(ME2308-T)
Fundamentals of
Thermal Sciences
By:- Muhammad Umar Siddiqui, PhD
Associate Professor (Mechanical)
Mechatronics Engineering Department
SZABIST, Karachi
CONTENTS
Pure Subtances
Phases of a Pure Substances
Phase Change Processes
Property Diagrams
Property Tables
The Ideal Gas Equation
Compressibility Factor
LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able
to:
Define a pure substance
Explain the phase change processes
Sketch P-v and T-v diagrams for a particular
process
LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able
to:
Obtain values of v, u, h, Psat, Tsat from the
tables
Calculate x, v, u, h for saturated mixture.
3
LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able
to:
Describe the ideal gas equation
Apply the ideal gas EOS in the solution of
typical problems
Define compressibility factor
3
PURE SUBSTANCE
Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout.
Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is considered to
be a pure substance.
Nitrogen and gaseous air are A mixture of liquid and gaseous
pure substances. water is a pure substance, but a
mixture of liquid and gaseous air4
is not.
PHASES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE
The molecules in a
solid are kept at
their positions by
the large springlike
inter-molecular
forces.
In a solid, the attractive
and repulsive forces
between the molecules
tend to maintain them at
relatively constant
distances from each other.
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF
PURE SUBSTANCES
Let us consider the following system undergoes heating process at constant pressure.
At 1 atm and 20°C, At 1 atm pressure
water exists in the and 100°C, water
liquid phase exists as a liquid
(compressed that is ready to
liquid: not about to vaporize (saturated
vaporize). liquid: about to
vaporize).
As more heat is At 1 atm pressure,
transferred, the the temperature
temperature of remains constant As more heat is
the vapor starts at 100°C until the transferred, part of the
to rise last drop of liquid saturated liquid
(superheated is vaporized vaporizes (saturated
vapor: not (saturated vapor: liquid–vapor mixture:
about to about to liquid and vapor
condense). condense). coexist in equilibrium).
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF
PURE SUBSTANCES (cont’d)
The constant pressure heating process (state 1 - 5) can be illustrated in the
following figure known as the T-v Diagram
Saturation state: State at which a
phase change begins or ends
T-v diagram for the
heating process of
water at constant
pressure.
Consider repeating this process for other constant pressure lines as
shown below. (Where are the saturated liquid and vapour line?)
Critical point: The point at which
the saturated liquid and saturated
vapor states are identical.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE
AND SATURATION PRESSURE
The temperature at which water starts boiling depends
on the pressure; therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is
the boiling temperature.
Water boils at 100 C at 1 atm pressure.
Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at
which a pure substance changes phase at a given
pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a
pure substance changes phase at a given
temperature.
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS:
T-v Diagram of Pure Substance
Where are the saturation temperatures for P1 and P2?
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS:
P-v Diagram of Pure Substance
Where are the saturation pressures for T1 and T2 ?
Extending the Diagrams to
Include The Solid Phase
P-v diagram of a substance that P-v diagram of a substance that
contracts on freezing. expands on freezing (such as water).
Triple line: All 3 phases of a pure substance coexist in equilibrium
(substance have same P & T but different v)
PHASE DIAGRAM
At triple-point pressure and
temperature, a substance
exists in three phases in
equilibrium.
For water,
Ttp = 0.01°C
Ptp = 0.6117 kPa
At low pressures (below
the triple-point value),
solids evaporate without
melting first (sublimation).
Sublimation:: Passing
from the solid phase
P-T diagram of pure substances. directly into the vapor
phase.
PVT SURFACE
P-v-T surface of a substance P-v-T surface of a substance that
that contracts on freezing. expands on freezing (like water).
The P-v-T surfaces present a great deal of information at once, but in a thermodynamic
analysis it is more convenient to work with two-dimensional diagrams, such as the P-v
and T-v diagrams.
PROPERTY TABLES
For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties
are too complex to be expressed by simple equations.
Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
Subscript f – properties of saturated liquid
Subscript g – properties of saturated vapour
Subscript fg – difference between properties of saturated vapor and saturated liquid
(value of g – value of f ) 4
ENTHALPY & ENTROPY
Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but others
cannot and are calculated by using the relations between them and
measurable properties.
Enthalpy—A Combination Property
The combination u + Pv is frequently
encountered in the analysis of control
volumes.
Entropy – A property associated with the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics, and will be defined in later
chapter.
Entropy, S (kJ/K)
Specific entropy, s (kJ/kgK) 5
TYPES OF TABLES
PROPERTIES OF WATER
Saturated Water – Temperature Table: Table A–4 or Table F10
Saturated Water – Pressure Table: Table A–5 or Table G10
Superheated Water: Table A-6 or Table F11
Compressed Liquid Water: Table A-7
Saturated Ice-Water Vapour: Table A-8
PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANT-134a
Saturated Refrigerant 134a – Temperature Table: Table A–11 or
Table F12
Saturated Refrigerant 134a – Pressure Table: Table A–12 or Table
F13
Superheated Refrigerant 134a: Table A-13 or Table F14
6
Saturated Liquid–Vapor
Mixture
The relative amounts of liquid and vapor
phases in a saturated mixture are specified
by the quality x.
Quality is between 0 and 1
0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.
Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only, no meaning in
the compressed liquid or superheated vapor regions. 7
Saturated Liquid–Vapor
Mixture (cont’d)
v vf vavg v f
The relation can be expressed as x or x
v fg v fg
Quality, x, is related to the horizontal distances
on P-v and T-v diagrams.
The v value of a saturated liquid–vapor mixture lies
between the vf and vg values at the specified T or P,
and is given by:
v vf xv fg
u uf xu fg
Similarly, the other
properties can be found h hf xh fg
by the expressions:
s sf xs
8 fg
Superheated Vapor
In the region to the right of the saturated vapor line and at
temperatures above the saturation temperature, a substance
exists as superheated vapor.
Compared to saturated vapor,
superheated vapor is characterized by
A partial
listing of
Table A–6.
9
Compressed Liquid
At a given P and T, a pure In the absence of compressed liquid data, a
A more accurate
substance relation
will exist as a for h general approximation is used.
compressed liquid if
A compressed liquid may be approximated as
a saturated liquid at the given temperature.
A more accurate relation for h (for low or
moderate P & T)
Compressed liquid is characterized by
11
Example 1
Find the internal energy of water at the given states below
for 6 MPa and plot the states on T-v, and P-v diagrams.
1. Dry saturated or saturated vapor
2. Wet saturated or saturated liquid
3. Moisture = 5%
4. T = 635 C
5. T = 100 C
14
Solution (cont’d)
4. P = 6 MPa, T = 635 C
For P = 60 bar, Table A-5 or F10 gives Tsat = 275.6 C.
Since 635 C > Tsat for this pressure, the state is superheated.
Use Table A-6 or F11. Since no values for P=6 MPa, use interpolation.
T ( C) u kJ/kg
600 3267.2
635 u=?
700 3453.0
u4 33267.2 6
635 6
600
3453.0 33267.2 7
700 6
600
kJ
u4 3332.23
kg 17
Example 2
Determine the enthalpy of 1.5 kg of water contained in a
volume of 1.2 m3 at 200 kPa.
Volume . m3
12 m3
v 0.8
mass . kg
15 kg
Using table at P = 200 kPa = 2 bar,
vf = 0.001061 m3/kg , vg = 0.8857 m3/kg
Now,
Is v v f ? No
Is v f v v g ? Yes
Is v g v ? No 19
Solution to Example 2 (cont’d)
We see that the state is in the two-phase or saturation
region. So we must find the quality, x, first.
v vf
v vf x (v g v f ) x
vg vf
0.8 0.001061
0.8857 0.001061
0.903 (What does this mean?)
then,
h hf x h fg
504.7 (0.903)(22019
. )
kJ
2493.3
kg Locate this state on a T-v diagram.
20
Example 4
Consider a closed, rigid container of water. The pressure is 700 kPa, the
mass of the saturated liquid is 1.78 kg, and the mass of the saturated
vapor is 0.22 kg. Heat is added to the water until the pressure
increases to 8 MPa. Find the final temperature, enthalpy, and internal
energy of the water. Does the liquid level rise or fall? Plot this process
on a P-v diagram with respect to the saturation lines and the critical
point.
Solution
Let’s introduce a solution procedure that we will follow throughout the course
(discussed in Ch 1)
Known: A saturated liq-vap mixture in a closed rigid container
Find: Final Temperature, Final Enthalpy, Final internal energy, Liquid Level,
Plot on P-v
22
Schematic/Data :
T We know that state 1 is saturated
P2 8 MPa mixture. But we don’t know what is
state 2.
T2 P1 0.7 MPa
2
T1
mg1 0.22 kg
1
m f 1 1.78 kg
v
v1
Assumption : 1. It is a closed system
2. The volume of the container remains constant
Analysis :
State 1 is at saturated liq-vap mixture. Must find quality.
mg1 0.22 kg
x1 011
0.
m f 1 mg1 (178
. 0.22) kg
23
THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION
OF STATE
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and specific volume of a substance.
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the
gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of state.
Ideal gas EoS
If a gas obeys this relation it is called an ideal gas.
P: absolute pressure (kPa)
T: absolute temperature (K)
v: specific volume
R: gas constant
4
THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION
OF STATE (cont’d)
Recall that: Pv RT Ideal gas EoS
Where:
Ru Universal Gas Constant
R
Gas Constant
M
Different substances have
different gas constants.
5
THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION
OF STATE (cont’d)
The ideal gas equation of state may be written several ways.
Pv RT
V
V mv
m P RT PV mRT
m
Molar mass, M is defined as the mass (kg) of one kmole of a substance
M
Mass of subs tan ce (kg ) m
M
No of mole (kmol ) N
m MN
M
Ru PV NRuT
PV mRT ( MN ) RT ( MN ) T
M
6
Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?
At pressures below 10 kPa,
water vapor can be treated as
an ideal gas, regardless of its
temperature, with negligible
error (less than 0.1 percent).
At higher pressures, however,
the ideal gas assumption yields
unacceptable errors,
particularly in the vicinity of the
critical point and the saturated
vapor line.
Percentage of error ([|vtable - videal|/vtable] 100)
involved in assuming steam to be an ideal
gas, and the region where steam can be
treated as an ideal gas with less than 1
7
percent error.
EXAMPLE 1(a)
Determine the specific volume of R-134a at 1 MPa and 70oC,
using ideal gas EOS. Compare the result with the actual value
of 0.024261 m3/kg. (R=0.08149 kJ/kgK)
8
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
Gases deviate from ideal-gas behavior significantly at states near
saturation region & critical point.
This deviation can be accounted for by a compressibility factor (Z)
Compressibility factor Z: A factor
that measures the deviation of real
gases from ideal-gas behavior.
Pv
Z
RT
vactual
It also can be expressed as Z
videal
RT
The compressibility factor is unity where videal
for ideal gases.
P
The farther away Z is from unity, At very low pressures, all gases approach ideal-
the more the gas deviates from gas behavior (regardless of their temperature).9
ideal-gas behavior.
Generalized Compressibility
Chart
Pseudo-reduced
Z is determined from the generalized compressibility chart.
specific volume
Compressibility Factor (y- axis)
Pseudo reduced v (dotted lines)
Reduced T Reduced P (x- axis)
10
Generalized Compressibility
Chart (cont’d)
The Z factor is approximately the same for all gases at the same
reduced temperature and reduced pressure, which are defined as
T P
TR and PR
Tcr Pcr
Values of specific volume are
included on the generalized
chart through the variable
called the pseudo reduced
volume.
11
Comparison of Z factors for various gases.
EXAMPLE 1(b)
Determine the specific volume of R-134a at 1 MPa and 70oC,
using generalized compressibility chart. Compare the result
with the actual value of 0.024261 m3/kg. (Tcr=374.2 K,
Pcr=4.059 MPa)
EXERCISE
Nitrogen at 150 K has a specific volume of 0.041884 m3/kg.
Determine the pressure of nitrogen, using
a) the ideal gas equation and
b) the generalized compressibility chart
13
CLASS TAKEAWAY
The pressure of water vapor at T=350oC and v=0.035262 m3/kg, can be
determine by using;
a. The steam tables
b. The ideal gas equation
c. The generalized compressibility chart
Compare the values obtained and justify your answer.
14
Summary of Chapter 3
Pure substance Property tables
Phases of a pure Enthalpy
substance
Saturated liquid, saturated
Phase-change processes of vapor, Saturated liquid vapor
pure substances mixture, Superheated vapor,
Compressed liquid, compressed liquid
Saturated liquid, Saturated
vapor, Superheated vapor The ideal gas equation of
Saturation temperature and state
Saturation pressure
Property diagrams for Is water vapor an ideal gas?
phase change processes Compressibility factor
The T-v diagram, The P-v
diagram, The P-T diagram,
The P-v-T surface
15
PracticeProblems– Chapter3
y Problem 3-51 Ans: 187C
y Problem 3-52 Ans: 0.0753cu.m, 655.7kJ
y Problem 3-59 Ans: 49.61kg,120.21C,125943kJ
y Problem 3-65 Ans: 0.6 MPa
y Problem 3-77 Ans: 19.08 kg
y Problem 3-79 Ans: 972.1 kPa
y Problem 3-84 Ans: 0.03106,0.02609,0.02644
y Problem 3-90 Ans: 1861kPa,1583kPa,1600kPa