),
y = 100 − 20 = 80 m
Hence, the particles will meet at a height 80 m above the ground.

Illustration 34:
A particle is dropped from a tower. It is found that it travels 45 m in the last second of its journey. Find out
the height of the tower? (Take g = 10 m/s2)
Solution:
Let the total time of journey be n seconds.
a 10
Using; snth = u + (2n − 1)  45 = 0 + (2n − 1)
2 2
n = 5 sec
1 2 1
Height of tower; h = gt = × 10 × 52 = 125 m
2 2
10m/s
10m/s
Illustration 35:
A balloon is rising with constant velocity of 10 m/s.
When balloon was at 40m from ground, a particle is
40m +ve
dropped from balloon find time of flight of particle after
dropping?
Solution:
s = –40m, u = 10 m/s, a = –10
1
s = ut + at 2
2
1
−40 = 10  t +  −10  t 2
2
–40 = 10t – 5t2
5t2 – 10t – 40 = 0
t2 – 2t – 8 = 0
(t – 4) (t + 2) = 0
t=4 t = –2
 Time = 4 sec.

Note:
As the particle is detached from the balloon it is having the same velocity as that of balloon, but its
acceleration is only due to gravity and is equal to g.

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Illustration 36:
A stone is dropped from a balloon going up with a uniform velocity of 5 m/s. If the balloon was 60 m high
when the stone was dropped, find its height when the stone hits the ground. Take g = 10 m/s2.
Solution:
1 2
S = ut + at
2
1
– 60 = 5(t) + (–10) t2
2
– 60 = 5t – 5t2
5t2 – 5t – 60 = 0 +ve
–ve
t2 – t – 12 = 0 60m
t2 – 4t + 3t – 12 = 0
(t – 4) (t + 3) = 0
 t=4
Height of balloon from ground at this instant
= 60 + 4 × 5 = 80 m

Graphical Interpretation of Differentiation

Slope:
y
y = (m)x + c
slope 
x
y = (tan) x + c
tan  = slope of straight line

Case-1 : 0° <  < 90° Case-2 : 90° <  < 180°

y y

x x

tan  = +ve tan  = –ve

 slope = +ve  slope = –ve
(eg.) (eg.)
1 2 3 3
1 2
45° 60° 150° 135° 120°
30°

|slope|3 > |slope|2 > |slope|1 |slope|3 > |slope|2 > |slope|1

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Slope of secant:
y2 − y1 y
Slope = tan  = =
x2 − x1 x
y

y2

y2–y1=y
y1 
x=x2-x1


x
x1 x2

Slope of secant gives avg. rate of change of y w.r.t. x.

Slope of tangent:
dy
Slope = tan  =
dx
Slope of tangent at point in y-x graph gives inst. rate of change of y w.r.t. to x.
y

 x
x0

Key point
dy
• If is positive then y will increase on increasing x.
dx
dy
• If is negative they y will decrease on increasing x.
dx

Graphical interpretation of some quantities

Average Velocity:
If a particle passes a point P (xi) at time t = ti and reaches Q (xf) at a later time t = tf , its average velocity in
x x − xi
the interval 𝑃𝑄 is Vav = = f
t t f − ti

xi xf
P Q

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This expression suggests that the average velocity is equal to the slope of the line (chord) joining the points
corresponding to P and Q on the x-t graph.
x
xf
Q

xi
P

t
O ti tf

Instantaneous Velocity:
Consider the motion of the particle between the two points P and Q on the x-t graph shown. As the point Q
is brought closer and closer to the point P, the time interval between PQ (t, t, t, ......) get progressively
smaller. The average velocity for each time interval is the slope of the appropriate line (PQ, PQ', PQ''......).

x Q
Q'
tangent Q''

t''
P t'
t

O ti tf t

As the point Q approaches P, the time interval approaches zero, but at the same time the slope of the line
approaches that of the tangent to the curve at the point P.
As t → 0, Vav (=x/t) → Vinst.

Geometrically, as t → 0, chord PQ → tangent at P.

Hence the instantaneous velocity at P is the slope of the tangent at P in the x – t graph. When the slope of
the x – t graph is positive, v is positive (as at the point A in figure). At C, v is negative because the tangent
has negative slope. The instantaneous velocity at point B (turning point) is zero as the slope is zero.
x
v=0
v>0 B v<0
A C

t
O

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Instantaneous Acceleration:
The derivative of velocity with respect to time is the slope of the tangent in velocity-time (v−t) graph.

a=0

a>0 a<0
a=0 t
0
a=0

Illustration 37:
Position-time graph of a particle moving along the x-axis is given. Fill the sign of average velocity and
instantaneous velocity in the following table:
D
x

C E

A B F
t

Average velocity Instantaneous velocity

A to B A
A to C B
B to C C
C to E D
E to F E
F

Solution:
Slope of secant gives average velocity and slope of tangent gives instantaneous velocity.
Average velocity Instantaneous velocity
A to B –ve A –
A to C +ve B +
B to C +ve C +
C to E 0 D 0
E to F –ve E –
F 0

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Illustration 38:
x(m)
Position time graph of a particle moving along x-axis is given. Find –
(i) Velocity at t = 1s, 2s, 6s, 11s and 16s 20
(ii) Average velocity from t = 0s to t = 15s
15 20
(iii) Average velocity from t = 5s to t = 15s
0 5 10 t(s)
(iv) Average speed from 0s to 15s
(v) Average acceleration from t = 2s to t = 6s 20
(vi) Average velocity from t = 6s to t = 16s
Solution:
(i) vins = slope = tan
v1 = 20/5 = 4m/s v2 = 20/5 = 4m/s
v6 = –20/5 = –4m/s v11 = –20/5 = –4m/s v16 = 20/5 = 4 m/s
(ii) < v > from t = 0 to t = 15

x x f − xi −20 − 0 −4
 v = = = = m/ s
t t f − t i 15 − 0 3

(iii) < v > from t = 5 to t = 15

x x f − xi −20 − 20
 v = = = = −4m / s
t t f − t i 15 − 5

(iv) avg. speed from 0 to 15 sec.

distance travelled 60
avg. speed= = = 4m / s
time taken 15

(v) avg. acceleration from 2 to 6 sec.

change in velocity −4 − 4
avg. acceleration= = = −2m / s 2
time taken 4

(vi) From the properties of similar triangles -

20 𝑥6
=
5 4
20
x6 = 16m x
Similarly x16 = –16m
4
5

< v > from t = 6 sec. to t = 16 sec.

x16 − x6 −16 − (16) −32
v = = = = −3.2m / s
t16 − t 6 10 10

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 39:
Position of a particle as a function of time is given as x = 5t2 + 4t + 3. Find the velocity and acceleration of
the particle at t = 2 s.
Solution:
dx
Velocity; v = = 10t + 4
dt
At t=2s
v = 10(2) + 4
v = 24 m/s
dv
Acceleration; a = = 10
dt
Acceleration is constant, so at t = 2 s a = 10 m/s2

Double differentiation and higher order derivates

dy
= differentiation of y w.r.t. x
dx

 differentiation of w.r.t. x

 double differentiation of y w.r.t. x

It is represented as It is also known as 2nd

order derivative of y w.r.t. x

dx
(eg.) Velocity is 1st order derivative of position w.r.t. time i.e =v
dt

d2x
Acceleration is 2nd order derivative of position w.r.t. time i.e =a
dt 2
dv
Acceleration is 1st order derivative of velocity w.r.t. time i.e =a
dt

Graphical interpretation of double differentiation:

y

x dy
is  with  x
dx

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Kinematics
d  dy 
   = +ve
dx  dx 

d2 y
 is +ve for concave upwards
dx 2
y

x
dy
is  with  x
dx
d  dy 
   = −ve
dx  dx 
d2 y
 is –ve for concave downwards
dx 2
(eg.)
y y

y = x2
x
(i) (ii)
x y = –x2

dy dy
= 2x = −2x
dx dx
d2 y d2 y
=2 = −2
dx 2 dx 2
(eg.)
x Velocity Acceleration
B A + –
A B 0 –
C C – –
t D – +
0
E 0 +
D F
F + +
E

● If concave is upward then double differentiation is positive and if concave is downward then it is negative.
● If tangent at a point makes an angle  greater than 90°, then slope (differentiation) will be negative
and if  less than 90°, then slope (differentiation) will be positive.
For angle 180° slope will be zero.

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Local maxima and Local minima:
y Local maxima (value of function more than
that of adjacent neighbours)

A
D

B
Local minima (value of function less than
that of adjacent neighbours)
x

Slope at local maxima and local minima is always zero.

dy
=0
dx
dy d2 y
dx dx 2
Local maxima 0 –
Local minima 0 +

Illustration 40:
Locate local maxima and local minima of the y-x curve-
x 3 3x 2
y= − + 2x + 5
3 2
Solution:
dy 3x 2 3  2x
= − +2
dx 3 2
dy
= x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0
dx
Then x = 1, 2
d2 y
= 2x − 3
dx 2
 d2 y 
  2  = 2 − 3 = −1
 dx  x =1
 Local maxima at x = 1
 d2 y 
 2  = 2 2 − 3 = 1
 dx  x =2
 Local minima at x = 2

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S.N. Different Cases v–t graph s–t graph Important Points

1. Uniform motion v s (i) Slope of s–t graph =
s=vt v = constant
v=constant (ii) In s–t graph s = 0 at
t t
t=0

2. Uniformly v s (i) u = 0, i.e. v = 0 at t = 0

accelerated (ii) u = 0, i.e., slope of s–t
v=at
motion with u = 0 graph at t = 0, should
at t = 0 s=½at2 be zero
t t
(iii) a or slope of v – t
graph is constant
3. Uniformly v s (i) u≠0, i.e., v or slope of
accelerated with s –t graph at t = 0 is
u ≠ 0 at t = 0 u not zero
v=u+at s=ut+½at2 (ii) v or slope of s – t graph
t t gradually goes on
increasing.
4. Uniformly v s (i) s = s0 at t = 0
accelerated
u
motion with u ≠ 0
v=u+at s=s0+ut+½at2
and s = s0 at t = 0
t t

5. Uniformly v s (i) Slope of s–t graph at

retarded motion s=ut+½ at2 t = 0 gives u
till velocity u
(ii) Slope of s–t graph at
becomes zero v=u+at t = t0 becomes zero
t t
t0 t0 (iii) In this case u can't be
zero.
6. Uniformly v s (i) At time t=t0, v=0 or
retarded then slope of s–t graph is
accelerated in u zero
opposite direction (ii) Slope of s–t graph or
t t velocity first decreases
0 t0 t0
then increases with
opposite sign.

Integration
In integral calculus, the differential coefficient of a function is given. We are required to find the function.
Integration is basically used for summation.  is used for summation of discrete values, while  sign is used
for continuous function.
dI
If I is integration of f(x) with respect to x then I =  f(x) dx [we can check = f (x) ]
dx

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Therefore,  f'(x) dx = f(x) + c
where c = an arbitrary constant
Let us proceed to obtain integral of xn w.r.t. x.
d
(xn+1) = (n +1)xn
dx
Since the process of integration is the reverse process of differentiation,

 (n + 1)x dx = x
n n +1

or (n + 1)  x ndx = x n+1

x n +1
or  x ndx =
n+1
+c

The above formula holds for all values of n, except n = –1.

It is because, for n = –1,
1
 x ndx =  x −1dx =  x
dx

d 1
∵ (loge x) =
dx x
1
  x
dx = loge x + c

Similarly, the formulae for integration of some other functions can be obtained if we know the differential
coefficients of various functions.

Few basic formulae of integration:

Following are a few basic formulae of integration:

1.  k dx = kx + c , k is constant

x n +1
2.  x ndx =
n+1
+ c , Provided n  –1

d
3.  sin x dx = − cos x + c ∵
dx
(cos x) = – sin x

d
4.  cos x dx = sin x + c ∵
dx
(sin x) = cos x

1 d 1
5.  x
dx = log e x + c ∵
dx
(loge x) =
x
d
6.  e x dx = e x + c ∵
dx
(ex)= ex

f (ax + b) d
7.  f '(ax + b) dx =
a
+c ∵
dx
(f(ax + b)) = af '(ax + b)

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Kinematics
Illustration 41:
Integrate w.r.t. x:
(i) x11/2 (ii) x–7 (iii) xp/q
Solution:

x 11/2+1 2 13/2 x −7+1 1

  x dx =
−7
(i) x 11/2dx = +c= x +c (ii) + c = – x −6 + c
11 13 −7 + 1 6
+1
2
p
+1
p q
x q p
(iii)  x dx = +c= x(p + q) / q + c,  −1
q
p p+q q
+1
q

Rules of Integration:

1.  ( f ( x )  g( x )) dx =  f ( x )dx   g( x )dx
x3 x 4
eg. →  ( x 2 + x 3 )dx =  x 2dx +  x 3dx = + +C
3 4

2.  kf ( x )dx = k  f ( x )dx

Illustration 42:
1
 (x − cos x + ) dx
2
Evaluate
x
Solution:
1 x 2+ 1 x3
I=  x 2dx −  cos xdx + 
x
dx =
2+1
– sin x + loge x + c =
3
– sin x + loge x + c

Illustration 43:

Find- (i)  (3x 2 + 4 x 5 )dx (ii)  3dx = 3 dx (iii)  3x 5dx

Solution:
x3 x6 2x 6
 (3x + 4x )dx = 3 x dx + 4 x dx = 3
2 5 2 5
(i) + 4 + C = x3 + +C
3 6 3

(ii)  3dx = 3 dx = 3x + C

x6 x6
 3x dx = 3 x dx = 3 +C =
5 5
(iii) +C
6 2

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Definite Integrals:
When a function is integrated between a lower limit and an upper limit, it is called a definite integral.
d
If ( f ( x )) = f ' (x), then  f ' ( x )dx is called indefinite integral
dx
b
and  a
f ' ( x )dx is called definite integral

Here, a and b are called lower and upper limits of the variable x.
After carrying out integration, the result is evaluated between upper and lower limits as explained below:
b
f ' ( x )dx =  f ( x )a = f(b) – f(a)
b
 a
y
y = f(x)
Area under a curve and definite integration:
Area of small shown element = ydx = f (x) dx
If we sum up all areas between x = a and x = b y
b
then  f ( x ) dx = shaded area between curve and x-axis.
a

x
x=a x=b
Illustration 44:
x dx
x =2

 (2x + 3x
2
Evaluate )dx
x =0

Solution:
x =2 x =2
dx =  x 2 x =0 +  x 3 x =0 = 22 + 23 = 12
x =2 x =2
 2x dx +  3x
2

x =0 x =0

Illustration 45:
x =5
Evaluate  dx
x =2

Solution:
 x xx ==52 = 5 – 2 = 3

Illustration 46:
t =2
Evaluate  (2t + 1)dt
t =0

Solution:
t =2
 t2 
2 + t  = t + t t =0 = [22 + 2] – [02 + 0] = 6
t =2
2

 2  t =0

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Kinematics
Illustration 47:
x =2
1
Evaluate 
 2 dx
 x
x =1

Solution:
x =2 x =2
x =2
 1 dx = x −2 dx =  −1 
 2
x 
x =1
 x 
x =1
x =1

 −1   −1  −1 1
=  −  = +1 =
2 1 2 2

Displacement from v-t Graph and Change in Velocity From a-t Graph:
Displacement = x = area under v-t graph. Since a negative velocity causes a negative displacement,
areas below the time axis are taken negative. In similar way, can see that v = a t leads to the conclusion
that area under a − t graph gives the change in velocity v during that interval.
v

t
O
t
Illustration 48:
For a particle moving along x-axis, following graphs are given. Find the final velocity of the particle after
10 s in each case if initial velocity is zero.

a a
10 10

0 10 t 0 10 t

(a) (b)

Solution:
v = area under a-t curve with t-axis
(a) v f – vi = 1010

v f = 100 m / s

1
(b) v f – vi =  10  10
2

v f = 50 m / s

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 49:
v(m/s)
For a particle moving along x-axis, velocity-time graph is as
8
shown in figure. Find the distance travelled and displacement
of the particle. 8 10
t(s)
0 2 4 6
Solution: –5
Distance travelled = Area under v-t graph
(taking all areas as +ve.)
Distance travelled = Area of trapezium + Area of triangle

1 1
= (2 + 6 )  8 +  4  5 = 32 + 10 = 42 m
2 2

Displacement = Area under v − t graph (taking areas below time axis as –ve.)

Displacement = Area of trapezium − Area of triangle

1 1
= (2 + 6 )  8 −  4  5 = 32 − 10 = 22 m
2 2

Hence, distance travelled = 42 m and displacement = 22 m.

Important Points to Remember:

• For uniformly accelerated motion (a  0), x − t graph is a parabola (opening upwards if a > 0 and
opening downwards if a < 0). The slope of tangent at any point of the parabola gives the velocity at
that instant.
• For uniformly accelerated motion (a  0), v − t graph is a straight line whose slope gives the
acceleration of the particle.
• In general, the slope of tangent in x − t graph is velocity and the slope of tangent in v − t graph is the
acceleration.
• The area under a − t graph gives the change in velocity.
• The area under the v − t graph gives the distance travelled by the particle, if we take all areas as
positive.
• Area under v − t graph gives displacement, if areas below the t−axis are taken negative.

Illustration 50:
Describe the motion shown by the following velocity-time graphs.
v v
+ A + A B

C
0 t 0 t
(a) B (b) C
– D – D

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Solution:
(a) During interval AB: velocity is +ve so the particle is moving in +ve direction, but it is slowing down
as acceleration (slope of v-t curve) is negative. During interval BC: particle remains at rest as velocity
is zero. Acceleration is also zero. During interval CD: velocity is -ve so the particle is moving in -ve
direction and is speeding up as acceleration is also negative.
(b) During interval AB: particle is moving in +ve direction with constant velocity and acceleration is
zero. During interval BC: particle is moving in +ve direction as velocity is +ve, but it slows down until
it comes to rest as acceleration is negative. During interval CD: velocity is -ve so the particle is moving
in -ve direction and is speeding up as acceleration is also negative.

Motion with Non-Uniform Acceleration (Use of Definite Integrals)

tf

x =  v(t )dt
ti
(Displacement in time interval t = ti to tf)

The expression on the right hand side is called the definite integral of v(t) between t = ti and t = tf. Similarly
change in velocity
tf

v = vf − vi =  a(t )dt
ti

Solving Illustrations which Involves Non-uniform Acceleration:

(i) Acceleration depending on velocity v or time t
dv
By definition of acceleration, we have a = . If a is in terms of t,
dt
v t


v0
dv =  a(t )dt
0

If a is in terms of v,
v t
dv
v a(v ) = 0 dt
0

x t
On integrating, we get a relation between v and t, and then using  dx =  v(t )dt , x and t can also be
x0 0

related.
(ii) Acceleration depending on position x
dv dv dx dx dv dv
a=  a=  a=  a=v
dt dx dt dt dx dx
This is another important expression for acceleration. If a is in terms of x,
v x

 vdv =
v0
 a( x )dx
x0

On integrating, we get a relation between x and v.

x t
dx
Using  v( x ) 0 dt , we can relate x and t.
x0
=

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 51:
v = 2t + 1 ; find displacement from t = 0 to t = 2 sec.
Solution:

dx
v=
dt

vdt = dx
(2t + 1) dt = dx
t =2 x=x f

 (2t + 1)dt = 
t =0 x = xi
dx

t =2
 2t 2 
+ t  =  x xif
x
 
 2  t =0

 [22 + 2] – [02 + 0] = xf – xi = s

 s=6

Illustration 52:
v = 3t2 ; find x at t = 3, if x = 2 at t = 0.
Solution:
dx
v=
dt

vdt = dx
3t2dt = dx
t =3 x=x f t =3
 3t 3 
 = ( x )2
xf
t =0 = x =2 
2
3t dt dx 
 3 t = 0

33 – 03 = xf – 2
27 = xf – 2
xf = 27 + 2
xf = 29

Illustration 53:
a = 3t2 + 2t ; at t = 1 sec., velocity = 3 m/s. Find velocity at t = 2 sec.
Solution:
dv
a=
dt
adt = dv

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Kinematics
(3t2 + 2t) dt = dv
t =2 v =v f

 (3t + 2t )dt = 
2
dv
t =1 v =3

t =2
 3t 3 2t 2 
 = v v =3
vf
 +
 3 2  t =1
[23 + 22] – [13 + 12] = vf – 3
[8 + 4] – [2] = vf – 3
12 – 2 = vf – 3
vf = 10 + 3
vf = 13 m/s

Illustration 54:
Prove v2 = u2 + 2as for constant 'a'. Where symbols have their usual meaning.
Solution:
dv
a=v
dx
adx = vdv
xf v

 adx =  v dv
xi u

If 'a' constant
xf v
a  dx =  v dv
xi u

v
 v2 
a x  =  
xf
xi
 2 u
v2 u2
a  x f − xi  = −
2 2
2as = v2 – u2
v2 = u2 + 2as

Illustration 55:
An object starts from rest at t = 0 and accelerates at a rate given by a = 6t. What is
(a) its velocity and (b) its displacement at any time t?
Solution:
As acceleration is given as a function of time,
v( t ) t
 
v ( t0 )
dv =  a(t )dt
t0

t
t
 t2  t2
Here t0 = 0 and v(t0) = 0  v(t) =  6tdt = 6   = 6 ( – 0) = 3t2
0  2 0 2

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So, v(t) = 3t2
t
t t
 t3   t3 
As x =  v(t )dt  x =  3t dt = 3   =
2
3  − 0  = t3
t0 0  3 0 3 
Hence, velocity v(t) = 3t2 and displacement x = t3.

Illustration 56:
For a particle moving along +ve x-axis, acceleration is given as a = x. Find the position as a function of time.
Given that at t = 0, x = 1 v = 1.
Solution:
vdv v2 x 2
a=x  =x  = +C
dx 2 2
12 12
t = 0, x = 1 and v = 1  = +C
2 2
 C=0  v2 = x2
v=±x But given that x = 1 when v = 1
dx dx
 v=x  =x  = dt
dt x
ℓnx = t + C  0=0+C  ℓnx = t
x= et

Illustration 57:
For a particle moving along x-axis, acceleration is given as a = v. Find the position as a function of time.
Given that at t = 0, x = 0 v = 1.
Solution:
dv dv
a=v 
dt
=v   v
=  dt
ℓnv = t + c  0=0+c (at t = 0, v=1)
dx
 dx =  e dt
t
v = et  = et 
dt
 x = et + c  0=1+c (at t = 0, x=0)
x = et – 1

Graph:
Straight Line-Equation, Graph, Slope (+ve, –ve, zero slope):
If  is the angle at which a straight line is inclined to the positive direction of x-axis and 0°   < 180°,
  90°, then the slope of the line, denoted by m, is defined by m = tan . If  is 90°, m does not exist, but the
line is parallel to the y-axis. If  = 0, then m = 0 and the line is parallel to the x-axis.
Slope − intercept form: y = mx + c is the equation of a straight line whose slope is m and which makes an
intercept c on the y-axis.

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Kinematics
dy
m = slope = tan =
dx
y y y
+ve slope
 –ve slope
Slope = 0 C 
 C C
x x x

Parabolic Curve-Equation, Graph (Various Situations Up, Down, Left, Right with
Conditions):

y y

y2 = kx x y2= –kx x

y y

x2 = ky x x2 = –ky x

Where k is a positive constant.

Equation of parabola:
Case (i) : y = ax2 + bx + c
For a > 0
The nature of the parabola will be like that of the of y

nature x2 = ky
Minimum value of y exists at the vertex of the parabola.
−D x
ymin = where, D = b2 – 4ac
4a

 −b − D 
Coordinates of vertex =  , 
 2a 4a 

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Case (ii) : a < 0 y
The nature of the parabola will be like that of the
nature of x2 = –ky
Maximum value of y exists at the vertex of parabola.
−D
ymax = , where, D = b2 – 4ac x
4a

Graphs in Uniformly Accelerated Motion (a  0):

• x is a quadratic polynomial in terms of t. Hence x − t graph is a parabola.
x x

a<0
xi xi
a>0

t t
0 0

x-t graph
• v is a linear polynomial in terms of t. Hence v−t graph is a straight line of slope a.
v v

u
a is positive a is negative
t t
0 0

v-t graph
• a−t graph is a horizontal line because a is constant.
a a
Positive
acceleration
a
t
0
Negative
t acceleration
0 a

a-t graph

Interpretation of some more graphs:

Position vs Time graph
(i) Zero Velocity
x
As position of particle is fixed at all the time,
so the body is at rest.
dx t
Slope; = tan = tan 0° = 0 0
dt
Velocity of particle is zero

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(ii) Uniform Velocity
dx x
Here tan  is constant, tan =
dt
dx
 is constant.
dt 
0 t
 velocity of particle is constant.
(iii) Non-uniform velocity (increasing with time)
x
In this case; 
As time is increasing,  is also increasing.

dx
 = tan is also increasing
dt
0 t
Hence, velocity of particle is increasing.
(iv) Non-uniform velocity (decreasing with time)
x
In this case;
As time increases,  decreases. 
dx 
 = tan also decreases.
dt
0 t
Hence, velocity of particle is decreasing.

Velocity vs time graph:

(i) Zero acceleration
v
Velocity is constant.
tan = 0
dv
 =0
dt 0 t

Hence, acceleration is zero.

(ii) Uniform acceleration v
tan is constant.
dv
 = constant
dt 
0 t
Hence, it shows constant acceleration.
(iii) Uniform retardation
v
Since  > 90°
 tan is constant and negative.
dv 
 = negative constant
dt 0 t
Hence, it shows constant retardation.

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Acceleration vs time graph:
(i) Constant acceleration a

tan = 0
da
 =0
dt
0 t
Hence, acceleration is constant.
(ii) Uniformly increasing acceleration
a
 is constant.
0° <  < 90°  tan > 0
da
 = tan = constant > 0
dt 
0 t
Hence, acceleration is uniformly increasing with time.
(iii) Uniformly decreasing acceleration
Since  > 90° a

 tan is constant and negative.

da
 = negative constant
dt 
Hence, acceleration is uniformly decreasing with time. 0 t

Illustration 58:
At the height of 100 m, a particle A is thrown up with v = 10 m/s, A
B particle is thrown down with v = 10m/s and C particle is released 10 m/s
with v = 0 m/s. Draw graphs of each particle. B 0 m/s
(i) Displacement–time (ii) Speed–time
100 m

(iii) Velocity–time (iv) Acceleration–time C

Solution: 10 m/s

For particle A:
(i) Displacement vs time graph is Displacement
1 2
y = ut + at
2 30
u = + 10 m/sec 20
1 10 5.6
y = 10t – ×10t2 = 10 t – 5t2
2 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time
–10
dy –20
v= = 10 – 10 t = 0
dt –30
t = 1; hence, velocity is zero at t = 1 –40
–50
10 t – 5 t2 = – 100 –60
t2 – 2t – 20 = 0 –70
–80
t = 5.6 sec. (𝑡 = 1 + √21 𝑠)
–90
i.e. particle travels till 5.6 seconds. –100

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(ii) Speed vs time graph: Particle has constant acceleration = g  throughout the motion, so v-t curve will
be straight line.
when moving up, v = u + at
0 = 10 – 10 t or t = 1 is the time at which speed is zero.
there after speed increases at constant rate of 10 m/s2.
Resulting Graph is: (speed is always positive).
Speed
10√21

10
1 + √21 Time

This shows that particle travels till a time of 1 + 21 seconds.

(iii) Velocity vs time graph:

V = u + at
V = 10 – 10t; this shows that velocity becomes zero at t = 1 sec and thereafter the velocity is negative
with slope g.
Velocity

10

2 Time
1

–10

(iv) Acceleration vs time graph:

Throughout the motion, particle has constant
acceleration = –10 m/s2.
Acceleration

Time

–10

For particle B:
1
u = – 10 m/s. y = – 10t – (10) t2 = – 10t – 5t2
2

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(i) Displacement time graph:
Displacement

Time

dy
y = –10t – 5t2 ; = – 10 – 10t
dt
This shows that slope becomes more negative with time.
(ii) Speed time graph:
Speed

10 m/s
Time

dy
= – 10 – 10t
dt
Hence, speed is linearly dependent on time with slope of 10 initial speed = 10 m/s
(iii) Velocity time graph:
dy
= – 10 – 10t
dt
Velocity

Time
–10 m/s

Hence, velocity is linearly dependent on time with slope of –10. Initial velocity = –10 m/s
(iv) Acceleration vs time graph:
Throughout the motion, particle has constant acceleration = –10 m/s2.
Acceleration

Time

–10 m/s2

dv
a= = – 10
dt

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For Particle C:
(i) Displacement time graph:
1
u = 0, y = – × 10t2 = – 5t2
2
Displacement

Time
√20

–100

This shows that slope becomes more negative with time.

(ii) Speed vs time graph:
dy
v= = – 10 t
dt
Speed

Time
Hence, speed is directly proportional to time with slope of 10.
(iii) Velocity time graph:
V = u + at
V = – 10t;
Velocity

Time
√20

– 10√20

Hence, velocity is directly proportional to time with slope of –10.

(iv) Acceleration vs time graph:
Acceleration

Time

−10 𝑚/𝑠 2

Throughout the motion, particle has constant acceleration = –10 m/s2.

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Illustration 59:
Velocity v/s position graph is given. Find acceleration at x = 1 m.
v

10

x=1 x=2 x

Solution:
dv
= tan  = 5
dx
dv
a=v = 5  5 = 25m/s2
dx

Illustration 60:
Find acceleration at t = 1 sec for the given graph.
v2
10

t=1 2sec. t

Solution:
dv2
= tan  = 5
dt
dv2 dv
 =5
dv dt
5
 2v  a = 5  2 5  a = 5  a =
2

Interconversion of graphs
Illustration 61: x

The displacement vs time graph of a particle moving along a x=4t2

straight line is shown in the figure. Draw velocity vs time and
acceleration vs time graph.
0 t
Solution:
x = 4t2
dx
v= = 8t
dt

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Hence, velocity-time graph is a straight-line having slope i.e. tan = 8.
v

tan = 8
 t
0

dv
a= =8
dt
Hence, acceleration is constant throughout and is equal to 8.
a

t
0

Illustration 62:
If all parts of the x-t graph are either parabolic or straight line then draw corresponding v-t and a-t graph.
x a
e h
g i
b d f j
t
c

Solution:
Slope of x-t graph gives velocity and slope of v-t graph gives acceleration.
x a
e h
g i
b d f j
t
c

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Illustration 63:
Plot velocity-time, position-time and distance-time graph for the given a-t graph if at t = 0 ; v = 0 and x = 0.
a

2m/s2

t
–2m/s2

Solution:
Area of a-t curve gives change in velocity and area of v-t curve gives displacement.
v x x

t t t

Illustration 64:
Plot distance time graph for the given position time graph.
x

Solution:
x

Distance

Note:
(i) Distance-time and displacement-time graph always starts from origin.
(ii) Distance never decreases. So, to convert position time graph into distance time graph, take the mirror
image of the graph when position start decreasing.
(iii) Speed can decrease but it cannot be negative. So, to convert velocity time graph into speed time graph,
take the mirror image of the graph when velocity becomes negative.

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Illustration 65:
Draw displacement–time and acceleration–time graph for the given velocity–time graph.

v
B C

D
A t1 t2 t3 t

Solution:
Part AB : v-t curve shows constant slope
i.e., constant acceleration or Velocity increases at constant rate with time.
Hence, s-t curve will show constant increase in slope
And a-t curve will be a straight line (with zero slope).
Part BC : v-t curve shows zero slope i.e. constant velocity. So, s-t curve will show constant slope and
acceleration will be zero.
Part CD : v-t curve shows negative slope i.e. velocity is decreasing with time or acceleration is negative.
Hence, s-t curve will show decrease in slope becoming zero in the end.
And a-t curve will be a straight line with negative intercept on y-axis (with zero slope).

Resulting graphs are:

a

s D
C A
t1 t2 t3
B t
B
A
t
t1 t2 t3 C D

Miscellaneous Problems
Illustration 66:
3 1
A particle covers of total distance with speed v1 and next with v2. Find the average speed of the
4 4
particle.
Solution:
Let the total distance be s
Total distance A C
Average speed (< v >) = 3s/4 B s/4
Total time taken
s 1 4v1v2
<v>= = =
3s s 3 1 v1 + 3v2
+ +
4v1 4v2 4v1 4v2

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Illustration 67:
A car is moving with speed 60 km/h and a bird is moving with speed 90 km/h along the same direction as
shown in figure. Find the distance travelled by the bird till the time car reaches the tree.

240 m

Solution:
240 m 0.24
Time taken by a car to reach the tree (t) = = hr
60 km / hr 60
Now, the distance travelled by the bird during this time interval
0.24
= 90  = 0.12 × 3 km = 360 m.
60

Illustration 68:
The position of a particle moving on X-axis is given by x = At3 + Bt2 + Ct + D. The numerical values of A, B, C, D
are 1, 4, –2 and 5 respectively and SI units are used. Find (a) the dimensions of A, B, C and D, (b) the velocity
of the particle at t = 4s, (c) the acceleration of the particle at t = 4s, (d) the average velocity during the
interval t = 0 to t = 4s, (e) the average acceleration during the interval t = 0 to t = 4 s.
Solution:
As x = At3 + Bt2 + Ct + D
(a) Dimensions of A, B, C and D,
[At3] = [x] (by principle of homogeneity)
[A] = [LT–3]
Similarly, [B] = [LT–2], [C] = [LT–1] and [D] = [L] ;
dx
(b) As v = = 3At2 + 2Bt + C
dt
Velocity at t = 4 sec.
v = 3(1) (4)2 + 2(4) (4) – 2 = 78 m/s.
dv
(c) Acceleration (a) = = 6At + 2B ; a = 32 m/s2
dt
(d) x = At3 + Bt2 + Ct + D
Position at t = 0 is x = D = 5m.
Position at t = 4 sec is (1)(64) + (4)(16) – (2) (4) + 5 = 125 m
Thus, the displacement during 0 to 4 sec. is 125 – 5 = 120 m
 < v > = 120 / 4 = 30 m/s
(e) v = 3At2 + 2B t + C , velocity at t = 0 is C = – 2 m/s
v2 − v1
Velocity at t = 4 sec is 78 m/s  < a > = = 20 m/s2
t2 − t1

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Illustration 69:
For a particle moving along x-axis, velocity is given as a function of time as v = 2t2 + sin t. At t = 0, particle
is at origin. Find the position as a function of time.
Solution:
dx
v = 2t2 + sin t  = 2t2 + sin t
dt
x t
2
 dx =  (2t + sin t )dt  x = t 3 − cos t + 1
2

0 0 3

Illustration 70:
A car decelerates from a speed of 20 m/s to rest in a distance of 100 m. What was its acceleration, assumed
constant?
Solution:
v = 0, u = 20 m/s, s = 100 m
 as v2 = u2 + 2 as
0 = 400 + 2a × 100  a = – 2 m/s2
 Acceleration = –2 m/s2

Illustration 71:
A 150 m long train accelerates uniformly from rest. If the front of the train passes a railway worker 50 m
away from the station at a speed of 25 m/s, what will be the speed of the back part of the train as it passes
the worker?
Solution:
v2 = u2 + 2as
25 × 25 = 0 + 100 a
25
a= m/s2
4
Now, for the back end of the train to pass the worker
2 25
We have v ' = v2 + 2al = (25)2 + 2 × × 150
4
2
v ' = 25 × 25 × 4
v ' = 50 m/s.

Illustration 72:
A particle is thrown vertically upwards with velocity 20 m/s. Find (a) the distance travelled by the particle
in first 3 seconds, (b) displacement of the particle in 3 seconds.
Solution:
B
5m

20 m C

A 20 m/s

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Highest point say B
VB = 0
v = u – gt
0 = 20 – 10 t
t = 2 sec.
 Distance travel in first 3 seconds.
s = s(t = 0 to 2sec) + s (2 sec. to 3 sec.)
s = [ut + 1/2 at2]t = 0 to t = 2s + [ut +1/2at2]t = 2 to t = 3s
s = (20 × 2 – 1/2 × 10 × 4) + (1/2 × 10 × 12)
= (40 – 20) + 5 = 25 m.
And displacement = 20 – 5 = 15 m.

Illustration 73:
A car accelerates from rest at a constant rate  for some time after which it decelerates at a constant rate
 to come to rest. If the total time elapsed is t. Find the maximum velocity acquired by the car.
Solution:

V A
Vmax
 

B
O t1 t2 t

t = t1 + t2
v max
Slope of OA curve = tan =  =
t1
v max
Slope of AB curve =  =
t2
t = t1 + t2
vmax vmax    
 t= +  vmax =  t
    + 

Illustration 74:
In the above question find total distance travelled by the car in time ‘t’.
Solution:
Method I:

vmax = t
(  + )
vmax t vmax t
 t1 = =  t2 = =
 ( + )  ( + )

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 Total distance travelled by the car in time ‘t’
1  1 2 1 2t 2  2 t 2 1 2t 2  t 2
=  t 12 + v t
 max 2 −  t = + – =
2  2
2
2 ( + )2 (  +  )2 2 ( + )2 2 (  +  )
Method II:
1  t 2  t 2
Area under graph (directly) = =
2 ( + ) 2( + )

Illustration 75: x
The displacement vs time graph of a particle moving along a straight t
line is shown in the figure. Draw velocity vs time and acceleration vs 0
time graph.
Upwards direction is taken as positive, downwards direction is taken
x = –8t2
as negative.
Solution:
(a) The equation of motion is: x = –8t2
dx
 v= = – 16 t ; this shows that velocity is directly proportional to time and slope of velocity-time
dt
curve is negative i.e. – 16.
Hence, resulting graph is (i)
dv
(b) Acceleration of particle is: a = = –16.
dt
This shows that acceleration is constant but negative.
Resulting graph is (ii)
v a

Where, tan  = –16

 t t
–16 m/s2

(i) (ii)

Illustration 76:
For a particle moving along x-axis, following graphs are given. Find the distance travelled by the particle in
10 s in each case.
v v

10 10

0 10 t 0 10 t

(a) (b)

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Solution:
(a) Distance = area under the v-t curve
 Distance = 10 × 10 = 100 m
(b) Distance = area under the v-t curve
1
 Distance = × 10 × 10 = 50 m
2

Illustration 77:
For a particle moving along x-axis, acceleration is given as a = 2v2. If the speed of the particle is v0 at x = 0,
find speed as a function of x.
Solution:
dv dv dx
a = 2v2  = 2v2  × = 2v2
dt dx dt
dv dv
v = 2v2  = 2v
dx dx
v x
dv
 nv v = 2x 0
x
 v 0 2 dx 
v
=
0
v0

v
n = 2x  v = v0e2x
v0

MOTION IN A PLANE
Introduction to 2D motion
2D Motion:
• When the motion of an object is restricted within a plane, it is said to undergo a motion in 2D.
• 2D motion can be studied as two independent 1D motions. (One along x-axis and the other along
y-axis).
Example: Motion of a carrom coin.

3D Motion:
• When the motion of an object is permitted all over the space, it is said to undergo a motion in 3D.
• 3D motion can be studied as three independent 1D motions. (Along x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis).
Example: Motion of a fish in an aquarium.

Note:
Projection of x-axis on the y-axis is zero and vice versa. Hence, two vectors y
which are perpendicular to each other have no effect on each other. In other
P (x,y)
words, they are independent of each other. The motion along x-axis and
y-axis are connected by time which is a scalar quantity. In other words, time is
the only parameter common for both x and y components of motion.
O
• 2D motion is a vector superimposition of two 1D motions along x and y x
directions. 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂
• Position of a body under 2D motion can be specified by independent x and
y coordinates. Position of point P is (x, y) and the position vector of P is
𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂.

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Galileo's Statement
Two perpendicular directions of motion are independent from each other. In other words any vector
quantity directed along a direction remains unaffected by a vector perpendicular to it.
• So, in 2D motion, position, velocity, and acceleration are divided into x and y components which are
studied separately.

Position (𝒓
⃗) Velocity (𝒗
⃗) Acceleration (𝒂
⃗)

x y 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑(𝑉𝑥 ) 𝑑(𝑉𝑦 )
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Steps to Analyse 2D motion:

(i) Choose an origin and establish the positive sense of x and y axes.
(ii) Resolve every given vector along the x and y axes.
(iii) Tabulate every single data separately for x and y.
(iv) Apply suitable equations of motion along x and y separately.
(v) Relate the two, as the time variable is common for both.
• Consider a 2D motion as shown in the figure. A particle is following a parabolic path with an initial
velocity u and constant acceleration a. Let v be the instantaneous velocity at any time t.

v
a
u

• Acceleration can be resolved along x and y direction as ax and ay respectively.

• Equations of motion should be applied separately for x and y directions.

x-axis y-axis
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
1 1
𝛥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 𝛥𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑢𝑥2 + 2𝑎𝑥 𝛥𝑥 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝛥𝑦

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• Velocity and position can be dealt separately in x and y directions as shown in the table given below:

x-axis y-axis Resultant

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂; |𝑣 | = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2

1 1 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂; |𝑟| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

𝛥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 𝛥𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2 2

• Similar to 1D motion, in 2D motion, we have,

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑣𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑(𝑣𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑣𝑦
= 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦

Illustration 78:
A particle has initial velocity, 𝑢
⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ and acceleration, 𝑎 = 4𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ then, Find,
(a) 𝑣 at t = 2 sec. (b) 𝑠 from 0 to 2 sec.
Solution:
x y
ux = 2 uy = 3
ax = 4 ay = 2
t=2 t=2
(a) 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
vx = 2 + 4 × 2 = 10 vy = 3 + 2 × 2 = 7
𝑣 = 10𝑖̂ + 7𝑗̂
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢𝑦 +𝑣𝑦
(b) 𝑠𝑥 = ( 𝑥 2 𝑥 ) 𝑡 𝑠𝑦 = ( 2 ) 𝑡
2+10 3+7
𝑠𝑥 = ( 2 ) 2 = 12 𝑠𝑦 = ( 2 ) 2 = 10
𝑠 = 12𝑖̂ + 10𝑗̂

Illustration 79:
Position vector of a particle varying with time is given as, 𝑟 = 6𝑡𝑖̂ + (8𝑡 − 4𝑡 2 )𝑗̂ then find,
(a) 𝑣 (b) 𝑎
(c) Speed of projection (d) 𝑣 when y = 0 after t = 0
Solution:
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂
x = 6t y = 8t – 4t2
vx = 6 vy = 8 – 8t
ax = 0 ay = –8

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(a) 𝑣 = 6𝑖̂ + (8 − 8𝑡)𝑗̂ (b) 𝑎 = −8𝑗̂
(c) |𝑣0 | = |6𝑖̂ + (8 − 8 × 0)𝑗̂| (d) y = 8t – 4t2 = 0
t = 0, 2
(reject) ()
= |6𝑖̂ + 8𝑗̂|
= 10 m/s 𝑣0 = 6𝑖̂ + (8 − 8 × 2)𝑗̂
= 6𝑖̂ − 8𝑗̂

Illustration 80:
A particle has varying acceleration with time along 𝑥-axis as, ax = 6t and along y-axis as, ay = 3t2 then find
velocity vector 𝑣 and position vector 𝑟 of particle, if at t = 0 particle was at rest at origin.
Solution:
x y
ax = 6t ay = 3t2
vx = 3t2 + C1 vy = t3 + C2
at t = 0,
vx = 0  C1 = 0 vy = 0  C2 = 0
So, vx = 3t2 vy = t3
𝑣 = 3𝑡 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑡 3 𝑗̂
𝑡4
x = t3 𝑦= 4

𝑡4
𝑟 = 𝑡 3 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
4

Illustration 81:
A roller coaster goes down along 45° incline with an acceleration of 5.0 ms–2.
(Starts from rest) 45°

(a) How far will the roller coaster travel in 10 seconds horizontally?
5 m/s2
(b) How far will the roller coaster travel in 10 seconds vertically?
Solution:
The motion of the roller coaster can be considered as a 1D motion along the direction of acceleration.
Taking the direction of acceleration as r-direction.
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
In r-direction,
1
𝑟 = 𝑟0 + 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1
= 0 + 0 × 𝑡 + 2 (5)(10)2
= 250 m
Taking right direction as positive x axis and downwards as positive y axis,

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Displacement along y-direction
𝛥𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 +x
= 250 sin 45° 45°
250
= 𝑚
√2 r = 250 m
Displacement along x-direction
𝛥𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
= 250 cos 45° +y
250
= 𝑚
√2

Illustration 82:
The position of a particle at time, t = 0 is P (–1, 2, –1). It starts moving with an initial velocity
⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ 𝑚𝑠 −1 and with a uniform acceleration 𝑎 = (−4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂) 𝑚𝑠 −2 . Find the position and the
𝑢
magnitude of displacement after 4 seconds.
Solution:
𝑢𝑥 = 3𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑢𝑦 = 4𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎𝑥 = −4𝑚𝑠 −2 𝑎𝑦 = 3𝑚𝑠 −2
Initial position vector of the particle = −𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂
Final position of particle after 4 seconds,
1
𝛥𝑠 = 𝑢⃗ 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1
𝑠𝑓 = 𝑠𝑖 + 𝑢⃗ 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
= (−𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ ) + [(3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂) × 4] + [ (−4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂) × 42 ]
2
= −21𝑖̂ + 42𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂
Displacement = 𝑠𝑓 − 𝑠𝑖 = −20𝑖̂ + 40𝑗̂
Displacement magnitude= √(−20)2 + 402 = 20√5𝑚

PROJECTILE MOTION
Basic concept
Projectile:
Any object that is given an initial velocity obliquely, and that subsequently follows a path determined by
the net constant force, (In this chapter constant force is gravitational force) acting on it is called a projectile.
Examples of projectile motion :
• A cricket ball hit by the batsman for a six.
• A bullet fired from a gun.
• A packet dropped from a plane; but the motion of the aeroplane itself is not projectile motion because
there are forces other than gravity acting on it due to the thrust of its engine.

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Assumptions of Projectile Motion:
• We shall consider only trajectories that are of sufficiently short range so that the gravitational force
can be considered constant in both magnitude and direction.
• All effects of air resistance will be ignored.
• As range is very short compared to the radius of the earth, the part of the earth can be considered to
be flat.

Projectile Motion:
• The motion of projectile is known as projectile motion.
• It is an example of two-dimensional motion with constant acceleration.
• Projectile motion is considered as combination of two simultaneous motions in mutually
perpendicular directions which are completely independent from each other i.e. horizontal motion
and vertical motion.

u
u sin 

ax = 0
H
u cos 
u sin 

ay = –g
= +
 Horizontal
O x
u cos  motion
R Vertical motion

Parabolic path = vertical motion + horizontal motion.

Projectile Thrown at an Angle with Horizontal

• Consider a projectile thrown with a velocity u y
u sin–gt
making an angle  with the horizontal. 𝑣 = √(𝑢 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)2

• Initial velocity u is resolved in components in P(x,y) 

a coordinate system in which horizontal u u cos
direction is taken as x-axis, vertical direction
H
as y-axis and point of projection as origin. u sin

ux = u cos  ; uy = u sin 
 x
• Again this projectile motion can be u cos
considered as the combination of horizontal R
and vertical motion. Therefore,
Horizontal direction Vertical direction
(a) Initial velocity ux = u cos  Initial velocity uy = u sin 
(b) Acceleration ax = 0 Acceleration ay = –g
(c) Velocity after time t, vx = u cos  Velocity after time t, vy = u sin  – gt

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Resultant velocity:
⃗ 𝑅 = (𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑖̂ + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑉
⃗ 𝑅 | = √𝑢2 cos2 𝜃 + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)2
|𝑉
𝑢 sin 𝜃−𝑔𝑡
and tan  =
𝑢 cos 𝜃
Where  is angle that velocity vector makes with horizontal. Also known as direction or angle of motion.

Vectorial treatment (Optional):

Lets say a particle is projected at an angle  from horizontal with a velocity. Now if we take point of
projection as origin and take vertically upward as positive y-axis and horizontal direction as x-axis.
𝑢
⃗ = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂
𝑎 = −𝑔𝑗̂
Now since acceleration is uniform y
Velocity after time t
⃗ =𝑢
𝑉 ⃗ + 𝑎𝑡 u
 ⃗ = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ + (−𝑔𝑗̂)𝑡
𝑉 
x
 ⃗ = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑉 (0,0)
Displacement after time t
1
𝑠=𝑢 ⃗ 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1
 𝑆 = (𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂)𝑡 + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂)𝑡 + 2 (−𝑔𝑗̂)𝑡 2
1
 𝑆 = (𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑡)𝑖̂ + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 )𝑗̂
2

Time of Flight
The displacement along vertical direction is zero for the complete flight.
Hence, along vertical direction net displacement = 0.
1 2𝑢 sin 𝜃
 (u sin ) T – gT2 = 0  T=
2 𝑔

Horizontal Range
2𝑢 sin 𝜃
R = ux. T  R = u cos .
𝑔
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃
R=
𝑔

Maximum Height
At the highest point of its trajectory, particle moves horizontally, and hence vertical component of velocity
is zero.

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Using 3rd equation of motion i.e.
v2 = u2 + 2as
We have for vertical direction
0 = u2 sin2  – 2gH
𝑢2 sin2 𝜃
 H=
2𝑔

Illustration 83:
A body is thrown with initial velocity 10m/sec. at an angle 37° from horizontal.
Find (i) Time of flight (ii) Maximum height.
(iii) Range (iv) Position vector after t = 1 sec.
Solution:
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 = 10 cos 3 7° = 8𝑚/𝑠
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 = 10 sin 3 7° = 6𝑚/𝑠
2𝑢 sin 𝜃 2×10×3 6
(i) 𝑇 = 𝑔
= 10×5 = 5 = 1.2 sec
2
𝑢2 sin2 𝜃 10 ×3×3 9
(ii) 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑔
= 2×10×5×5 = 5 = 1.8 𝑚

(iii) 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑇 = 8 × 1.2 = 9.6 𝑚

(iv) 𝑥𝑡=1 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 = 8 × 1 = 8 𝑚
1
𝑦𝑡=1 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 = 6 × 1 − 5(1)2 = 1 𝑚
Position of particle at t = 1 sec is (8𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂)𝑚

Illustration 84:
A body is projected with speed 50 m/s at an angle 37° from horizontal then, find T and H and R
(g = 10 m/s2).

50m/s
37°

Solution:
2𝑢 sin 𝜃 2×50×sin 37° 3
T= = = 10 × = 6 sec.
𝑔 10 5
3 2
(𝑢 sin 𝜃)2 (50×sin 37°)2 (50×5) 900
H= = = = = 45𝑚
2𝑔 2×10 2×10 2×10
3 4
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃 2 2 sin 37° cos 37° 2500×2× ×
5 5
R= = (50) = = 240𝑚
𝑔 10 10

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Analysis : t=3
40
x y 10
t=2 t=4 40
ax = 0 ay = –g 40
20 10
+ve 40
ux = 50 cos 37° = 40 uy = 50 sin 37° = 30 t=5
t=1 40
vx = 40 m/s vy = uy + ayt 30 m/s 20
37° 40
x = uxt = 40 t vy = 30 – 10t (0,0) 40 t=6 37°
1 t=0 +ve
𝑦 = 30𝑡 + 2 (−10)𝑡 2 30

𝟏 𝒗𝒚 𝒖𝒚 − 𝒈𝒕
t vx(m/s) vy x 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎𝒕𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂 = =
𝟐 𝒗𝒙 𝒖𝒙
1 30 3
0 40 30 0 30(0) − 10(0)2 = 0 tan 𝛼 = =
2 40 4
20 1
1 40 20 40 25m tan 𝛼 = =
40 2
1
2 40 10 80 40m tan 𝛼 =
4
3 40 0 120 45m tan 𝛼 = 0
1
4 40 –10 160 40m tan 𝛼 = −
4
1
5 40 –20 200 25m tan 𝛼 = −
2
3
6 40 –30 240 0 tan 𝛼 = −
4

Illustration 85:
A particle is given an initial velocity of 25 m/s at an angle 53° with horizontal. Find height of projectile
when horizontal distance is 45 m?
Solution:
x y
ux = 25 cos 53° uy = 25 sin 53° 25m/s +ve
53°
= 15 m/s = 20 m/s
+ve
ax = 0 ay = –10
1
sx = 45 𝑠𝑦 = 20 × 3 – 2 × 10 × 32

𝑆𝑥
= t = 3 sec. sy = 60 – 45
𝑢𝑥

sy = 15 m

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Illustration 86:
A projectile is given an initial velocity of 50 m/s at an angle 37° with verticle. Find horizontal distance (x),
when height = 35 m.
Solution:
x y
ux = 50 cos 53° uy = 50 sin 53° 50m/s
35 35 +ve
= 30 m/s = 40 m/s 53°
ax = 0 ay = –10
1
𝑆𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 = 35
 40𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 = 35
 5𝑡 2 − 40𝑡 + 35 = 0
 𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 + 7 = 0
 𝑡 = 7,1 for Sy = 35
t=1 t=7
sx = 30; sx = 30 × 7
sx = 30 m and sx = 210m

Illustration 87:
A projectile is given an initial velocity of 100 m/s at an angle 53° with horizontal.
(a) Find time and speed when velocity makes 37° above the horizontal.
(b) Find time and speed when velocity makes 37° below the horizontal.
(c) Find time when velocity is perpendicular to initial direction of motion.
Solution:
(a) x y
ux = 100 cos 53° uy = 100 sin 53° 100m/s
37°
= 60 m/s = 80 m/s
53°
ax = 0 ay = –10
vy = 80 – 10t
𝑣𝑦
 tan 𝛼 =
𝑣𝑥
80−10𝑡
tan 3 7° = 60
3 80−10𝑡
=
4 60
18 = 32 – 4t
4t = 14
14 7
𝑡 = 4 = 2 = 3.5 sec.
vy = 80 – 10 × 3.5 = 80 – 35 = 45 m/s
vx = 60 m/s
v or speed = √(45)2 + (60)2 = 75 m/s

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𝑣𝑦
(b) = tan 3 7°
𝑣𝑥
37°
𝑣𝑦 3
= v
60 4 vy
vy = 45 m/s
 – 45 = 80 – 10 × t
t = 12.5 sec.
(c) Solution is same as (b) part.

53°
37°

General Result
• For maximum range  = 45°
𝑢2 𝑢2 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
Rmax = , Hmax =  Hmax =
𝑔 2𝑔 2
• We get the same range for two angle of projections  and (90° – ) but in both cases, maximum heights
attained by the particles are different.
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃
This is because, R = and sin 2 (90° – ) = sin (180° – 2) = sin 2
𝑔
• f R = H
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃 𝑢2 sin2 𝜃
i.e., =  tan  = 4
𝑔 2𝑔
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃 2𝑢 sin 𝜃.𝑢 cos 𝜃 2𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
• Range can also be expressed as R = = =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

Illustration 88:
A body is projected with a speed of 30 ms–1 at an angle of 30° with the vertical. Find the maximum height,
time of flight and the horizontal range of the motion. [Take g = 10 m/s2]
Solution:
Here u = 30 ms–1, Angle of projection,  = 90° – 30° = 60°
𝑢2 sin2 𝜃 302 sin2 60 º 900 3 135
Maximum height, H = = = × = m
2𝑔 2×10 20 4 4
2𝑢 sin 𝜃 2×30×sin 600
Time of flight, T = = = 3√3 sec.
𝑔 10
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃 30×30×2 sin 60°cos60°
Horizontal range = R = = = 45√3𝑚
𝑔 10

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Illustration 89:
A projectile is thrown with a speed of 100 m/s making an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Find the
minimum time after which its inclination with the horizontal is 45° ?
Solution:
ux = 100 × cos 60° = 50
uy = 100 × sin 60° = 50√3
vy = uy + ay t = 50√3– gt and vx = ux = 50
When angle is 45°,
𝑣𝑦
tan 45° =  vy = vx
𝑣𝑥
 50√3 – gt = 50  50(√3 − 1) = gt  t = 5(√3 − 1) s

Illustration 90:
A large number of bullets are fired in all directions with the same speed v. What is the maximum area on
the ground on which these bullets will spread ?
Solution:
Maximum distance up to which a bullet can be fired is its maximum range, therefore
𝑣2
Rmax =
𝑔
𝜋𝑣 4
Maximum area = (Rmax)2 =
𝑔2

Illustration 91:
The velocity of projection of a projectile is given by: 𝑢
⃗ = 5𝑖̂ + 10𝑗̂ . Find
(a) Time of flight, (b) Maximum height, (c) Range
Solution:
We have ux = 5 uy = 10
2𝑢 sin 𝜃 2𝑢𝑦 2×10
(a) Time of flight = = = = 2s
𝑔 𝑔 10
𝑢2 sin2 𝜃 𝑢𝑦 2 10×10
(b) Maximum height = = = = 5m
2𝑔 2𝑔 2×10
2𝑢 sin 𝜃.𝑢 cos 𝜃 2𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 2×10×5
(c) Range = = = = 10m
𝑔 𝑔 10

Illustration 92:
A particle is projected at an angle of 30° w.r.t. horizontal with speed 20 m/s :
(i) Find the position vector of the particle after 1s.
(ii) Find the angle between velocity vector and position vector at t = 1s.

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Solution:
√3
(i) x = u cos  t = 20 × × t = 10√3m
2
1 1
y = u sin t – × 10 × t2 = 20 × × (1) – 5 (1)2 = 5m
2 2
2
Position vector, 𝑟 = 10√3 𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂, |𝑟| = √(10√3) + 52

(ii) vx = 10√3𝑖̂
vy = uy + ayt = 10 – g t = 0
 𝑣 = 10√3𝑖̂, |𝑣 | = 10√3
𝑣 ⋅ 𝑟 = (10√3𝑖̂) ⋅ (10√3𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂) = 300
𝑣 . 𝑟= |𝑣 | |𝑟| cos 
⃗ ⋅𝑟
𝑣 300
 cos  = =
⃗ ||𝑟|
|𝑣 10√3√325

3
  = cos−1 (2√13)

Equation of Trajectory
The path followed by a particle (here projectile) during its motion is called its Trajectory. Equation of
trajectory is the relation between instantaneous coordinates (Here x and y coordinate) of the particle.
If we consider the horizontal direction,
x = ux.t
x = u cos . t ...(1)
For vertical direction :
y = uy. t – 1/2 gt2
= u sin . t – 1/2 gt2 ...(2)
Eliminating 't' from equation (1) and (2)
𝑥 1 𝑥 2 𝑔𝑥 2
y = u sin . − g( )  y = x tan  –
𝑢 cos 𝜃 2 𝑢 cos 𝜃 2𝑢2 cos2 𝜃
This is an equation of parabola called as trajectory equation of projectile motion.

Other forms of trajectory equation:

𝑔𝑥 2 (1+tan2 𝜃) 𝑔𝑥2
 y = x tan  – (∵ 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − )
2𝑢2 2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
𝑔𝑥 𝑔𝑥
and y = x tan  [1 – ]  y = x tan  [1 − ]
2𝑢2 cos2 𝜃 tan 𝜃 2𝑢2 sin 𝜃 cos θ
𝑥
 y = x tan  [1 − 𝑅]

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Illustration 93:
Find the value of  in the diagram given below so that the projectile can hit the target.

v = 20 m/s h = 10 m


x = 20 m
Solution:
𝑔𝑥 2 (1 + tan2 𝜃) 5×(20)2
y = x tan  –  10 = 20 tan  – (1 + tan2 )
2𝑢2 (20)2
 2 = 4 tan  – (1 + tan2)  tan2  – 4 tan  + 3 = 0
 (tan  – 3) (tan  – 1) = 0  tan  = 3, 1   = 45°, tan–1(3)

Illustration 94: P
A ball is thrown from ground level so as to just clear a wall 4 m
high at a distance of 4 m and falls at a distance of 14 m from the 4m
wall. Find the magnitude and direction of initial velocity of the
ball. Figure is given below (g = 9.8 m/s2). 4m 14m
Solution:
The ball passes through the point P(4, 4). Also, range = 4 + 14 = 18 m.
𝑥
The trajectory of the ball is, 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 (1 − 𝑅)
Now x = 4m, y = 4m and R = 18 m
4 7 9 9
 4 = 4 tan [1 − ] = 4 tan ( )  tan =   = tan–1
18 9 7 7
2
2𝑢 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 2 9 7
And R =  18 = × u2 × ×  u = √182m/s
𝑔 9.8 √130 √130

Illustration 95:
Derive the expression for range of projectile using equation of trajectory.
Solution:
𝑔𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 −
2𝑢2 cos2 𝜃
𝑔𝑥2
0 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − 2 2 (y = 0)
2𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑔𝑥 sin 𝜃
2 2 =
2𝑢 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑔𝑥
= sin 𝜃
2𝑢2 cos 𝜃
gx = u2 2 sin  cos 
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃
𝑥=
𝑔

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Illustration 96:
𝑥2
A ground to ground projectile has equation of trajectory, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 40. Find angle of projection and speed of
projection.
Solution:
𝑔𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 −
2𝑢2 cos2 𝜃
By comparing
tan  = 1;  = 45°
𝑔 1
2 2 =
2𝑢 cos 𝜃 40
 u = 20 m/s
𝑔𝑥2 +𝑣𝑒
(𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − ) is valid when we take starting point as origin and → ↑ +𝑣𝑒
2𝑢2 cos2 𝜃

Illustration 97:
A projectile is projected horizontally with initial speed of 20 m/s from a height 45 m from ground. Find
range of this horizontal projectile.
Solution:
10𝑥 2
–45 = x tan 0° – y
2×20×20×cos2 0°
20m/s
𝑥2 x
–45 = 0 –
80
x2 = 45 × 80 45m

x = √45 × 80 = √3600 = 60𝑚

Projectile Thrown Parallel to the Horizontal from Some Height

Consider a projectile thrown from point O at some height h from the ground O u
with a velocity u. Now we shall study the characteristics of projectile motion
by resolving the motion along horizontal and vertical directions.
h
Horizontal direction Vertical direction
 vx
(i) Initial velocity ux = u Initial velocity uy = 0 vy v
(ii) Acceleration ax = 0 Acceleration ay = g (downward)

Time of Flight:
This is equal to the time taken by the projectile to return to ground.
From equation of motion
1
S = ut + at2, along vertical direction, we get
2
1 1 2ℎ
– h = uyt + (–g) t2  h = gt2  t =√
2 2 𝑔

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Horizontal Range
Distance covered by the projectile along the horizontal direction between the point of projection to the
point on the ground.
R = ux.t

2ℎ
 R = u√
𝑔

Velocity at a general point P (x, y)

v =√𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2

Here horizontal velocity of the projectile after time t

vx = u
Velocity of projectile in vertical direction after time t
vy = 0 + (–g)t = –gt = gt (downward)
 v =√𝑢2 + 𝑔2 𝑡 2 and tan  = vy/vx

Velocity with Which the Projectile Hits the Ground

vx = u
vy2 = 02 – 2g(–h)
vy = √2𝑔ℎ

v = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2

 v = √𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ

Trajectory Equation
The path traced by projectile is called the trajectory.
After time t,
x = ut ...(1)
1
y = − 2 gt2 ...(2)

From equation (1)

t = x/u
Put the value of t in equation (2)
2
1 𝑥
y = − g. 2
2 𝑢
This is trajectory equation of the particle projected horizontally from some height.

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Illustrations based on horizontal projection from some height
Illustration 98:
A projectile is fired horizontally with a speed of 98 ms–1 from the top of a hill 490 m high. Find
(i) the time taken to reach the ground
(ii) the distance of the target from the hill and
(iii) the velocity with which the projectile hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m/s2)
Solution:
(i) The projectile is fired from the top O of a hill
u = 98 m/s
with speed u = 98 ms–1 along the horizontal as O x
shown as OX. It reaches the target P at vertical
depth OA, in the coordinate system as shown, y=490m
OA = y = 490 m x P
A x vx
1 
As, y = gt 2
Ground
2 y
1 v
vy
 490 = × 9.8 t 2
2
or t = √100 = 10 s.
(ii) Distance of the target from the hill is given by, AP = x = Horizontal velocity × time = 98 × 10 = 980 m.
(iii) The horizontal and vertical components of velocity v of the projectile at point P are
vx = u = 98 ms–1
vy = uy + gt = 0 + 9.8 × 10 = 98 ms–1

v = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = √982 + 982 = 98√2ms–1

Now if the resultant velocity v makes an angle  with the horizontal, then
𝑣𝑦 98
tan  = = =1   = 45°
𝑣𝑥 98

Illustration 99:
A motorcycle stunt rider rides off the edge of a cliff. Just at the edge his velocity is horizontal, with
magnitude 9.0 m/s. Find the motorcycle's position, distance from the edge of the cliff and velocity after 0.5 s.
Solution:
At t = 0.50 s, the x and y-coordinates are, x = v0t = (9.0 m/s) (0.50 s) = 4.5 m
1 1 5
y = – gt2 = – (10 m/s2) (0.50 s)2 = – m
2 2 4
The negative value of y shows that this time the motorcycle is below its starting point.
y

v0

y
vx = v0
x

vy = –gt
𝑣

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The motorcycle's distance from the origin at this time,

9 2 5 2 √349
r = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √( ) + ( ) = m.
2 4 4
The components of velocity at this time are vx = v0 = 9.0 m/s
vy = – gt = (–10 m/s2) (0.50 s) = –5 m/s.
The speed (magnitude of the velocity) at this time is

v =√𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = √(9.0𝑚/𝑠)2 + (−5𝑚/𝑠)2 = √106m/s

Illustration 100:
An object is thrown between two tall buildings 180 m from each other. The object is thrown horizontally
from a window 55 m above ground from one building which passes through a window 10.9 m above ground
in the other building. Find out the speed of projection. (Use g = 9.8 m/s2)
Solution:

2ℎ 2×44.1
t = √ 𝑔 = √ 9.8
44.1m
t = 3 sec. 55m
10.9m
R = uT
180 180m
= u ; u = 60 m/s
3

Projection from a Tower

Case (i): Horizontal projection
ux = u ; uy = 0 ; ay = − g
Case (ii): Projection at an angle  above horizontal u
uy=u sin
ux = u cos  ; uy = u sin  ; ay = − g A  ax=0
ay=–g
ux=ucos
Equation of motion between A and B (in Y direction)
Sy = –h, uy = u sin , ay = – g, t = T h

1 1
Sy = uyt + ayt2  – h = u sin t – gt2
2 2 R B
Solving this equation, we will get time of flight, T.
And range, R = ux T = u cos T
Also, vy2 = uy2 + 2aySy = u2 sin2  + 2gh ; vx = u cos 

vB = √𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑥2  vB = √𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ

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Case (iii): Projection at an angle  below horizontal
u cos 
ux = u cos  ; uy = − u sin  ; ay = − g

1 u
Sy = uyt + ayt2 u sin  ay = –g
2 ax = 0
Sy = – h, uy = – u sin , t = T, ay = – g h
1 1
 – h = – u sin  T – gT2  h = u sin  T + gT2
2 2
Solving this equation, we will get time of flight, T. R
And range, R = ux T = u cos  T
vx = u cos 
vy2 = uy2 + 2aySy = u2 sin2 + 2(–g) (–h)
vy2 = u2 sin2 + 2gh

vB =√𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 = √𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ

Illustration 101:
A ball is thrown from the top of a tower with an initial velocity of 10m/s at an angle 37° above the
horizontal, hits the ground at a distance 16m from the base of tower. Calculate height of tower.
[g = 10 m/s2]
10 m/s
Solution:
𝑆𝑥 = 10 cos 3 7° × 𝑡 = 16 37°
 8𝑡 = 16 ⇒ 𝑡 = 2 sec
1
−ℎ = 10 sin 3 7° × 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 h

 ℎ = −6 × 2 + 5 × 22 = 8𝑚

16 m
Illustration 102:
From the top of a 11 m high tower a stone is 10 m/s
projected with speed 10 m/s, at an angle of 37° as 37° h
y
shown in figure. Find:
x
(a) Speed after 2s.
(b) Time of flight. 11 m
(c) Horizontal range.
(d) The maximum height attained by the particle.
(e) Speed just before striking the ground.
Solution:
(a) Initial velocity in horizontal direction = 10 cos 37 = 8 m/s
Initial velocity in vertical direction = 10 sin 37° = 6 m/s
Speed after 2 seconds
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ = 8𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡) 𝑗̂ = 8𝑖̂ + (6 – 10 × 2)𝑗̂ = 8𝑖̂ – 14𝑗̂
|𝑣 | = 𝑣 = √82 + 142 = 2√65 = 𝑚/𝑠

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1 1
(b) Sy = uy t + ay t2  – 11 = 6 × t + × (–10) t2
2 2
11
5t2 – 6t – 11 = 0  (t + 1) (5t – 11) = 0  t= sec.
5
11 88
(c) Range = 8 × = m
5 5
2
𝑢𝑦 62
(d) Maximum height above the level of projection, h = = = 1.8 m
2𝑔 2×10
 Maximum height above ground = 11 + 1.8 = 12.8 m
(e) v = √𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ = √100 + 2 × 10 × 11
 𝑣 = 8√5𝑚/𝑠

Illustration 103:
y
From the top of a 11 m high tower a stone is projected with 37°
10 m/s
speed 10 m/s, at an angle of 37° as shown in figure. Find x
(a) Time of flight.
11 m
(b) Horizontal range.
(c) Speed just before striking the ground.
Solution:
ux = 10 cos 37° = 8 m/s, uy = – 10 sin 37° = – 6 m/s
1 1
(a) Sy = uy t + ay t2  – 11 = – 6 × t + × (–10) t2  5t2 + 6t – 11 = 0
2 2
 (t – 1) (5t + 11) = 0  t = 1 sec
(b) Range = 8 × 1 = 8 m
(c) v = √𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ = √100 + 2 × 10 × 11  v = √320 𝑚/𝑠 = 8√5 m/s

Projection on an Inclined Plane

Case (i) : Particle is projected up the incline
Here  is angle of projection w.r.t. the inclined plane. x
y
x and y axis are taken along and perpendicular to the
u
incline as shown in the diagram.
In this case: g cos
g

ax = – g sin  

ux = u cos  O

ay = – g cos 
uy = u sin 

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Time of flight (T):
When the particle strikes the inclined plane, y becomes zero.
1
y = uyt + ay𝑇 2
2
1
 0 = u sin T – g cos 𝑇 2
2
2𝑢 sin 𝛼 2𝑢⊥
 T= =
𝑔 cos 𝛽 𝑔⊥
Where u⊥ and g⊥ are component of u and g perpendicular to the incline.

Maximum height (H):

When half of the time is elapsed, y coordinate is equal to maximum distance from the inclined plane of the
projectile.
𝑢 sin 𝛼 1 𝑢 sin 𝛼 2
H = u sin ( ) − 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 ( )
𝑔 cos 𝛽 2 𝑔 cos 𝛽
𝑢2 sin2 𝛼 𝑢2 ⊥
 H= =
2𝑔 cos 𝛽 2𝑔⊥

Range along the inclined plane (R):

When the particle strikes the inclined plane x coordinate is equal to range of the particle.
1
x = uxt + ax t2
2
2𝑢 sin 𝛼 1 2𝑢 sin 𝛼 2
 R = u cos  ( 𝑔 cos 𝛽 ) – 2 𝑔sin𝛽 ( 𝑔 cos 𝛽 )

2𝑢2 sin 𝛼 cos(𝛼+𝛽)

 R=
𝑔 cos2 𝛽
y
Case (ii) : Particle is projected down the incline
u O
In this case :

ax = g sin  ; ux = u cos 
ay = −g cos 
g g cos
uy = u sin 

Time of flight (T) : x
When the particle strikes the inclined plane y
coordinate becomes zero.
1
y = uyt + ay𝑇 2
2
1
 0 = u sin T – g cos 𝑇 2
2
2𝑢 sin 𝛼 2𝑢⊥
 T= =
𝑔 cos 𝛽 𝑔⊥

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Maximum height (H) :
When half of the time is elapsed, y coordinate is equal to maximum height of the projectile.
𝑢 sin 𝛼 1 𝑢 sin 𝛼 2
H = u sin (𝑔 cos 𝛽) – 2 𝑔 cos 𝛽 (𝑔 cos 𝛽)

𝑢2 sin2 𝛼 𝑢2 ⊥
 H= =
2𝑔 cos 𝛽 2𝑔⊥

Range along the inclined plane (R):

When the particle strikes the inclined plane, x coordinate is equal to range of the particle.
1
x = uxt + ax t2
2
2𝑢 sin 𝛼 1 2𝑢 sin 𝛼 2
 R = u cos  ( 𝑔 cos 𝛽 ) + 2 𝑔 sin 𝛽 ( 𝑔 cos 𝛽 )

2𝑢2 sin 𝛼 cos(𝛼−𝛽)

 R=
𝑔 cos2 𝛽

Standard results for projectile motion on an inclined plane:

Up the Incline Down the Incline
2𝑢 sin 𝛼 cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) 2𝑢2 sin 𝛼 cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)
2
Range
𝑔 cos2 𝛽 𝑔 cos2 𝛽
2𝑢 sin 𝛼 2𝑢 sin 𝛼
Time of flight
𝑔 cos 𝛽 𝑔 cos 𝛽
𝜋 𝛽 𝜋 𝛽
Angle of projection for maximum range − +
4 2 4 2
𝑢2 𝑢2
Maximum Range
𝑔(1 + sin 𝛽) 𝑔(1 − sin 𝛽)
1 𝜋
Here,  is the angle of projection with the incline and  is the angle of incline. [2 (2 ± 𝛽)]

Note:
For a given speed, the direction which gives the maximum range of the projectile on an incline, bisects the
angle between the incline and the vertical, for upward or downward projection.

Illustration 104:
A bullet is fired from the bottom of the inclined plane at angle  = 37° with the inclined plane. The angle of
incline is 30° with the horizontal. Find
(i) The position of the maximum height of the bullet from the inclined plane.
(ii) Time of flight
(iii) Horizontal range along the incline.
(iv) For what value of  will range be maximum.
(v) Maximum range.

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Solution:
(i) Taking axis system as shown in figure x
At highest point vy = 0
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2ayy y 50m/s
0 = (30)2 – 2g cos 30° y
37°
y = 30√3 m (maximum height) 30°
(ii) Again, for x coordinate, vy = uy + ayt O
0 = 30 – g cos 30° × t  t = 2√3,
1 1 2
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 = 40 × 2√3 − × 5(2√3) = (80√3 – 30)𝑚
2 2
Time of flight, T = 2 × 2√3 sec = 4√3 sec
1
(iii) x = uxt + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡2
2
1 2
x = 40× 4√3 – 𝑔 sin 30° × (4√3)
2
Range, R = 40 (4√3– 3) m
𝜋 30°
(iv) − = 45° − 15° = 30°
4 2
𝑢2 50×50 2500 500
(v) = 1 = = 𝑚
𝑔(1+sin 𝛽) 10(1+ ) 15 3
2

Illustration 105:
A particle is projected horizontally with a speed u from the top of a plane inclined at an angle  with the
horizontal. How far from the point of projection will the particle strike the plane?
Solution:
Take X, Y-axis as shown in figure. Suppose that the particle strikes u
the plane at a point P with coordinates (x, y). Consider the motion A X
between A and P. 
Incline plane
Suppose distance between A and P is S y S
Then position of P is,
x = S cos  P
x

y = – S sin  Y
Using equation of trajectory (For ordinary projectile motion)
𝑔𝑥 2
y = x tan  – 2
2𝑢 cos2 𝜃
Here, y = – S sin 
x = S cos 
 = angle of projection with horizontal = 0°
𝑔(𝑆 cos 𝜃)2 2𝑢2 sin 𝜃
– S sin  = S cos  (0) – ; S =
2𝑢2 𝑔 cos2 𝜃
Alter:
2𝑢2 sin 𝛼 cos(𝛼−𝛽) 2𝑢2 sin 𝜃
R= ; Here  =  =   R =
𝑔 cos2 𝛽 𝑔 cos2 𝜃

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Illustration 106:
A projectile is thrown at an angle  with an inclined plane of inclination  as shown in figure. Find the
relation between  and  if :
(a) Projectile strikes the inclined plane perpendicularly, to the inclined plane
(b) Projectile strikes the inclined plane horizontally to the ground
Solution:
(a) If projectile strikes perpendicularly.
vx = 0 when projectile strikes
vx = ux + axt u B

𝑢 cos 𝜃
0 = u cos  – g sin T  T=
𝑔 sin 𝛽  
A
2𝑢 sin 𝜃
We also know that T =
𝑔 cos 𝛽
𝑢 cos θ 2𝑢 sin 𝜃
 =  2 tan  = cot 
𝑔 sin 𝛽 𝑔 cos 𝛽
(b) If projectile strikes horizontally, then at the time of striking the projectile will be at the maximum
height from the ground.
Therefore, time taken to move from A to B, tAB = 1/2 time of flight over horizontal plane
2𝑢 sin(𝜃+𝛽)
=
2×𝑔
2𝑢 sin 𝜃
Also, tAB = time of flight over incline =
𝑔 cos 𝛽
Equating for tAB,
B
ucos (+ )
u

 Hmax

(+) 
A
R/2

2𝑢 sin 𝜃 2𝑢 sin(𝜃+𝛽)
=
𝑔 cos 𝛽 2𝑔
 2 sin  = sin ( + ) cos .

Illustration 107:
A projectile is projected with an initial velocity v perpendicular to a plane which is inclined at an angle 
with horizontal. Find time of flight and range on inclined plane?

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Solution:
x y
y
ux = 0 uy = v
v
ax = g sin  ay = –g cos 
sy = 0 g sin

1
0 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 

𝑔 cos 𝜃𝑡2
0 = 𝑣𝑡 + (− 2
) x

cosθ 𝑡
𝑔 =𝑣
2
2𝑣
∴ 𝑇=
𝑔 cos 𝜃

1 2𝑣 2
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑔 sin 𝜃 ( )
2 𝑔 cos 𝜃

Illustration 108:
A particle is thrown horizontally with a speed of 15 m/s. It strikes an inclined plane perpendicularly as
shown in figure. Find the time of flight of the particle.

15m/s

H
53°

53°

37°

Solution:
𝑣𝑦
tan 53° = 𝑣 y
𝑥
15m/s
4 𝑣𝑦
=
3 15
37°
vy = 20 m/s x
∵ vy = ayt (uy = 0)
20 = 10 × T
 T = 2 sec.

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Illustration 109:
Two projectiles are thrown with different speeds and at different angles so as to cover the same maximum
height. Find out the sum of the times taken by each to reach the highest point, if time of flight is T.
Solution:
H1 = H2 (given)
𝑢12 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 𝑢22 sin2 𝜃2
=
2𝑔 2𝑔
2
u12 sin2 1 = u22 sin2 2  u1 sin 1 = u2 sin 2 1
2u sin𝜃
∵ Time of flight (𝑇) =
𝑔
2u1 sin𝜃1 2u2 sin𝜃2
 T1 = , and T2 =  T1 = T2 = T
𝑔 𝑔
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇 𝑇
 + = + =𝑇
2 2 2 2

Illustration 110:
A particle is projected with speed 10 m/s at an angle 60° with horizontal. Find:
(a) Time of flight (b) Range (c) Maximum height
(d) Velocity of particle after one second. (e) Velocity when height of the particle is 1 m
15
Ans. (a) √3 sec. (b) 5√3𝑚 (c) 𝑚 (d) 10√2 − √3 𝑚/𝑠 (e) 𝑣 = 5𝑖̂ ± √55𝑗̂
4
Solution:
2𝑢 sin 𝜃 2×5√3
(a) T = = = √3 sec.
𝑔 10
5√3𝑚/𝑠
𝑢2 sin 2𝜃 10×10×2×sin 60° cos 60° 10 m/s
(b) Range = =
𝑔 10
60°
√3 1
= 20 × × = 5√3𝑚. 5 m/s
2 2
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 10×10×3 15
(c) Maximum height H = = = 𝑚
2𝑔 2×10×4 4
(d) Velocity at any time 't'
∵ 𝑣 = vx𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ (∵ vx = ux = 5, and vy = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = 5√3 – 10 × 1)

 𝑣 = 5𝑖̂ + (5√3– 10) 𝑗̂  v = 10(√2 − √3)m/s

(e) Velocity at any height 'h' is 𝑣 = vx𝑖̂ + vy𝑗̂ ; vx = ux = 5

2
vy2 = u2y – 2gh = (5√3) – 2 × 10 × 1
vy =√55  𝑣 = 5𝑖̂ ±√55𝑗̂

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Illustration 111:
A stone is thrown with a velocity v at an angle  with horizontal. Find its speed when it makes an angle 
with the horizontal.
Solution: v'sin 
v'
v cos  = v' cos  
v sin 
v v' cos 
𝑣 cos 𝜃
v' =
cos 𝛽

v cos 

Illustration 112:
Two paper screens A and B are separated by a distance of 100 m. A bullet pierces A and then B. The hole in
B is 10 cm below the hole in A. If the bullet is travelling horizontally at the time of hitting the screen A,
calculate the velocity of the bullet when it hits the screen A. Neglect the resistance of paper and air.
(Use, g = 9.8 m/s2)
Solution:
Equation of motion in x direction 100 = v × t
100
t= ...(1) v
𝑣
In y direction 10cm
A B
0.1 = 1/2 × 9.8 × t2 ...(2)
From equation (1) and (2) 100 m
0.1 = 1/2 × 9.8 × (100/v)2
On solving we get, v = 700 m/s

Illustration 113:
Two stones A and B are projected simultaneously from the top of a 100 m high tower. Stone B is projected
horizontally with speed 10 m/s, and stone A is dropped from the tower. Find out the following (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) Time of flight of the two stone (b) Distance between two stones after 3 sec.
(c) Angle of strike with ground for stone B (d) Horizontal range of stone B
Solution:
(a) To calculate time of flight (for both stone) apply Stone B
equation of motion in y direction Stone A (uy)B = 0, (ux)B = 10 m/s

100 = 1/2 gt2 (uy)A = 0

100 m
𝑡 = 2√5 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
(b) XB/A = 10 × 3 = 30 m
YB/A = 1/2 × g × t2 –1/2 × g × t2 = 0
Distance between two stones after 3 sec.= 30m

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(c) Angle of striking with ground
vy2 = uy2 + 2gh = 0 + 2 × 10 × 100
Vx
vy = 20√5m/s and vx = 10 m/s
𝑣𝑦 Vy
∵ 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂  tan 𝜃 = 𝑣  V
𝑥
20√5
  = tan–1 ( 10 ) = tan–1 (2√5)

(d) Horizontal range of stone 'B'

XB = 10 × (2√5) = 20√5 m

Illustration 114:
Two particles are projected simultaneously with the same speed v in the same vertical plane with angles
of elevation  and 2, where  < 45°. At what time will their velocities be parallel.
Solution:
Velocity of particle projected at angle '' after time t
𝑣1 = (v cos 𝑖̂ + v sin𝑗̂) – (gt𝑗̂)
Velocity of particle projected at angle '2' after time t
𝑣2 = (v cos 2𝑖̂ + v sin 2𝑗̂) – (gt𝑗̂)
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝑣 sin 𝜃−𝑔𝑡
Since velocities are parallel so = ′ ⇒ =
𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑦 𝑣 cos 2𝜃 𝑣 sin 2𝜃−𝑔𝑡
𝜃
𝑣 cos
2
Solving above equation we can get result. ( 3𝜃 )
𝑔 cos
2

Illustration 115:
A ball is projected horizontally from top of an 80 m deep well with velocity 10 m/s. Then particle will fall
on the bottom at a distance of (all the collisions with the wall are elastic and wall is smooth).
10m/s

80m

A B
7m
(A) 5 m from A (B) 5 m from B (C) 2 m from A (D) 2 m from B
Solution:
2𝐻 2×80
Total time taken by the ball to reach at bottom =√ 𝑔 = √ 10 = 4 sec

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Let time taken in one collision is t
Then t × 10 = 7
t = 0.7 sec.
4 5
No. of collisions = =5 (5th collisions from wall B)
0.7 7
Horizontal distance travelled in between 2 successive collisions = 7 m
5
 Horizontal distance travelled in 5/7 part of collisions = × 7=5m
7
Distance from A is 2 m.

Illustration 116:
A projectile is launched from point 'A' with the initial conditions shown in the figure. BC part is circular
with radius 150 m. Determine the 'x' and 'y' co-ordinates of the point of impact.

v0=68m/s C
150m

A 30° B
X
300m

Solution:
Let the projectile strikes the circular path at (x, y) and 'A' to be taken as origin. From the figure co-ordinates
of the centre of the circular path is (300, 150). Then the equation of the circular path is
(x – 300)2 + (y – 150)2 = (150)2 ...(1)
And the equation of the trajectory is
1 𝑔𝑥 2
y = x tan 30° –
2 (68)2 cos2 30°

𝑥 4𝑥 2 𝑔
y= − ...(2)
√3 9248×3
From Equation (1) and (2) we get
x = 373 m ; y = 18.75 m
Y

68 m/s D C
150m
P
(x, y)
A 30° B
X
300m

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Illustration 117:
Ball bearings leave the horizontal through with a velocity of magnitude 'u' and fall through the 70 mm
diameter hole as shown. Calculate the permissible range of 'u' which will enable the balls to enter the hole.
Take the dotted positions to represent the limiting conditions.
20mm
120mm
u

80mm

70mm

Solution:
2ℎ 2×0.08
t = √ 𝑔 = √ 9.8 = 0.13s

(120−25+10)×10−3
umin = = 0.807 m/s
0.13
(120+25−10)×10−3
and umax = = 1.038 m/s.
0.13
Illustration 118: u
Particle A is released from a point P on a smooth inclined plane
P  B
inclined at an angle  with the horizontal. At the same instant A
another particle B is projected with initial velocity u making an angle
 with the horizontal. Both the particles meet again on the inclined
 O
plane. Find the relation between  and .
Solution:
Consider motion of B along the plane
Initial velocity = u cos ( + )
Acceleration = g sin 
1
 OP = u cos ( + ) t + g sin ()t2 ...(i)
2
For motion of particle A along the plane,
Initial velocity = 0
Acceleration = g sin 
1
 OP = g sin  t2 ...(ii)
2
From equation (i) and (ii)
u cos ( + ) t = 0
𝜋
So, either t = 0 or  +  =
2
𝜋
Thus, the condition for the particles to collide again is  +  = .
2

[Link] [ 149 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics

RELATIVE MOTION
Introduction
Motion is a combined property of the object under study as well as the observer. It is always relative; there
is no such thing like absolute motion or absolute rest. Motion is always defined with respect to an observer
or reference frame.

Reference Frame
Reference frame is an axis system from which motion is observed along with a clock attached to the axis,
to measure time. Reference frame can be stationary or moving.
• Suppose there are two persons A and B sitting in a car moving at constant speed. Two stationary
persons C and D observe them from the ground.
D C B A

Here B appears to be moving for C and D, but at rest for A. Similarly, C appears to be at rest for D
but moving backward for A and B.

Relative Motion Analysis

In two dimensional situation, Consider three observers at Rest O, A and B. Position of B from reference
frame of A is 𝑟𝐵𝐴 . We must understand that if A wants to go and meet B he needs to look only at 𝑟𝐵𝐴 and
decide direction of his velocity which will take him to B. For A, origin of reference frame is not O it is A
itself. From our knowledge of vectors we can deduce that
𝑟𝐵 = 𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵𝐴
𝑦
thus, 𝑟𝐵𝐴 = 𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐴 ...(i) 𝑦
𝐵
Position vector of B w.r.t A is defined as 𝑟𝐵𝐴 𝑟𝐵
Differentiating this equation W.R.T. time we get 𝑟𝐵𝐴

𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 ...(ii) 𝐴 𝑋
𝑟𝐴
On further differentiating we get 𝑂 𝑋
𝑎𝐵𝐴 = 𝑎𝐵 − 𝑎𝐴 ...(iii)
Let's see how we use this concept in our daily life.
Suppose that a car A travelling on a straight road at 80 km h–1 passes a car B going in the same direction at
60 kmh–1, (Fig. a). Then, velocity of A relative to B is given by
vA – vB = 80 km h–1 – 60 km h–1
= 20 km h–1 (to the right in fig. b)
We know that if somebody passes us by in same direction we don't find them moving very fast.

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Kinematics
If A and B are travelling in opposite directions, Fig. c, we show this by giving one velocity + sign, say vA, and
the other – sign. Hence, we can write
vA – vB = + 80 km h–1 – (– 60 km h–1)
= (80 + 60) km h–1
= 140 km h–1 (to the right in fig. d)
We know that if somebody passes us by in opposite direction we find them moving really fast.
In effect, in both cases, to find the velocity of A relative to B, we have applied B’s velocity reversed to both
cars. It is then just as if B is at rest and A has two velocities vA and vB, which are subtracted when vA and vB
are in the same direction and added when they are in opposite directions.

World as seen by observer on ground World as seen by B

vB ⎯→ 60 km h–1

car B

at rest

car A

vA = ⎯→ 80 km h–1 20 km h–1 to right

(a) (b)

World as seen by observer on ground World as seen by B

vB = ⎯ 60 km h–1

car B

at rest

car A

vA = ⎯→ 80 km h–1 140 km h–1 to right

(c) (d)

Equations of Motion When Relative Acceleration is Constant

vrel = urel + arel t
1
srel = urel t + arel t2
2
v2rel = u2rel + 2arel srel

[Link] [ 151 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 119:
A particle A is moving with a speed of 10 m/s towards right, particle B is moving at a speed of 10 m/s
towards right and another particle C is moving at speed of 10 m/s towards left. The separation between
A and B is 100 m. Find the time interval between C meeting B and C meeting A.
100m
10m/s 10m/s

A B
10m/s

Solution:
Seperation between 𝐴 and 𝐶 100
𝑡 = 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝 of 𝐴 and 𝐶
= 10− −10 = 5 sec.
( )

Illustration 120:
Two particles P and Q, initially separated by 75 m, are moving towards each other along a straight line as
shown in figure with 𝑎𝑃 = 2 ms–2, 𝑢𝑃 = 15 ms–1, and 𝑎𝑄 = 4 ms–2, 𝑢𝑄 = 25 ms–1. Calculate the time when they
meet.
–2 –2
𝑎𝑃 = 2ms aQ = 4ms
𝑢𝑃 = 15ms–1 𝑢𝑄 = 25ms–1
P Q

75m

Solution:
In ground frame, choosing the origin at P and right as positive

Ground frame
𝑢𝑃 = +15 ms–1 uQ = –25 m–1
𝑎𝑃 = +2 ms–2 aQ = –4 ms–2

–2 –2
aP = 2ms aQ = 4ms
–1 –1
uP = 15ms uQ = 25ms

P Ground frame Q

75m
0 +ve

At convergence,
Position of P = Position of Q
⇒ xP = xQ
1 1
⇒ (𝑥𝑂 + 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ) = (𝑥𝑂 + 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 )
𝑃 𝑄

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Kinematics
1 1
⇒ (0 + 15𝑡 + 2 × 2 × 𝑡 2 ) = ( 75 − 25𝑡 + 2 × −4 × 𝑡 2 )
𝑃 𝑄

⇒ 15t + t2 = 75 – 25t – 2t2

⇒ 3t2 + 40t – 75 = 0
On solving, we get
5
⇒ t =–15 s or t= s
3
5
Neglecting negative value of time, t = s
3

P Frame
Let the frame be P as shown in figure. Here, P acts as the origin and it is at rest. Position, velocity, and
acceleration of Q is a relative quantity with respect to P.
Rest
–2
aQP = 6ms
–1
uQP = 40ms
P frame
P Q

75m
0 +ve

Now,
P frame
uPP = uP – uP = 0 ms–1 uQP = uQ – uP = –25 – 15 = –40 ms–1
aPP = aP – aP = 0 ms–2 aQP = aQ – aP = –4 – 2 = –6 ms–2

Now, P and Q will collide when Q covers a distance of 75 m and hits P, which is at rest in this reference frame.
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
⇒ –75 = –40t – 6t2
2
⇒ 3t2 + 40t –75 = 0
Solve to get,
5
t = s or t = –15 s,
3
Neglecting negative value of time,
5
time (t) = s
3
Note:
(1) All parameters like position, velocity, and acceleration are ‘frame dependent’.

(2) The time duration for an event however is ‘frame independent’ under non-relativistic circumstances.

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 121:
A and B are thrown vertically upward with velocity, 5 m/s and 10 m/s respectively (g = 10 m/s2). Find
separation between them after one second.
Solution:
1
SA = ut – gt2
2
1 5 m/s 10 m/s
= 5t – × 10 × = 5 × 1 – 5 ×
t2 12 = 5–5=0
2
A B
1 1
SB = ut – gt2 = 10 × 1 – × 10 × 12 = 10 – 5 = 5
2 2
 SB – SA = separation = 5m.
Aliter:
𝑎𝐵𝐴 = 𝑎𝐵 − 𝑎𝐴 = (−10) − (−10) = 0 5
Also 𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = 10 − 5 = 5𝑚/𝑠
 𝑠𝐵𝐴 (𝑖𝑛 1 sec ) = 𝑣𝐵𝐴 × 𝑡 = 5 × 1 = 5𝑚 A B

 Distance between A and B after 1 sec = 5 m.

Illustration 122:
A ball is thrown downwards with a speed of 20 m/s from the top of a building 150 m high and
simultaneously another ball is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 30 m/s from the foot of the
building. Find the time after which both the balls will meet. (g = 10 m/s2)
A
20m/s
s1
150m
s2
30m/s
B
Solution:
S1 = 20 t + 5 t2
S2 = 30 t – 5 t2
S1 + S2 = 150m
 150 = 50 t  t = 3 s
Aliter:
Relative acceleration of both is zero since both have same
acceleration in downward direction 20m/s g
𝑎𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 = (−𝑔) − (−𝑔) = 0
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 30 − (−20) = 50m/s
sBA = vBA × t g
30m/s
𝑆𝐵𝐴 150
t= = =3s
𝑣𝐵𝐴 50

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Kinematics
Illustration 123:
A lift is moving down with constant velocity 20 m/s. A person in lift drops a coin from height 5m from floor
of the lift. Find:
(a) time taken by coin to strike the floor. (b) distance travelled by coin in ground frame.
Solution:
(a) uL = 20 m/s uC = 20
aL = 0 aC = 10 m/s2
w.r.t. lift :
20 m/s
uC/L = uC – uL = 20 – 20 = 0
aC/L = aC – aL = 10 – 0 = 10 m/s2 5m
sC/L = 5 m t=?
1
s C/L = 0t + × 10 × t2
2
t2 = 1
t = 1 sec
1
(b) sC = 𝑢𝐶 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑐 𝑡 2
1
sC = 20 × 1 + × 10 × 1
2
sC = 25 m

Illustration 124:
A lift is moving down with velocity 10m/s and have acceleration 2m/s2 downward. A person in lift drops a
coin from height 16m from floor of the lift.
(a) Find time taken by coin to strike the ground.
(b) Distance travelled by coin ?
Solution :
(a) uL = 10 m/s uC = 10 m/s
aL = 2 m/s2 aC = 10 m/s2
2 m/s2
w.r.t. lift : 10 m/s
aC/L = aC – aL = 10 – 2 = 8 16m
uC/L = uC – uL = 10 – 10 = 0
sC/L = 16 m
1
 16 = × 8 × t2
2
t =4
2

t = 2 sec.
1
(b) 𝑠𝐶 = 𝑢𝐶 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑐 𝑡 2
1
𝑠𝐶 = 10 × 2 + × 10 × 4 = 20 + 20 = 40 m
2

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Relative Motion in Two Dimension
y A
𝑟𝐴 = position of A with respect to O 𝑟𝐴𝐵
𝑟𝐵 = position of B with respect to O 𝑟𝐴 B
𝑟𝐴𝐵 = position of A with respect to B 𝑟𝐵
O x
𝑟𝐴𝐵 = 𝑟𝐴 − 𝑟𝐵
(The vector sum 𝑟𝐴 − 𝑟𝐵 can be done by  law of addition or
resolution method)
𝑑(𝑟𝐴𝐵 ) 𝑑(𝑟𝐴 ) 𝑑(𝑟𝐵 )
 = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗ 𝐴𝐵 )
𝑑(𝑣 ⃗ 𝐴)
𝑑(𝑣 ⃗ 𝐵)
𝑑(𝑣
 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 ; = −  𝑎𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Illustration 125:
Object A and B both have speed of 10 m/s. A is moving towards East while B is moving towards North
starting from the same point as shown. Find velocity of A relative to B.
N
10m/s

W E
10m/s

B A S

Solution:
Method 1: 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵  |𝑣𝐴𝐵 | = 10√2

N
𝑣𝐴
10
W E
10 −𝑣𝐵 B 45°
10√2 𝑉𝐴𝐵
45°
S A

Method 2: 𝑣𝐴 = 10𝑖̂, 𝑣𝐵 = 10𝑗̂

𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 10𝑖̂ − 10𝑗̂  |𝑣𝐴𝐵 | = 10√2

Note:
|𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 | = √𝑣𝐴2 + 𝑣𝐵2 − 2𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵 cos 𝜃, where  is angle between 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 .

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Kinematics
Illustration 126: 40m/s
Two particles A and B are projected in air. A is thrown
with a speed of 30 m/sec and B with a speed of 𝑣𝐵
40 m/sec as shown in the figure. What is the separation 30m/s
between them after 1 sec. B 𝑣𝐴
Solution: A
53° 37°
𝑎𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝐴 − 𝑎𝐵 = 𝑔 − 𝑔 = 0
 ⃗⃗⃗
|𝑣𝐴𝐵 | = √302 + 402 = 50
 sAB = vAB t = 50 t = 50 m

Illustration 127:
An old man and a boy are walking towards each other and a bird is flying over them as shown in the figure.

12 m/s 20 m/s
37°
bird
16 m/s
𝑗̂

Boy old person

Tree 𝑖̂
16m/s 2m/s

(a) Find the velocity of tree, bird and old man as seen by boy.
(b) Find the velocity of tree, bird and boy as seen by old man.
(c) Find the velocity of tree, boy and old man as seen by bird.
Solution:
(a) With respect to boy:
vtree = 16 m/s () or –16𝑖̂
vbird = 12 m/s () or 12𝑗̂
vold man = 18 m/s () or –18𝑖̂
(b) With respect to old man:
vboy = 18 m/s (→) or 18𝑖̂
vtree = 2 m/s (→) or 2𝑖̂
vbird = 18 m/s (→) and 12 m/s () or 18𝑖̂ + 12𝑗̂
(c) With respect to Bird:
vtree = 12 m/s () and 16 m/s () or –12𝑗̂ –16𝑖̂
vold man = 18 m/s () and 12 m/s () or –18𝑖̂ –12𝑗̂
vboy = 12 m/s () or –12𝑗̂

[Link] [ 157 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 128:
Two ships are 10 km apart on north-south vertical at an instant. The one farther north is streaming west
at 20 km h–1. The other is streaming north at 20 km h–1, as shown. What is their distance of closest approach?
How long do they take to reach it?

–1
20 kmh
N
10 kmh
W E

–1 S
20 kmh

Solution:
Considering ship B as the frame of reference, ship B is now at
Y
rest and is the origin as shown in the figure. Ship A will appear
Rest
to move as shown in the figure. Given, B
x
𝑣𝐵 = −20𝑖̂ 𝑘𝑚 ℎ−1
O
dsh
𝑣𝐴 = 20𝑗̂ 𝑘𝑚 ℎ−1
 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 20𝑗̂ − (−20𝑖̂) 𝑘𝑚 ℎ−1 10km
−1
 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 20𝑖̂ + 20𝑗̂ 𝑘𝑚 ℎ 20𝑗̂
x

 |𝑣𝐴𝐵 | = √202 + 202 = 20√2 𝑘𝑚 ℎ−1 45°

20 20𝑖̂
tan(𝜃) = 20 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 = 45° A

𝑣𝐵𝐵 = ⃗0 𝑘𝑚 ℎ−1
Now, for distance to be shortest, we drop a perpendicular as shown in figure. From the resulting right
triangle, we have,
𝑑𝑠ℎ
sin(45°) = 10
1
 𝑑𝑠ℎ = 10 × = 5√2 𝑘𝑚
√2

𝑑 5√2 1
Now, Time (𝑡) = ⃗𝑣⃗ 𝑠ℎ = =4 ℎ
| 𝐴𝐵 | 20√2

Illustration 129: 500 m

vA=20 m/s
Two roads intersect at right angles. Car A is situated at P P
O
which is 500m from the intersection O on one of the roads. Car A
Car B is situated at Q which is 400m from the intersection 400 m
on the other road. They start out at the same time and
Q
travel towards the intersection at 20m/s and 15m/s
respectively. What is the minimum distance between Car B
them? How long do they take to reach it? vB=20 m/s

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Solution:
First, we find out the velocity of car A relative to B A 20
As can be seen from (fig.), the magnitude of velocity of B  O
with respect to A
vA = 20 m/s, VB = 15 m/s, OP = 500 m; OQ = 400m
15 C
15 3 4 3 D
tan  = = ; cos  = ; sin  =
20 4 5 5
3 
OC = AC tan  = 500 × = 375 m B
4
BC = OB – OC = 400 – 375 = 25 m P 500m
4  O
BD = BC(cos ) = 25 × = 20 m
5
375m
Shortest distance = 20 m 625m
C
PD = PC + CD = 625 + 15 = 640 D

|𝑣𝐴𝐵 |= 25 m/s
640 Q 
t= = 25.6 sec.
25

Collision of Two Bodies with Help of Relative Motion

Illustration 130: 2m
C
Two towers AB and CD are situated a distance d apart as shown in figure. AB 60°
is 20m high and CD is 30m high from the ground. An object of mass m is
thrown from the top of AB horizontally with a velocity of 10 m/s towards CD. m
A
Simultaneously another object of mass 2m is thrown from the top of CD at an
angle of 60° to the horizontal towards AB with the same magnitude of initial d
velocity as that of the first object. The two objects move in the same vertical B D
plane, collide in mid-air and stick to each other.
Calculate the distance d between the towers.
Solution:
Acceleration of A and C both is 9.8 m/s2 downwards.
5m/s C
60°
5√3 𝑚/𝑠

A 10 m/s

Therefore, relative acceleration between them is zero i.e., the relative motion between them will be straight
line.

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
⃗ 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉
Now assuming A to be at rest, the condition of collision will be that 𝑉 ⃗𝐶 − 𝑉
⃗ 𝐴 relative velocity of C
w.r.t. A should be along CA.
⃗ 𝐴 = 10𝑖̂
𝑉 (VCA)X
⃗ 𝐶 = −5𝑖̂ − 5√3𝑗̂ C
𝑉 
 ⃗ 𝐶𝐴 = −5𝑖̂ − 5√3𝑗̂ − 10𝑖̂
𝑉 VCA 10m X
⃗ 𝐶𝐴 = −15𝑖̂ − 5√3𝑗̂
𝑉 (Rest) A
E Y
d 30m
⃗ 𝐶𝐴 with x-axis, tan 𝜃 = −5 3 = 1
√
Angle made by 𝑉 −15 √3 20m
  = 30°
10 B D
Now, by the geometry of figure tan30 =  d = 10 3 m .
d
Illustration 131:
Two particle A and B are projected simultaneously as shown in figure. If they collide in mid air, find h ?
Solution:
20m/s 20m/s 20m/s
A
(w.r.t. A)
50m/s (100–h) 40m/s 10m/s2 = 0
53° 2
30m/s aB = 10m/s2
aa = 10m/s B
B
100m 20m/s
h =50m/s h
100m

50m 50m
x y
vx = 50 vy = 40
sx = 50 sy = 100 – h
ax = 0 ay = 0
t = 1 sec. t = 1 sec.
 100 – h = 40 × 1  h = 60 m
If two particles are projected in gravitation field then during the time of flight of both particles, trajectory
of one particle w.r.t. to other particle will be a straight line.
Illustration 132:
If velocity of A is (20𝑖̂ + 15𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠 and B is (−30𝑖̂ + 40𝑗̂)𝑚/𝑠. Will they collide? If no, what is minimum
distance between them?
15
25m/s

A 37°
20

40
60m
50m/s
53°
50m 30 B

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Solution:
A
15 d 
35m
20 20
15 y =25m

40 25m/s
60m

50m 50m/s
50m 30 20
=50
15
25 1 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = = =
50 2 50
2
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 35 cos 𝜃 = 35 ×
√5

Relative Motion in River Flow

If a man can swim relative to water with velocity 𝑣𝑚𝑅 and water is flowing relative to ground with velocity
𝑣𝑅 , velocity of man relative to ground 𝑣𝑚 will be given by :
𝑣𝑚𝑅 = 𝑣𝑚 − 𝑣𝑅 or 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑚𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅
If 𝑣𝑅 = 0, then 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑚𝑅 in words, velocity of man in still water = velocity of man w.r.t. river.
River Problem in One Dimension:
Velocity of river is u and velocity of man in still water is v.
Case-1: Man swimming downstream (along the direction of river flow). In this case velocity of river
vR = + u velocity of man w.r.t. river vmR = +v
now, |𝑣𝑚 | = |𝑣𝑚𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅 | = 𝑢 + 𝑣

(u+v)
u

Case-2: Man swimming upstream (opposite to the direction of river flow). In this case velocity of river
𝑣𝑅 = −𝑢 velocity of man w.r.t. river 𝑣𝑚𝑅 = +𝑣
now, |𝑣𝑚 | = |𝑣𝑚𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅 | = (𝑣 − 𝑢)

(u–v)
u

Illustration 133:
A swimmer capable of swimming with velocity ‘v’ relative to water jumps in a flowing river having velocity ‘u’.
The man swims a distance d down stream and returns back to the original position. Find out the time taken
in complete motion.
Solution:
Total time = time of swimming downstream + time of swimming upstream
𝑑 𝑑 2𝑑𝑣
t = tdown + tup = + = 2 2
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢

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Motion of Man Swimming in a River
Consider a man swimming in a river with a velocity of 𝑣𝑀𝑅 relative to river at an angle of  with the river
flow. The velocity of river is 𝑣𝑅 . Let there be two observers I and II, observer I is on ground and observer
II is on a raft floating along with the river and hence moving with the same velocity as that of river. Hence
motion w.r.t. observer II is same as motion w.r.t. river. i.e., the man will appear to swim at an angle  with
the river flow for observer II.
For observer I the velocity of swimmer will be 𝑣𝑀 = 𝑣𝑀𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅 .
Hence the swimmer will appear to move at an angle ’ with the river flow.
x

II
y
Observer II I
Vr
d VMR
VM
x

'

 VR
Observer I
I : Motion of swimmer for observer I II : Motion of swimmer for observer II

River Problem in Two Dimension (Crossing River)

Consider a man swimming in a river with a velocity of 𝑣𝑀𝑅 relative to river at an angle of  with the river
flow. The velocity of river is VR and the width of the river is d
𝑣𝑀 = 𝑣𝑀𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅
 𝑣𝑀 = (vMR cos 𝑖̂ + vMR sin 𝑗̂) + vR𝑖̂ x

 𝑣𝑀 = (vMR cos  + vR)𝑖̂ + vMR sin 𝑗̂

Here vMR sin  is the component of velocity y
of man in the direction perpendicular to d VMR
the river flow. This component of velocity VM
is responsible for the man crossing the
x
river. Hence if the time to cross the river is 
𝑑 𝑑
t, then 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 sin 𝜃. VR
𝑦 𝑀𝑅
Drift
It is defined as the displacement of man in the direction of river flow. (See the figure). It is simply the
displacement along x-axis, during the period the man crosses the river. (vMR cos  + vR) is the component
of velocity of man in the direction of river flow and this component of velocity is responsible for drift along
the river flow. If drift is x then,
Drift = vx × t
𝑑
x = (vMR cos + vR) ×
𝑣𝑀𝑅 sin 𝜃

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Crossing the River in Shortest Time
𝑑
As we know that t = . Clearly t will be minimum when  = 90° i.e. time to cross the river will be
𝑣𝑀𝑅 sin 𝜃
𝑑
minimum if man swims perpendicular to the river flow. Which is equal to .
𝑣𝑀𝑅

Crossing the River in Shortest Path, Minimum Drift

The minimum possible drift is zero. In this case the man swims in the direction perpendicular to the river
flow as seen from the ground. This path is known as shortest path
𝑣𝑅
Here, xmin = 0  (vMR cos  + vR) = 0 or cos = –
𝑣𝑀𝑅
Since cos  is –ve
  > 90°, i.e. for minimum drift the man must swim at some angle  with the perpendicular in
𝑣𝑅
backward direction. Where sin  =
𝑣𝑀𝑅
−𝑣
𝜃 = cos−1 (𝑣 𝑅 )
𝑀𝑅
𝑣
 |𝑣 𝑅 |  1 i.e. vR  vMR
𝑀𝑅
i.e. minimum drift is zero if and only if velocity of man in still water is greater than or equal to the velocity
of river.
Time to cross the river along the shortest path

⃗𝑅
𝑉
⃗ 𝑀𝑅
𝑉 ⃗𝑀
𝑉 𝑑 𝑑
 t= =
 𝑣𝑀𝑅 sin 𝜃 2 −𝑣 2
√𝑣𝑀𝑅 𝑅

Note:
If vR > vMR then it is not possible to have zero drift. In this case the minimum drift (corresponding
to shortest possible path is non-zero and the condition for minimum drift can be proved to be
𝑣 𝑣
cos = –( 𝑣𝑀𝑅 ) or sin  = ( 𝑣𝑀𝑅 ) for minimum but non-zero drift.
𝑅 𝑅

Illustration 134:
A 400 m wide river is flowing at a rate of 2.0 m/s. A boat is sailing with a velocity of 10 m/s with respect to
the water, in a direction perpendicular to the river.
(a) Find the time taken by the boat to reach the opposite bank.
(b) How far from the point directly opposite to the starting point does the boat reach the opposite bank?
(c) In what direction does the boat actually move, with river flow (downstream)?

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Solution:
B x C
𝑑 400𝑚 y
(a) Time taken to cross the river, 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 10𝑚/𝑠 = 40𝑠 
𝑦
d=400m 2m/s
(b) Drift (x) = (vx)(t) = (2m/s) (40s) = 80 m
10 10m/s  x
(c) Actual direction of boat,  = tan–1 ( ) = tan–1 5, A
2
(downstream) with the river flow.

Illustration 135:
A man can swim at the rate of 5 km/h in still water. A 1 km wide river flows at the rate of 3 km/h. The man
wishes to swim across the river directly opposite to the starting point.
(a) Along what direction must the man swim?
(b) What should be his resultant velocity?
(c) How much time will he take to cross the river?
Solution:
(a) The velocity of man with respect to river vmR = 5 km/hr, this is greater than the river flow velocity,
therefore, he can cross the river directly (along the shortest path). The angle of swim must be
𝜋 𝑣 𝑣 3
𝜃 = 2 + sin−1 (𝑣 𝑟 ) = 90° + sin−1 (𝑣 𝑟 ) = 90° + sin−1 (5) = 90° + 37°
𝑚𝑅 𝑚𝑅
= 127° w.r.t. the river flow or 37° w.r.t. perpendicular in backward direction
(b) Resultant velocity will be
2
𝑣𝑚 = √𝑣𝑚𝑅 − 𝑣𝑅2 = √52 − 32 = 4𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Along the direction perpendicular to the river flow.
(c) Time taken to cross the river,
𝑑 1𝑘𝑚 1
𝑡= = = ℎ = 15 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
√𝑣 − 𝑣 2 4𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 4
𝑚𝑅 𝑅

Illustration 136:
A man wishing to cross a river flowing with velocity u jumps at an angle  with the river flow.
(i) Find the net velocity of the man with respect to ground if he can swim with speed v in still water.
(ii) In what direction does the man actually move?
(iii) Find how far from the point directly opposite to the starting point does the man reach the opposite
bank, if the width of the river is d. (i.e. drift).
Solution:
(i) vMR = v, vR = u ; 𝑣𝑀 = 𝑣𝑀𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅 x
B C’
 Velocity of man, C
vM = √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑣𝑢 cos 𝜃
(ii)
𝑣 sin 𝜃
tan 𝜙 = 𝑢+𝑣 cos 𝜃 d u
v
𝑑 ⃗𝑀 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ 𝑀𝑅 + 𝑉
⃗𝑅
(iii) (v sin) t = d  𝑡 = 𝑣 sin 𝜃
 
𝑑 x
x = (u + v cos ) t = (u + v cos ) A
𝑣 sin 𝜃

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Illustration 137:
1
A boat moves relative to water with a velocity v which istimes of the river flow velocity u. At what angle
𝑛
to the stream direction must the boat move to minimize drifting?
Solution:
(In this problem, one thing should be carefully noted that the velocity of boat is less than the river flow
velocity. Hence boat cannot reach the point directly opposite to its starting point. i.e. drift can never be zero)
Suppose boat starts at an angle  from the normal direction up stream as shown.
Component of velocity of boat along the river, vx = u – v sin  and velocity perpendicular to the river,
vy = v cos .
Time taken to cross the river is
𝑑 𝑑 B drift = x C
𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑦
y
𝑑
Drift 𝑥 = (vx)t = (u – v sin )
𝑣 cos 𝜃 d
u
𝑢𝑑 v cos x
= sec  – d tan  v 
𝑣
𝑑𝑥 A u–v sin
The drift 𝑥 is minimum, when = 0,
𝑑𝜃
𝑢𝑑
or ( ) (sec  . tan ) – d sec2  = 0
𝑣
𝑢 𝑣
or sin  = 1 or sin 𝜃 = 𝑢
𝑣
𝑢 1
So, for minimum drift, the boat must move at an angle  = sin–1(𝑣) = sin–1 from normal direction.
𝑛

Illustration 138:
A man wants to reach point B on the opposite bank of a B
river flowing at a speed u as shown in the figure. What 45°
minimum speed relative to water should the man have,
u
so that he can reach point B? In which direction should he
swim?
Solution:
To find (𝑣𝑚𝑟 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 and direction.
Let, Speed of the river = u
B
Speed of man in still water = v ⃗ 𝑟𝑔
𝑉
Let velocity of man w.r.t. ground = 𝑣𝑚𝑔
⃗𝑉𝑚𝑟 ⃗𝑉𝑚𝑔
and 𝑣𝑚𝑟 = (−𝑣 sin 𝜃)𝑖̂ + (𝑣 cos 𝜃)𝑗̂  45°
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑢𝑖̂
Now, 𝑣𝑚𝑔 = 𝑣𝑚𝑟 + 𝑣𝑟 = {(−𝑣 sin 𝜃)𝑖̂ + (𝑣 cos 𝜃)𝑗̂} + 𝑢𝑖̂ x A
 𝑣𝑚𝑔 = (𝑢 − 𝑣 sin 𝜃)𝑖̂ + (𝑣 cos 𝜃)𝑗̂

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Now, for AB to make 45° with the vertical, 𝑣𝑚𝑔 must be along AB
𝑣 cos 𝜃
So, tan 4 5° = 𝑢−𝑣 sin 𝜃 = 1
 𝑣 cos 𝜃 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑢
 =𝑣
(sin 𝜃+cos 𝜃)
We need to find minimum v.
For 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑢
 should be minimum
sin 𝜃+cos 𝜃
 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃must be maximum
𝑑
{sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃} = 0
𝑑𝜃
 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 0  cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃
 tan 𝜃 = 1  𝜃 = 45° = Direction
Put in 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 to get,
𝑢 𝑢
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = sin 45°+cos 45° =
√2

So, the man should swim in a direction 45° counter-clockwise with the vertical.

Wind Aeroplane Problems

This is very similar to boat river flow problems. The only difference is that boat is replaced by aeroplane
and river is replaced by wind.
Thus, velocity of aeroplane with respect to wind
𝑣𝑎𝑤 = 𝑣𝑎 − 𝑣𝑤
where, 𝑣𝑎 = velocity of aeroplane w.r.t. ground and, 𝑣𝑤 = velocity of wind.

Illustration 139:
An aeroplane flies along a straight path A to B and returns back again. The distance between A and B is ℓ
and the aeroplane maintains the constant speed v w.r.t. wind. There is a steady wind with a speed u at an
angle  with line AB. Determine the expression for the total time of the trip.
Solution:
Suppose plane is oriented at an angle  w.r.t. line AB
V
while the plane is moving from A to B: A   B
Velocity of plane along AB = v cos – u cos  
and for no-drift from line AB ; v sin = u sin  u
𝑢 sin 𝜃
 sin 𝛼 = 𝑣 ...(i)
V
time taken from A to B: A  a’ B
ℓ 
𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣 cos 𝛼−𝑢 cos 𝜃
u

Suppose plane is oriented at an angle ’ w.r.t. line AB while the plane is moving from B to A:

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Velocity of plane along BA = v cos ' + u cos  and for no drift from line AB; 𝑣 sin ' = u sin 
𝑢 sin 𝜃
 sin 𝛼 ′ = 𝑣
  = ’

Time taken from B to A:

ℓ
tBA =
𝑣 cos 𝛼+𝑢 cos 𝜃
ℓ ℓ
Total time taken = tAB + tBA = +
𝑣 cos 𝛼−𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑣 cos 𝛼+𝑢 cos 𝜃

√ 𝑢2 sin2 𝜃
2𝑣ℓ cos α 2𝑣ℓ 1 −
𝑣2
= 2 2 2 2
= 2 2
[Using equation (i)]
𝑣 cos 𝛼 − 𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑣 −𝑢

Illustration 140:
Find the time an aeroplane having velocity v, takes to fly around a square with side a if the wind is blowing
at a velocity u along one side of the square.
Solution:
D C

vwind = u
A B

Velocity of aeroplane while flying through AB

𝑎 vA = v+u
vA = v + u ; tAB =
𝑣+𝑢
u
Velocity of aeroplane while flying through BC
vA = √𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 ; v 𝑉𝐴 = √𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑎
tBC =
√𝑣 2 −𝑢2

Velocity of aeroplane while flying through CD v u

𝑎 vA = v – u
vA = v – u; tCD =
𝑣−𝑢

Velocity of aeroplane while flying through DA

𝑎 v vA = √𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
vA = √𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 ; tDA =
√𝑣 2 −𝑢2
u
Total time = tAB + tBC + tCD + tDA
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎
= + + + = 2 (𝑣 + √𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 )
𝑣 + 𝑢 √𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 𝑣 − 𝑢 √𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 𝑣 − 𝑢2

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Rain Problem
If rain is falling vertically with a velocity 𝑣𝑅 and an observer is moving horizontally with velocity 𝑣𝑚 , the
velocity of rain relative to observer will be:

VR ⃗𝑚
−𝑉

⃗ 𝑅𝑚 
Vm 𝑉 ⃗𝑅
𝑉

𝑣𝑅𝑚 = 𝑣𝑅 − 𝑣𝑚
or vRm = √𝑣𝑅2 + 𝑣𝑚
2

𝑣
and direction  = tan–1( 𝑣𝑚 ) with the vertical as shown in figure.
𝑅

Illustration 141:
Rain is falling vertically at speed of 10 m/s and a man is moving with velocity 6 m/s. Find the angle at which
the man should hold his umbrella to avoid getting wet.
Solution:
𝑣rain = −10𝑗̂  𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑛 = 6𝑖̂
10m/s

𝑣𝑟.𝑤.𝑟.𝑡 man = −10𝑗̂ − 6𝑖̂ 10m/s
6 3 6m/s
tan  =   = tan–1(5)
10 6 m/s

Where  is angle with vertical.

Illustration 142:
A man moving with 5m/s observes rain falling vertically at the rate of 10 m/s. Find the speed and direction
of the rain with respect to ground.
VRm= 10m/s

5m/s

Solution:
vRM = 10 m/s, vM = 5 m/s
𝑣𝑅𝑀 = 𝑣𝑅 − 𝑣𝑀 
VRm= 10 m/s VR= 5√5
 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑣𝑅𝑀 + 𝑣𝑀
 𝑣𝑅 = 5√5
1 1
tan  = ,  = tan–1 .
2 2 Vm= 5 𝑚/𝑠

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Illustration 143:
A standing man, observes rain falling with velocity of 20 m/s at an angle of 30° with the vertical.
(i) Find the velocity with which the man should move so that rain appears to fall vertically to him.
(ii) Now if he further increases his speed, rain again appears to fall at 30° with the vertical. Find his
new velocity.
Solution:
10m/s
(i) 𝑣𝑚 = −𝑣𝑖̂ m/s (let)
30°
𝑣𝑅 = −10𝑖̂ − 10√3𝑗̂ m/s
⃗VRm
𝑣𝑅𝑀 = −(10𝑖̂ − 𝑣) − 10√3𝑗̂ m/s 10√3m/s

 – (10 – v) = 0 V
(For vertical fall, horizontal component must be zero) ⃗𝑚
𝑉
or v = 10 m/s

(ii) 𝑣𝑅 = −10𝑖̂ − 10√3𝑗̂

10m/s
𝑣𝑚 = −𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂
30° 30°
𝑣𝑅𝑀 = −(10 − 𝑣𝑥 )𝑖̂ − 10√3𝑗̂ ⃗ 𝑅𝑚
𝑉
10√3
Angle with the vertical = 30° m/s
10−𝑣𝑥 60° Vx 60°
 tan 30° =
−10√3 ⃗𝑚
𝑉
 vx = 20 m/s

Illustration 144:
A man moving with a velocity of 5 ms-1 on a horizontal road observes that raindrops fall at an angle of 45°
with the vertical. When he moves with a velocity of 15 ms-1 along a staircase of inclination 37°, he observes
raindrops falling vertically as shown in the figure. Find the actual velocity of the rain.

Solution:
Let the actual velocity of the rain w.r.t. the ground be 𝑣𝑟𝑔

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Case 1: A man running on a horizontal plane Consider the right direction as positive x-axis and downwards
as positive y-axis as shown in the figure.
Let 𝑣𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ 𝑚𝑠 −1
Given velocity of the man w.r.t. the ground, 𝑣𝑚𝑔 = 5𝑖̂ 𝑚𝑠 −1
Now, the velocity of the rain w.r.t. the man,
𝑣𝑟𝑚 = 𝑣𝑟𝑔 − 𝑣𝑚𝑔 = (𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ − 5𝑖̂ )𝑚𝑠 −1
 𝑣𝑟𝑚 = ((𝑎 − 5)𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ )𝑚𝑠 −1
Now, since 𝑣𝑟𝑚 makes 45° with y axis
(𝑎−5)
 tan 4 5° = 𝑏
 a–5=b ...(i)
Case 2: A man running on an inclined plane Consider the right direction as positive x-axis and downwards
as positive y-axis as shown in figure.
Velocity of the man w.r.t. the ground,
𝑣𝑚𝑔 = (15 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 7°𝑖̂ + 15 sin 3 7°𝑗̂)𝑚𝑠 −1
4 3
𝑣𝑚𝑔 = (15 × 5 𝑖̂ + 15 × 5 𝑗̂) 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣𝑚𝑔 = (12𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂)𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of the rain w.r.t. the man,
𝑣𝑟𝑚 = 𝑣𝑟𝑔 − 𝑣𝑚𝑔 = ((𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂) − (12𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂))𝑚𝑠 −1
 𝑣𝑟𝑚 = ((𝑎 − 12)𝑖̂ + (𝑏 − 9)𝑗̂)𝑚𝑠 −1
In this case, rain appears to fall vertically, so x component of 𝑣𝑟𝑚 must be 0.
 a-12 = 0  a = 12
Substitute a = 12 in equation (i)
 b = 12–5 = 7
So, actual velocity of the rain is
𝑣𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ = (12𝑖̂ + 7𝑗̂)𝑚𝑠 −1

Velocity of Approach/Separation
It is the component of relative velocity of one particle w.r.t. another, along the line joining them. If the
separation is decreasing, we say it is velocity of approach and if separation is increasing, then we say it is
velocity of separation. In one dimension, since relative velocity is along the line joining A and B, hence
velocity of approach / separation is simply equal to magnitude of relative velocity of A w.r.t. B.
Illustration 145:
A particle A is moving with a speed of 10 m/s towards right and another particle B is moving at speed of
12 m/s towards left. Find their velocity of approach.
10m/s 12m/s

A B

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Solution:
VA = +10 , VB = – 12  VAB = VA – VB  10 – (–12) = 22 m/s
Since separation is decreasing, hence Vapp = |VAB| = 22 m/s.

Illustration 146:
A particle A is moving with a speed of 20 m/s towards right 20m/s 5m/s
and another particle B is moving at a speed of 5 m/s towards
right. Find their velocity of approach. A B
Solution:
VA = +20, VB = +5
VAB = VA – VB
20 – (+5) = 15 m/s
Since separation is decreasing, hence Vapp = |VAB| = 15 m/s .

Velocity of Approach / Separation in Two Dimension

It is the component of relative velocity of one particle w.r.t. another, along the line joining them.
If the separation is decreasing, we say it is velocity of approach and if separation is increasing, then we say
it is velocity of separation.

Illustration 147:
Particle A is at rest and particle B is moving with constant velocity v as shown in the diagram at t = 0. Find
their velocity of separation


B v

A
Solution:
vBA = vB – vA = v
vsep = component of vBA along line AB = v cos 

Illustration 148:
Two particles A and B are moving with constant velocities v1 and v2.
v1 v2
At t = 0, v1 makes an angle 1 with the line joining A and B and v2 1 2
makes an angle 2 with the line joining A and B. Find their velocity A
d
of approach.
Solution: v1sin1 v2sin2
Velocity of approach is relative velocity along line AB
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣1 cos𝜃1 + 𝑣2 cos𝜃2 1 d 2
A B
v1cos1 v2cos2

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 149:
Particles A and B are moving as shown in the diagram at t = 0. Find their velocity of separation,
(i) at t = 0 (ii) at t = 1 sec.
4m/s

A
3m
3m/s
4m B

Solution:
(i) tan  = 3/4
vsep = Relative velocity along line AB
4 3 24
= 3 cos  + 4 sin  = 3. + 4. = = 4.8 m/s
5 5 5
4 m/s

4 cos
4sin
A
3sin
3m

3 m/s
4m B
3cos
(ii)  = 45°
vsep = relative velocity along line AB
1 1 7
= 3 cos  + 4 sin  = 3. + 4. = m/s
√2 √2 √2

4m/s

4sin 4cos

A
3sin
7m
=
3m/s
7m B
3cos

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Kinematics
Illustration 150:
There are particles A, B and C are situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle ABC of side a at t = 0.
Each of the particles moves with constant speed v. A always has its velocity along AB, B along BC and C
along CA. At what time will the particles meet each other?
Solution: A
The motion of the particles is roughly sketched in figure. A1
By symmetry they will meet at the centroid O of the A2
triangle. At any instant the particles will from an A3
equilateral triangle ABC with the same centroid O. All the O
particles will meet at the centre. Concentrate on the C3
motion of any one particle, say B. At any instant its C2
B3 C1
velocity makes angle 30° with BO. The component of this
B2
velocity along BO is v cos 30°. This component is the rate B C
B1
of decrease of the distance BO.
𝑎/2 𝑎
Initially, BO = = = displacement of each A
𝑐𝑜𝑠 30° √3
particle. Therefore, the time taken for BO to become
zero is
Q
𝑎/√3 2𝑎 2𝑎
t= = = a/√3
𝑣 cos 30° √3𝑣×√3 3𝑣
30°
B a/2 B
Aliter :
Velocity of B is v along BC. The velocity of C is along CA. Its component along BC is v cos 60° = v/2. Thus, the
separation BC decreases at the rate of approach velocity.

v 60°
C B C
B v cos 60° v v/2

𝑣 3𝑣
 Approach velocity = v + =
2 2
Since, the rate of approach is constant, the time taken in reducing the separation BC from a to zero is
𝑎 2𝑎
t = 3𝑣 = .
3𝑣
2

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 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Physics
Illustration 151:
Six particles situated at the corners of a regular hexagon of side a move at a constant speed v. Each particle
maintains a direction towards the particle at the next corner. Calculate the time the particles will take to
meet each other.
Solution:

a
a a
v
a
a a 60°
vcos60
v
Vapp = V – V cos 60° = V – V/2 = V/2
𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎
𝑡= = =
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑉/2 𝑉

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