PART B

LOGICAL REASONING

157
158 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Lesson 6

LOGICAL
REASONING

158
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 159

“Logic takes care of itself; all we have to do is to look and see how it does it.” - Ludwig Wittgenstein

Introduction

Logical reasoning (or just “logic” for short) is one of the fundamental
One of the
skills of effective thinking. Fundamental
Skills
It works by raising questions like:

• If this is true, what else must be true?

• If this is true, what else is probably true?

Logical
reasoning
• If this isn’t true, what else can’t be true?

In the contemporary perspective, Doyle Alison (2019), in his article

‘The Importance of Logical Thinking in the Workplace’1 stated that
Logical thinkers observe and analyze phenomena, reactions, and
feedback and then draw conclusions based on that input. They can Effective
justify their strategies, actions, and decisions based on the facts they Thinking
gather.

Phenomena Then draw

conclusions based on
Observe and Analyze that input

Logical Thinkers Reactions

Feedback

These are all inferences: they’re connections between a given sentence (the “premise”) and some
other sentence (the “conclusion”). Inferences are the basic building blocks of logical reasoning, and
there are strict rules governing what counts as a valid inference and what doesn’t — it’s a lot like
math, but applied to sentences rather than numbers.2

Example - 1:
If there is someone at the door, the dog will bark.
Assuming this sentence holds true, there are some other sentences that must also be true.

• If the dog didn’t bark, there is no one at the door.

160 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

• Just because the dog barked doesn’t mean there’s someone at the door.

There are also a few sentences that are probably true, such as:

• The dog can sense (hear or smell) when someone is at the door.

• The dog belongs to the people who live in the house where the door is located.

Example - 2

A sales representative modifies a presentation about a product to highlight its user-friendly qualities
after receiving feedback from customers indicating that ease of use was the primary reason that they
had purchased the product.

Logical Reasoning: History and Significance

The word ‘Logical Reasoning is made up of two words – Logical and Reasoning. So let us understand,
analyses and brief out the history of Logical Reasoning with the help of these two words separately as
well as in conjunction.

Logic: Milieu

Logic is a universal part of the human experience. Even agriculture would be impossible without
inductive reasoning about weather and sunlight, and construction would be impossible without
mathematics and deductive reasoning about what makes a structure sturdy.

Logic (from the Greek "logos", which has a variety of meanings including word, thought, idea, argument,
account, reason or principle) is the study of reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of
valid inference and demonstration. It attempts to distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning.

Formalized logic has appeared in several places with more or less similar results. The Greek philosopher
Aristotle is credited with being the first to develop a formal system of logical reasoning, but there were
already people in India and China working on formal logic long before Aristotle was born.3

History of Logic: A Snapshot from Vedas to Contemporary Era4

In Ancient India, the "Nasadiya Sukta" of the Rig Veda contains various logical divisions that were later
recast formally as the four circles of catuskoti: "A", "not A", "A and not A" and "not A and not not A".
The Nyaya school of Indian philosophical speculation is based on texts known as the "Nyaya Sutras"
of Aksapada Gautama from around the 2nd Century B.C., and its methodology of inference is based
on a system of logic (involving a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular
to particular via generality) that subsequently has been adopted by the majority of the other Indian
schools.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 161

Ancient India, the Medieval times - In 20th Century -

"Nasadiya Sukta" of Aristotelian logic Symbolic Logic
the Rig Veda

Modern Logic
descends mainly Logic in Islamic
from the Ancient philosophy
Greek tradition

Plato and Aristotle - In the 18th Century

New and Necessary - Science of
Reasoning Judgement

But modern logic descends mainly from the Ancient Greek tradition. Both Plato and Aristotle
conceived of logic as the study of argument and from a concern with the correctness of
argumentation. Aristotle produced six works on logic, known collectively as the "Organon", the first of
these, the "Prior Analytics", being the first explicit work in formal logic.

Aristotle espoused two principles of great importance in logic, the Law of Excluded Middle
(that every statement is either true or false) and the Law of Non-Contradiction (confusingly,
also known as the Law of Contradiction, that no statement is both true and false).

He is perhaps most famous for introducing the syllogism (or term logic) (see the section on Deductive
Logic below). His followers, known as the Peripatetics, further refined his work on logic.

In medieval times, Aristotelian logic (or dialectics) was studied, along with grammar and rhetoric,
as one of the three main strands of the trivium, the foundation of a medieval liberal arts education.

Logic in Islamic philosophy also contributed to the development of modern logic, especially the
development of Avicennian logic (which was responsible for the introduction of the hypothetical
syllogism, temporal logic, modal logic and inductive logic) as an alternative to Aristotelian logic.

In the 18th Century, Immanuel Kant argued that logic should be conceived as the science of
judgment, so that the valid inferences of logic follow from the structural features of judgments, although
162 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

he still maintained that Aristotle had essentially said everything there was to say about logic as a
discipline.

In the 20th Century, however, the work of Gottlob Frege, Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand
Russell on Symbolic Logic, turned Kant's assertion on its head. This new logic, expounded in their
joint work "Principia Mathematica", is much broader in scope than Aristotelian logic, and even contains
classical logic within it, albeit as a minor part. It resembles a mathematical calculus and deals with the
relations of symbols to each other.

Aristotle defined logic as "new and necessary reasoning", "new" because it allows us to learn what we
do not know, and "necessary" because its conclusions are inescapable. It asks questions like "What is
correct reasoning?", "What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?", "How can we detect a
fallacy in reasoning?"

The Indian, Chinese, and Greek systems were all remarkably similar in their rules, which suggests that
there may have been some mutual influence despite the distance. Traders and travelling scholars
may have brought ideas about logical reasoning with them all over the world, allowing for rapid
development of new ideas.

Logic may seem like a stuffy, abstract discipline used only by philosophers and lawyers, but it has had
a profound influence on the history of science and technology as well. Alan Turing, the inventor of
the modern computer, was a logician rather than a thinkerer or engineer, and his famous “Turing
Machine” was a product of his rigorous training in formal logical reasoning.

Need and Significance of Logic

Logic investigates and classifies the structure of statements and arguments, both through the study of
formal systems of inference and through the study of arguments in natural language. It deals only
with propositions (declarative sentences, used to make an assertion, as opposed to questions,
commands or sentences expressing wishes) that are capable of being true and false. It is not concerned
with the psychological processes connected with thought, or with emotions, images and the like. It
covers core topics such as the study of fallacies and paradoxes, as well as specialized analysis of
reasoning using probability and arguments involving causality and argumentation theory.

Reasoning: Milieu

As per Merriam Webster Dictionary, Reasoning means the use of reason especially, the drawing of
inferences or conclusions through the use of reason.

Reshma S in her writings on ‘Reasoning: Meaning, Definition and Types’, stated that reasoning is one
of the best forms of controlled thinking consciously towards the solution of a problem. It is realistic in
the sense that the solution is sought always in reference to the reality of the situation. We can solve
many problems in our day-dreams, dreams and imaginations but they are unrealistic solutions.

Sherman defined, “reasoning is a process of thinking during which the individual is aware of a problem
identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution”.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 163

Reasoning is used not only when we want to solve an immediate problem but also when we anticipate
future problems.

Reasoning plays a significant role in one’s adjustment to the environment. It not only determines
one’s cognitive activities but also influences the behavior and personality.

Other Definitions of Reasoning:

1. “Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind” — Garrett.

2. “Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful, controlled and selective thinking”
—Gates.

3. “Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause and effect
relationships, it may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the
inference of a cause from an observed event”— Skinner.

Thus reasoning is a highly specialized thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the
cause and effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well-organized
systematic steps based on previous experience combined with present observation.

Content of Logic/Logic Systems/Logical Reasoning

Logical systems should have three things: consistency (which means that none of the theorems of the
system contradict one another); soundness (which means that the system's rules of proof will never
allow a false inference from a true premise); and completeness (which means that there are no true
sentences in the system that cannot, at least in principle, be proved in the system).

Popular Use or Culture of Logical Reasoning: An Example

On Sherlock, the great detective Sherlock Holmes has a website called “The Art of Deduction,” in
which he explains his methods for solving crimes. However, the website has the wrong name —
nearly all of Sherlock’s inferences are inductive rather than deductive. That is, they bring together
bits and pieces of evidence to develop a theory about what probably happened in a particular crime.
They’re not based on the kind of logical certainty that we saw in section 1, but rather on reasoning
about likelihoods and probabilities. It’s always logically possible that Sherlock could have it wrong,
even though that rarely seems to happen.

Types of Logical Reasoning

There are two basic types of logic, each defined by its own type of inference. They correspond to the
two categories in the example from section 1.
164 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Types of Logical
Reasoning

Deductive Inductive
Reasoning Reasoning

1. Deductive Reasoning : It is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known
statements (premises) or evidences. Here one starts with already known or established
generalized statement or principle and applies it to specific cases.

For example, all human beings are mortal you are a human being, therefore, you are mortal.
Deductive Reasoning is based on Deduction or Deductive Logic. Deduction is when the
conclusion, based on the premises, must be true.
• For example, if it’s true that the dog always barks when someone is at the door and it’s
true that there’s someone at the door, then it must be true that the dog will bark. Of
course, the real world is messy and doesn’t always conform to the strictures of deductive
reasoning (there are probably no actual dogs who always bark when someone’s at the
door), but deductive reasoning is still important in fields like law, engineering, and science,
where strict truths still hold. All math is deductive.
• Another example of Deduction states that - An organization may work with a core belief
that employees are more productive if they have control over the ways they carry out
their responsibilities. A manager could demonstrate logical thinking using deductive
reasoning by meeting with subordinates, communicating department goals, and
structuring a brainstorming session for staff to decide methods for reaching those
objectives.
2. Inductive Reasoning : It is a specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of
a generalized principle by making use of particular cases, special examples and identifying of
elements or relations.
• For example, Mohan is mortal, Radha is mortal, Karim is mortal; therefore, all human
beings are mortal.
Inductive Reasoning is based on Inductive logic. Inductive logic is when the conclusion,
based on the premises, is probably the answers are less definitive than they are in deductive
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 165

reasoning, but they are often more useful. Induction is our only way of predicting what will
happen in the future: we look at the way things are, and the way they have been in the past,
and we make an educated guess about what will probably happen. But all predictions are
based on probability, not certainty: for example, it’s extremely probable that the sun will rise
tomorrow morning. But it’s not certain, since there are all sorts of catastrophes that could
happen in between now and then.
Logical Reasoning vs. Critical Thinking
Logic is one of the main pillars of critical thinking. And there’s no question that critical thinking would
be impossible without some understanding of logical reasoning. However, there are many other skills
involved in critical thinking, such as:
• Empathy, or the ability to imagine what someone else is feeling or experiencing. This is a
crucial skill for critical thinking, since it allows you to broaden your perspective and reflect on
your actions and beliefs. Empathy also makes you a better student of philosophy because it
enables you to put yourself in the author’s shoes and understand the argument from within.
• Analogy, or noticing similarities and thinking them through. Analogies allow us to draw
conclusions about, for example, the similarity between our own time and some moment in
history, and thus try to make better decisions in the future. This skill is closely related to
inductive logic.
• Creativity. Critical thinking is all about innovative problem-solving and coming up with new
ideas, so it’s heavily dependent on creativity. Just like a creative art, critical thinking depends
on assembling old parts in new ways, working inventively within constraints, and matching
moments of inspiration with hours of rigorous craft.
Logic assists in establishing correlation between two variables, i.e., independent and dependent
variables pertaining to corporate activities.
For instance, through Karl Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient and Co-efficient of determination the
correlation between two variables, i.e. CSR Expenditure and Goodwill may be observed
Significance of Logical Reasoning for Company Secretaries : Key Points
• From the perspective of Logic leads to conclusion by correlating different facts and statements.
• This correlation is done through the arguments.
• As a Company Secretaries, one has to resolve various issues in the day to day affair and also
ensure compliances and governance in true letter and spirit. This requires the professionals
to argue or to support in favour of some conclusion with the help of certain facts and some
assumptions.
• A Company Secretary does all these things throughout his life in imparting his professional
excellence.
• Therefore, Logical Reasoning is becoming more important day by day in the entrance test of
professional as well as academic bodies.
166 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Logical Reasoning: A Summarized Guidance to CSSET Candidates

• Logic only ensures a valid conclusion.
• This conclusion may or may not be consistent with our usual experience. But the questions
based on logic are to be solved only as per information provided, without using one’s own
conscience.

• Therefore, conclusion should follow directly from the statements provided in question, and
no deviation from it is allowed.

• Questions on Logical Reasoning are of different types. You may be asked to derive an inference
or a conclusion from given statements. Sometimes, you have to consider a statement and
decide from among given assumptions, which one is more implicit in the statement and
which is not.

• You may have to weigh pros and cons of some arguments given for a statement.

• You will have to decide whether the argument is a strong argument or a weak argument.

The key to have a command over this Chapter is to practise as many questions as you can.

Contents

Considering the vision and mission of the Institute along with aims and objectives of CSSET under the
perspectives of global requirement, the contents of Logical Reasoning are divided under three heads,
which includes:

1. Logical Reasoning

2. Verbal Reasoning, and

3. Non- Verbal Reasoning.

These heads are well facilitated with various topics and subtopics under them. The detailed contents
covered under this Part of the study are described as below:

Logical Reasoning • Calendars

• Cause and Effect Reasoning
• Clocks
• Coding and Decoding
• Deriving Conclusion from Passages
• Drawing Inference
• Number Test
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 167

• Sequence and Series

• Statement and Assumptions
Verbal Reasoning • Alphabet Test

• Alpha Numeric Sequence Puzzle

• Analogy

• Assertion and Reason

• Blood Relations

• Decision Making

• Inserting Missing Characters

• Logical Sequence Test

• Logical Venn Diagram

• Number, Ranking and Time Sequence Test

• Syllogism

• Truth Tellers and Liars

Non-Verbal Reasoning • Analytical Reasoning

• Classification

• Completion of Incomplete Pattern

• Figure Matrix

• Grouping of Identical Figures

• Mirror Image

• Rule Detection

• Numeric and Alphabet Series

To have a clear understanding of all the topics and sub-topics of this part, let us analyse them one by
one.
168 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Topic – 1 and 3: Clocks and Calendars (Under Logical Reasoning)

Clocks and Calendars : Concepts

Clock Concepts
• The dial of the clock is circular in shape and was divided into 60 equal minute spaces
• 60 minute spaces traces an angle of 3600. Therefore, 1minute space traverses an angle of 60
• In 1 hour, Minute hand traverses 60 minute space or 3600 , Hour hand traverses 5 minute
space or 300
• The hands of the clock are perpendicular in 15 minute spaces apart
• The hands of the clock are in straight line and opposite to each other in 30 minute spaces
apart.
• The hands of the clock are in straight line when they coincide or opposite to each other.
• The hands of the clock are perpendicular to each other for 22 times in 12 hours and for 44
times in a day.
• The hands of the clock are opposite to each other for 11 times in 12 hours and 22 times in a
day.
• The hands of the clock coincides with each other for 11 times in 12 hours and 22 times per
day
• The hands of the clock are 44 times in a straight line per day
• The minute hand gain 55 minutes over hour hand per hour.
• Hence x minute space to be gained by minute hand over hour hand can be calculated as
x.(60/55) or x.(12/11)

For Example
At what time between 2'O clock and 3'O clock the hands of the clock are opposite to each
other.
1. 34(6/11) past 2'Oclock
2. 43(7/11) past 2'Oclock
3. 56 (8/11) past 2'Oclock
4. 64(9/11past 2'Oclock
Solution
At 2'O clock the minute hand will be at 12 as shown:
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 169

• The minutes hand to coincide with the hour hand it should trace at first 10 minute spaces;
• And then the hands of the clocks to be opposite to each other minute hand should trace 30
minute spaces i.e. totally it should gain 10+30=40 minute spaces to be opposite to that of
hour hand
We know that,
• Minute hand gains 55 minute spaces over hour hand in 1 hour
Therefore, Minute hand gain 40 minute spaces over hour hand in 40 × (60/55) = 43(7/11)
Hence the hand of the clock will minutes be opposite to each at 43( 7/11 ) past 2'Oclock
Therefore, correct option is 2'
When clock is too fast, too slow
• If a clock or watch indicates 6 hr 10 min when the correct time is 6, it is said that the clock is
10 min too fast
• If it indicates 6. 40 when the correct time is 7, it is said to be 20 min too slow.
Now let us have an example based on this concept.

For Example

My watch, which gains uniformly, is 2 minutes. I have to attend a show at noon on Sunday, and
is 4 min 48 seconds fast at 2 PM on the following Sunday. Find out when was it correct ?

Solution

From Sunday noon to the following Sunday at 2 PM, there are 7 days 2 hours or 170 hours.

The watch gains 2+4 4/5 min in 170 hrs.

Therefore, the watch gains 2 min in 2 (divided by) 6 4/5 (multiply by) 170 hrs i.e., 50 hours.

Now 50 hours = 2 Days 2 Hrs.

Therefore, 2 days 2 hours from Sunday noon = 2 PM on Tuesday.

Calendar Concept
• The time in which the earth travels round the sun is a solar year and is equal to 365 days 5 hrs.
48 minutes and 47 1/2 seconds
• Year is 365.2422 days approximately.
• The common year consists of 365 days.
170 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

• The difference between a common year and a solar year is therefore 0.2422 of a day and we
consider it by adding a whole day to every fourth year.
• Consequently in every 4th year there are 366 days.
• The years which have the extra day are called leap years. The day is inserted at the end of
February, The difference between 4 common years and 4 solar years is 0.969 of a day.
• If therefore, we add a whole day to every 4th year, we add too much by 0.0312 of a day. To
take account of this, we omit the extra day three times every 400 years,
• The thing is to ensure that each season may fall at the same time of the year in all years.
• In course of time, without these corrections, we should have winter in July and summer in
January also.
With the very small variation, the present divisions of the year are those given in B.C 46 by Julius
Caesar. The omission of the extra day three times in 400 years is called the Gregorian Correction. This
correction was adopted at once in 1582 in Roman Catholic Countries. But not in England until, 1752.
The Gregorian mode* of reckoning is called the New Style, the former, the Old Style.
The New Style has not yet been adopted in Russia, so that they are now 13 days behind us. For
example – ‘What we call October 26th, they call that 13th October. They have Christmas day on 7th of
January and we have on 25th December every year.
• In an ordinary year there are 365 days i.e., 52 weeks + 1 day
• Therefore an ordinary year contains 1 odd day.

A leap year contains 2 odd days.

100 year = 76 ordinary years + 24 leap years.
= 76 odd days + 48 odd days
= 124 odd days = 17 weeks + 5 days. (in the consideration of weeks)
Therefore, 100 years contain 5 odd days.
200 years contains 3 odd days.
300 years contain 1 odd days

• Since there are 5 odd days in 100 years, there will be 20 days in 400 years. But every 4th
century is a leap year.

* We have 1 possible answer for the clue as per the Mode of Reckoning dates according to Gregorian
Calendar which appears 1 time in our database.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 171

• Therefore, 400 years contain 21 days. Here 400 years contain no odd days.
• As First January 1 AD was Monday. One must count days from Sunday
i.e. Sunday for 0 odd days, Monday for 1 odd day, and Tuesday for 2 odd days and so on.
• Last day of a century cannot be either Tuesday. Thursday or Saturday.
• The first day of a century must either be Monday. Tuesday, Thursday or Saturday.
Calendar: Examples
We can clarify the concept of Calendars with following Examples

Example -1

How many times does the 29th days of the month occur in 400 consecutive years

(1) 97 Times
(2) 4400 times
(3) 4497 times
(4) None
Solution:
In 400 consecutive years there are 97 leap years. Hence in 400 consecutive years, February
has the 29th Days - 97 times, and the remaining 11 months have the 29th Day 400 x 11 or 4400
times.
Therefore, 29th Day of the month occurs (4400 + 97) or 4497 times.
Example – 2
Given that on 10th November 1981 is Tuesday, what was the day on 10th November 1581
(1) Monday
(2) Thursday
(3) Sunday
(4) Tuesday
Solution

After every 400 years, the same day comes.

Thus if 10th November, 1981 was Tuesday, before 400 years i.e. on 10th November 1581, it has
to be Tuesday.
172 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Important Formula and Equations

Some important formulas and equations may help the candidates to solve the questions related to
Clocks and Calendars are listed as below
1. Minute Spaces : The face or dial of watch is a circle whose circumference is divided into 60
equal parts, called minute spaces.
2. Hour Hand and Minute Hand : A clock has two hands, the smaller one is called the hour
hand or short hand while the larger one is called minute hand or long hand.

In 60 minutes, the minute hand gains 55 minutes on the hour on the hour hand.
In every hour, both the hands coincide once.
The hands are in the same straight line when they are coincident or opposite to each
other.
When the two hands are at right angles, they are 15 minute spaces apart.
When the hands are in opposite directions, they are 30 minute spaces apart.
Angle traced by hour hand in 12 hrs = 360°
Angle traced by minute hand in 60 min. = 360°.
If a watch or a clock indicates 8.15, when the correct time is 8, it is said to be 15 minutes
too fast.
On the other hand, if it indicates 7.45, when the correct time is 8, it is said to be 15
minutes too slow.

3. Odd Days : We are supposed to find the day of the week on a given date. For this, we use the
concept of 'odd days'. In a given period, the number of days more than the complete weeks
are called odd days.
4. Leap Year: (i) Every year divisible by 4 is a leap year, if it is not a century. (ii) Every 4th century
is a leap year and no other century is a leap year.
5. Ordinary Year : The year which is not a leap year is called an ordinary years. An ordinary
year has 365 days.
6. Counting of Odd Days : 1 ordinary year = 365 days = (52 weeks + 1 day). 1 ordinary year
has 1 odd day.

1 leap year = 366 days = (52 weeks + 2 days) 1 leap year has 2 odd days.
100 years = 76 ordinary years + 24 leap years
= (76 x 1 + 24 x 2) odd days = 124 odd days.
= (17 weeks) = 5 odd days.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 173

Important Facts/Points to Remember:

Number of odd days in 100 years = 5
Number of odd days in 200 years = (5 x 2)= 3 odd days.
Number of odd days in 300 years = (5 x 3) = 1 odd day.
Number of odd days in 400 years = (5 x 4 + 1) = 0 odd day.
Similarly, each one of 800 years, 1200 years, 1600 years, 2000 years etc. has 0 odd days.
Day of the Week Related to Odd Days (Assuming that 1AD January 1st is a Sunday):

No. of days: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Day: Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat.
174 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Sample Questions

1. What is the angle between the two hands of a clock when the time shown by the clock is 6.30
PM?
(a) 00
(b) 50
(c) 30
(d) 150
Explanation : q = 11/2 m – 30h
= 11/2 *30 - 30 *6
= /165-180/ = 150
2. At what time between 3 and 4 o’clock will the minute hand and the hour hand are on the
same straight line but facing opposite directions.
(a) 3:49
(b) 3:15
(c) 3:39 1/11
(d) 3:49 1/11
Explanation : On straight line means 180 degree angle.
180 = 11/2m- 30h
180 = 11/2 m –30*3
180 = 11/2m-90
(180+90)2 = 11m
m = 540/11 = 49 1/11
3. By how many degrees does the minute hand move in the same time, in which the hour hand
move by 280?
(a) 168
(b) 336
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 175

(c) 196
(d) 376
Explanation : 28*2*6 = 336
4. At what time, between 3 o’clock and 4 o’clock, both the hour hand and minute hand coincide
each other?
(a) 3:30
(b) 3:16 4/11
(c) 3:1611/4
(d) 3:16 7/11
Explanation : Coincide means 00 angle.
0 =11/2m –30*3
11m = 90*2 = 180
m= 180/11 = 16 4/11
So time = 3 : 16 4/11
5. How many degrees will the minute hand move, in the same time in which the second hand
move 4800?
(a) 60
(b) 90
(c) 40
(d) 80
Explanation : Minute hand covers 480/60= 80
6. How many years have 29 days in February from 2001 to 2100?
(a) 26
(b) 25
(c) 23
(d) 24
Explanation : 100th year is not a leap year. So 24 February’s has 29 days
7. 2012 January 1st is Sunday, then which day is the Indian Independence Day of the same
year.
(a) Saturday
(b) Wednesday
176 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

(c) Thursday
(d) Friday
Explanation : 30+ 29+ 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31+15 = 227/7 = reminder = 3
So Independence Day is Wednesday
8. Which year has the same calendar as 1700?
(a) 1705
(b) 1706
(c) 1707
(d) 1708
Explanation
Year : 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705
Odd Days : 1 1 1 1 2 1
9. If Arun’s birthday is on May 25 which is Monday and his sister’s birthday is on July 13. Which
day of the week is his sister’s birthday?
(a) Monday
(b) Wednesday
(c) Thursday
(d) Friday
Explanation : Reference Day: May 25th is Monday
Days from May 25 to July 13 = 6 + 30 +13 = 49
No of Odd Days: 49/7 = 0
10. March 1 is Wednesday. Which month of the same year starts with the same day?
(a) October
(b) November
(c) December
(d) None of these
Explanation
Month : Mar April May June July August September October
Odd Days : 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 3
Total 21 odd days. 21/7 = 0. So November has start with the same day.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 177

Topic – 2
Cause and Effect Reasoning

Introduction
In this type of reasoning, each question contains two statements and the students have to find out
relationship between the two statements. Here the students have to test whether the statements are
related to each other or not. Read them and choose the best option that describes the relationship
between them. These types of problems judge the reasoning and analytical power of the students.
Therefore, Candidates are advised to read the statements very well to arrive at a particular conclusion.
Example
Statement
I. Everybody should work hard.
II. The only way to achieve success is to work hard.
A - Statement I is the reason and statement II is the response.
B - Statement II is the reason and statement I is the response.
C - Both the statements I and II are the not depended reasons.
D - Both the statements I and II are the response of not depended reasons.
E - Both the statements I and II are the response of some common reasons.
Herein the Answer is Option A
Explanation -
In the statement I, it told about a generic statement. Working hard can be taken as a reason but
to describe it as a reason there should be some response. The response is shown in statement II
that tells that through hard work one can achieve success. Hence it shows that, statement I is the
reason and statement II is the response.
Types of Statement
Type - I
These kinds of Statements are about those cases where there will be a direct reason and response
type of statement will be present in the question. The last example that we have discussed goes under
this category. Now let’s discuss another problem of the same kind.
Statement
I. Apple has vitamin D that helps in boosting immunity.
178 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

II. Doctors advice to eat an apple every day.

A - Statement I is the reason and statement II is the response.
B - Statement II is the reason and statement I is the response.
C - Both the statements I and II are the not depended reasons.
D - Both the statements I and II are the response of not depended reasons.
E - Both the statements I and II are the response of some common reasons.
Answer - Option B
Explanation - Here we can clearly see the reason is statement II. This is a reason to describe its
response, which is statement I that tells the necessity of consuming an apple every day.
Type - II
Here we will discuss about those cases in which both the statements will be the response of some
common reason. Let’s analyze it with an example.
Statement
I. There has been a curfew in the city.
II. 24 hours police patrolling is going on in the city.
A - Statement I is the reason and statement II is the response.
B - Statement II is the reason and statement I is the response.
C - Both the statements I and II are the not depended reasons.
D - Both the statements I and II are the response of not depended reasons.
E - Both the statements I and II are the response of some common reasons.
Answer - Option E
Explanation
Clearly both the statements are directing towards a common reason. To simply our thought
process we can assume that for some common reason like Hindu –Muslim riot must have
been reason this type of situation.
Types - III
Sometimes the two statements are the response of some not depended reasons. Let’s try to analyze
this with an example.
Statement
I. There has been a curfew in the city.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 179

II. Doctors advice to eat an apple every day.

A - Statement I is the reason and statement II is the response.
B - Statement II is the reason and statement I is the response.
C - Both the statements I and II are the not depended reasons.
D - Both the statements I and II are the response of not depended reasons.
E - Both the statements I and II are the response of some common reasons.
Answer - Option D
Explanation
We can clearly analyze one thing that, eating apple and curfew are nowhere related to each
other. Hence, they must be the response of not depended reasons.
Types of Causes
There can be different causes in following categories:
1. Immediate Cause : This is the cause that has occurred most recently. Consider the example
of snowfall. Water is heated by the sun and it evaporates into the atmosphere. Once in the
atmosphere, it cools down to a very low temperature and precipitates as snow. There are a
few causes that have led to snowfall. The most immediate being the fact that the raindrops
freeze in the low temperatures of the atmosphere.
2. Principal Cause : This is the main cause responsible for an event. The immediate cause may
or may not be the Principal cause.
3. Independent Cause : This is the cause that is independent of the events. In other words, the
effect and the cause may not have a direct relationship or any relationship at all.
Cause and Effect Reasoning: Possibilities
The question on cause and effect reasoning are mainly designed to decide on a candidate’s ability to
analyze a pair of given statements and to correlate them in terms of cause and effect. Five possibilities
may arise:
1. The fact in the first statement is the effect of that mentioned in the second statement i.e. the
second statement expresses the cause that leads to the condition mentioned in the first;
2. The contents of the first statement form the direct cause of the result discussed in the second
statement;
3. Both the statements express generalized results that may not be backed by any specific cause
but may influence certain other factors;
4. Both the statements are independent and may be explained as effects of different independent
causes;
180 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

5. The effects in both the given statements may be caused or triggered by a third unmentioned
event which may thus be called the common cause of the given events.
Directions or Tips
In each of the following questions, two statements numbered I and II are given. There may be cause
and effect relationship between the two statements. These two statements may be the effect of the
same cause or independent causes. These statements may be independent causes without having
any relationship. Read both the statements in each question and mark your answer accordingly.
Give answer (a) if statement I is the cause and statement II is its effect
Give answer (b) if statement II is the cause and statement I is its effect
Give answer (c) if both the statements I and II are independent causes
Give answer (d) if both the statements I and II are effects of independent causes
Give answer (e) if both the statements I and II are effects of some common cause.
Example -1
I. The local traders' association urged all its members to close down their shops for a day to
protest against the government's new tax policy.
II. Many shopkeepers decided to close down their shops for the day and gave a day off to their
employees.
Solution
Clearly, the association's decision to go for a 'bandh' on a massive scale to protest against the
government's new policy would have instigated the shopkeepers to keep their shops closed. Thus, I
mentions the direct cause of the effect in II. Hence the answer is (a).
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 181

Sample Questions

Directions : In each of the following questions, two statements numbered I and II are given. There may
be cause and effect relationship between the two statements. These two statements may be the effect
of the same cause or independent causes. These statements may be independent causes without
having any relationship. Read both the statements in each question and mark your answer accordingly.

Give answer (a) if statement I is the cause and statement II is its effect;

Give answer (b) if statement II is the cause and statement I is its effect;

Give answer (c) if both the statements I and II are independent causes;

Give answer (d) if both the statements I and II are effects of independent causes;

Give answer (e) if both the statements I and II are effects of some common cause.

Q.1.
I. The prices of vegetables have been increased considerably during this summer.
II. There is tremendous increase in the temperature during this summer thereby damaging
crops greatly.
Answer B
Solution
Clearly, damage to crops due to high temperature may have resulted in a short supply of vegetables
and hence an increase in their prices
Q.2
I. Police resorted to lathi to disperse the unlawful gathering of large number of people.
II. The citizens' forum called a general strike in protest against the police atrocities.
Answer A
Solution
Clearly, the people's mass protest against the police might have instigated the latter to indulge in
lathi-charge to disperse the mob.
182 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Q.3
I. It is the aim of the city's civic authority to get air pollution reduced by 20% in the next two
months.
Il. The number of asthma cases in the city is constantly increasing.
Answer B
Solution
The increase in number of asthma cases must have alerted the authorities to take action to
control air pollution that triggers the disease.
Q.4
I. The police authority has recently caught a group of house breakers.
II. The citizens group in the locality have started night vigil in the area.
Answer E
Solution
Both the statements are clearly backed by a common cause, which is clearly and increase in the
number of thefts in the locality.
Q.5
I. The university authority has instructed all the colleges under its jurisdiction to ban use of all
phones inside the college premises.
II. Majority of the teachers of the colleges signed a joint petition to the university complaining
the disturbances caused by cell phone ring-tones inside the classroom.
Answer B
Solution
Clearly, the university's decision came as a sequel to the complaint received by it from the college
teachers against use of mobile phones in the college premises.
Q.6
I. The government has recently fixed the fees for professional courses offered by the unaided
institutions which are much lower than the fees charged last year.
II. The parents of the aspiring students launched a severe agitation last year protesting against
the high fees charged by the unaided institutions.
Answer B
Solution
The parents' protest against high fees being charged by the institutional led the government to
interfere and fix the fees at a more affordable level.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 183

Q.7.
I. Large number of people living in the low-lying areas have been evacuated during the last few
days to safer places.
Il. The Government has rushed in relief supplies to the people living in the areas.
Answer E
Solution
Evacuating low-lying areas and rushing in relief to the affected areas clearly that floods have
occurred in the area.
Q.8.
I. The performance of most of the students in final exam of class X in the by the Government was
excellent.
II. Many teachers of the Government schools left the school and joined private school.
Answer D
Solution
The students of government schools performing well in the examinations and the teacher of
government schools leaving their jobs to join private school are two separate situations that must
have been triggered by independent causes.
Q.9.
I. Majority of the citizens in the locality belong to higher income group.
II. The sales in the local supermarket are comparatively much higher than in other localities.
Answer B
Solution
The comparatively higher sales in a particular locality are indicative of the high paying capacity of
the residents of that locality.
Q.10.
I. There is considerable reduction in the number of people affected by water-borne disease in
City A during this rainy season.
II. The government has opened four new civil hospitals in City A in the beginning of the year.
Answer C
Solution
The given statements are self-sufficient and depict independent events.
184 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Topic 4
Coding and Decoding

Coding is a system of signals. This is a method of transmitting information in the form of codes or
signals without it being known by a third person.
The person who transmits the code or signal, is called the sender and the person who receives it, is
called the receiver. Transmitted codes or signals are decoded on the other side by the receiver—this
is known as decoding.
In questions on coding-decoding, a word (basic word) is coded in a particular way and the candidates
are asked to code other word in the same way. The coding and decoding tests are set up to judge the
candidate’s ability to decipher the rule that has been followed to code a particular word/message
and break the code to decipher the message.

Approach
(1) Observe alphabets or numbers given in the code keenly.
(2) Find the sequence it follows whether it is ascending or descending.
(3) Detect the rule in which the alphabets/numbers/words follow.
(4) Fill the appropriate letter/number/word in the blank given.
Letter coding : Alphabets in a word are replaced by other alphabets according to a specific rule to
know its code. So the common rule should be detected first. Some examples are given below:
(1) ‘ZYXW’ as coded as ‘ABCD’ then ‘STUV’ is coded as...........
Answer : Z – A, Y– B, X – C, W – D
V – E, U – F, T – G, S – H
STUV = HGFE
Answer = HGFE
Rule= front alphabet= back alphabet.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 185

(2) ‘ bcd’ is coded as ‘def ’ then ‘True’ is coded as..........

Answer : b – d (+2)
c – e (+2)
d – f (+2)
+2 letters are considered in this code.
True – Vtwg
Answer = Vtwg.
(3) ‘ Hyderabad ’ is coded as ‘Ixedszcze’ then ‘Chennai’ is coded as..............
Answer : H – I (+1)
Y – X (1–)
D – E (1+)
E – D (1-)
R – S (1+)
A – Z (1–)
B – C (1+)
A – Z (1– )
D – E (1+)
Here if we observe alternatively the letter increasing and one letter decreasing.
Chennai =dgfmozj
Answer = dgfmozj
Number coding : In this each alphabets or words are assigned to the numeric values we should
observe the given letters and the assigned values and use the same rule to find the value to of given
code. Some examples are given below:
(1) Apple is coded as 25563, Rung is coded as 7148. Then purple is coded as
Answer
PURPLE – 517563
Answer = 517563.
(2) In a language A is coded as 1, B is coded as 2, then FACE is coded as
Answer
Then FACE = 6135
Answer = 6135.
186 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

(3) PUSH is coded as 1234, ROUGH is coded as 65274. Then SOUP is coded as
Answer
SOUP = 3521
Answer = 3521.
Substitution : In this section an object names are substituted with different object names. We should
carefully trace the substitution and answer given question. Some examples are given below:
(1) ‘book’ is coded as ‘pencil’, ‘pencil’ is coded as ‘mirror’, ‘mirror is coded as ‘book’. Then what
is useful to write on a paper?
Answer : Pencil is coded as mirror
Answer = mirror.
(2) ‘man is coded as ‘woman’, woman is coded as ‘girl’, ‘girl’ is coded as ‘boy’, ‘boy’ is coded as
‘worker’ then 6 years female is known as?
Answer : 6 years female = girl, but ‘girl’ is coded as ‘boy’.
Answer = boy.
(3) ‘Reds’ are ‘blues’, ‘blues’ are ‘whites’, ‘whites’ are ‘yellows’, ‘yellows’ are ‘oranges’, ‘oranges’
are ‘pinks’, then what is the colour of the sky?
Answer : Sky is blue, but blues are whites
Answer = white.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 187

Sample Questions

1. In a certain code, COMPUTER is written as RFUVQNPC. How is MEDICINE written in the

same code?
(a) MFEDJJOE
(b) EOJDEJFM
(c) MFEJDJOE
(d) EOJDJEFM
Answer : Option D
The letters of the word are written in reverse order and expect the first and the last letter all
other letters are move one step forward
2. In a code language, A is written as B, B is written as C, C is written as D and so on, then how
will SMART be written in that code language ?
(a) TLBSU
(b) SHBSU
(c) TNBSU
(d) SNBRU
Answer : Option C
The letters are coded by moving them 1 step forward.
3. In a certain code, RIPPLE is written as 613382 and LIFE is written as 8192. How is PILLER
written in that code?
(a) 318826
(b) 776655
(c) 786543
(d) 156724
Answer : Option A
Word : R I P P L E L I F E P I L L E R
Code : 6 1 3 3 8 2 8 1 9 2 3 1 8 8 2 6
188 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

4. In a certain code FLOWER is coded as 36 and SUNFLOWER is coded as 81, then how to
code FOLLOWS?
(a) 42
(b) 49
(c) 63
(d) 36
Answer : Option B
The word FLOWER has 6 letters. 62 is 36
The word SUNFLOWER has 9 letters. 92 is 81
Like FOLLOWS has 7 letters. So 72 is 49
5. In a certain code ,'il be pee' means 'roses are blue','sik hee' means 'red flowers' and 'pee mit
hee' means 'flowers are vegetables', How is 'red' written in that code?
(a) hee
(b) sik
(c) be
(d) cannot be determined
(e) none
Answer : Option B
Code Sentence
Il be pee roses are blue
Sik hee red flowers
Pee mit hee flowers are vegetables
In II and III code ‘hee’ stands for ‘flowers’. So ‘sik’ stands for ‘red’
6. In a certain code language : ‘dugo hui mul zo’ stans for ‘work is very hard’ ‘hui dugo ba ki’ for
‘Bingo is very smart’; ‘nano mul dugo’ for ‘cake is hard’; and ‘mul ki gu’ for ‘smart and hard’
Which of the following word stand for Bingo ?
(a) Jalu
(b) Dugo
(c) Ki
(d) Ba
Answer : Option D
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 189

Code Sentence
1. dugo hui mul zo work is very hard
2. hui dugo ba ki bingo is very smart
3. nano mul dugo cake is hard
4. mul ki gu smart and hard
From second code and its sentence neither ‘ba’ is repeated nor is ‘Bingo.
7. If rain is called water, water is called air, air is called cloud, cloud is called sky, sky is called sea,
sea is called road, where do the aeroplanes fly?
(a) Water
(b) Road
(c) Sea
(d) Cloud
Answer : Option C
Aeroplanes fly in sky and as per given codes sky is sea
8. If Orange is called Lemon, Lemon is called Flower, Flower is called Fish, Fish is called Tail and
Tail is called Pen, what is Rose?
(a) Pen
(b) Lemon
(c) Flower
(d) Fish
Answer : Option D
Rose is a flower and as per given codes flower is fish.
9. In a certain code language $#* means ‘Shirt is clean’, @ D# means ‘Clean and neat’ and @
? means ‘neat boy’, then what is the code for ‘and’ in that language
(a) #

(b) D

(c) @

(d) Data inadequate

Answer : Option B
190 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Code sentence
$#* ‘Shirt is clean’,
@ D# ‘Clean and neat’
@ ? ‘neat boy’
Here # stands for clean and @ stands for neat. D stands for ‘and’
10. If A stands for +, B stands for -, C stands for x, what is the value of (10C4)(A) (4C4)B6 ?
(a) 60
(b) 50
(c) 56
(d) 46
Answer : Option B
(10C4)(A) (4C4) B6 = (10 * 4) + (4*4) –6 = 50
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 191

Topic 5
Deriving Conclusion from Passages

In this section of logical deduction, the question consists of a brief passage (usually a report containing
certain data regarding some social or economic problem), Followed by certain inferences based on
it. The candidate is required to analyse the content (or data) of the passage and grasp the desirable
facts from it.
Then, he has to consider each of the given inferences in the context of the given passage, decide
upon its degree of truth or falsity and then choose the best alternative provided accordingly.
Directions : Read the following passage and examine each inference given below it in the context of
this passage.

Mark your answer as:

(a) if the inference is 'definitely true'
(b) if the inference is 'probably true';
(c) if the 'data provided is inadequate';
(d) if the inference is 'probably false'; and
(e) if the inference is 'definitely false'.
Example 1. The World Health Organization has called for improved surveillance to combat dengue
and says the outbreak can be controlled in two weeks if all necessary steps are taken to stop the
mosquitoes from breeding and break the transmission cycle.
Dengue is already the most widespread mosquito-borne disease among humans. In the past 15 years,
outbreaks in South and South-East Asia have been rapidly rising mostly due to falling environmental
and public health standards during urbanization. WHO, reports that severe forms of the disease such
as hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and shock syndrome (DSS) are putting more 2.5 million people at risk
worldwide each year. Importantly, 95 % of the DHF cases are among children less than 15 years.
Therefore, the disease has major impacts on public health and future generations.
1. If rate of urbanization in South Asia is controlled, outbreaks of all disease are reduced.
2. World Health Organization has not collected data of outbreak of dengue in the past.
3. There was no outbreak of dengue in the European countries in the recent past.
4. Over the last decade, South Asian countries have not successfully stepped up mechanism to
combat dengue.
5. DSS type dengue seems mostly to be affecting the adults.
192 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Solution
1. It is mentioned in the passage that 'outbreaks in South and South East Asia have been rapidly
rising mostly due to falling environmental and public health standards during urbanization'.
Thus, the fact in the question is quite probable. So, the conclusion is probably true.
2. The passage talks of outbreak of dengue during the past 15 years. This contradicts give
European countries. Hence, the data are inadequate
3. The passage mentions the outbreak of dengue during in Asian countries only and not the
European countries. Hence the data are inadequate
4. It is mentioned in the passage that cases of outbreak of dengue are rapidly rising in South
Asian countries since the last 15 years. This means that adequate steps to combat dengue
have not been taken. Hence, the conclusion is definitely true.
5. Nothing about the effect of DSS type dengue is mentioned in the passage. Hence the data are
inadequate.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 193

Sample Questions

Directions : Read the following passage and examine each inference given below it in the context of
this passage.

Mark your answer as:

(a) if the inference is 'definitely true'

(b) if the inference is 'probably true';

(c) if the 'data provided is inadequate';

(d) if the inference is 'probably false'; and

(e) if the inference is 'definitely false'.

Procurement of wheat is in full swing in the north-western states of India. By June end, public agencies
are likely to end up with food grain stocks of about 40 to 42 million tonnes, the highest ever witnessed
in the history of this country. This stock should be more than sufficient to ensure that the country's
"food security" is not endangered even if India faces two consecutive droughts.

But strangely enough, while the granaries overflow, there is still widespread hunger in the country
even without a drought. The estimates of poverty are being debated, but broadly one-third of India
seems to remain underfed. And this coexistent of grain surpluses with large scale hunger should make
any serious policy-maker think and examine the existing policy mix with a view to ensure faster
economic growth and reduction in poverty.

Q.1 The policy-makers in India are unaware of prevalent hunger.

Answer B

Explanation

The statement ‘…………….. while the granaries overflow, there is still widespread hunger
in the country ....' in the passage, indicates a lackening on the part of the policy-makers.
Hence, it is quite probable that they are unaware of the prevalent hunger. Thus, the given
inference is probably true.

Q.2 India always maintains foodgrain stocks to withstand two consecutive droughts.
Answer D
194 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Explanation
It is mentioned in the passage that the current foodgrain stock is the highest e witnessed in
the history of this country'. Thus, it is quite probable that such stocks are not always
maintained. Hence, the given inference is probably false.
Q.3 The distribution of foodgrains to the masses has remained a problem area for India.
Answer A
Explanation
The phrase 'coexistence of grain surpluses with large scale hunger' in the passage clearly
implies the given fact. Hence, the inference is definitely true.
Q.4 India's foodgrains stock has been satisfactory over the past few years.
Answer C
Explanation
Nothing about the previous years' foodgrain stock of the country has been mentioned in
the passage. Only the current situation has been discussed. Hence, the data are inadequate.
Q.5 More than 30 percent of the population in India do not even get two times meals per day.
Answer A
Explanation
The given fact is clear from the sentence, “.... but broadly one-third of India seems to
remain underfed". Hence, the inference is definitely true.
Q.6 The policy of India needs to be revamped to reduce the extent of poverty in the country.
Answer A
Explanation
The last sentence of the passage clearly implies the given fact. Hence, the given inference
is definitely true.
Q.7 India, at present, is one of the countries in the world to have sufficient food for its people.
Answer A
Explanation
The statement “This stock should be more than sufficient to ensure that country’s food
security is not endangered’’ clearly supports the given inference. Hence, the given inference
is definitely true.
Direction for [Question No: 8 To 10]: Economic liberalization and globalization have put
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 195

pressures on Indian industry, particularly on the service sector, to offer quality products
and services at low costs and with high speed. Organizations have to compete with unequal
partners from abroad. It is well recognized that developing countries like India are already
behind other countries technologically, in many areas, although some of them, particularly
India, boast of huge scientific and technical manpower. In addition to this, if an entrepreneur
or industrialist has to spend a lot of his time, money and energy in dealing with unpredictable
services and in negotiating with the local bureaucracy, it can have a significant dampening
effect on business.
Q.8 Official formalities are less cumbersome in almost all the countries except India.
A. If you think the inference is 'definitely true'.
B. If you think the inference is 'probably true' though not definitely true in the light of the
facts given.
C. If the data given is inadequate i.e., from the fact given you cannot say whether the
inference is likely to be true or false.
D. If you think the inference is probably false though not definitely false in the light of the
facts given.
Answer C
Explanation
The last sentence of the passage hints at cumbersome official formalities in India, but nothing
can be deduced about its comparison to other countries.
Q.9 India at present is to some extent at par with the developed countries in terms of
technological development.
A. If you think the inference is 'definitely true'.
B. If you think the inference is 'probably true' though not definitely true in the light of the
facts given.
C. If the data given is inadequate i.e., from the fact given you cannot say whether the
inference is likely to be true or false.
D. If you think the inference is probably false though not definitely false in the light of the
facts given.
Answer D
Explanation
It is mentioned in the passage that though India boasts of huge technical manpower, yet it
lags behind other countries in technology. Thus, it is quite probable that India is in no way
at par with the developed countries in terms of technological development.
196 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Q.10 Foreign companies are more equipped than domestic companies to provide quality service
in good time.
A. If you think the inference is 'definitely true'.
B. If you think the inference is 'probably true' though not definitely true in the light of the
facts given.
C. If the data given is inadequate i.e., from the fact given you cannot say whether the
inference is likely to be true or false.
D. If you think the inference is probably false though not definitely false in the light of the
facts given.
Answer A
Explanation
The fact clearly follows from the first two sentences of the passage.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 197

Topic 6
Drawing Inference

An inference...is a statement about the unknown made on the basis of the known.
S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action (2nd ed.) p. 41
Inferences are evidence-based guesses. They are the conclusions a reader draws about the unsaid
based on what is actually said. Inferences drawn while reading are much like inferences drawn in
everyday life. If your best friend comes in from a blind date and looks utterly miserable, you would
probably infer the date was not a success. Drawing inferences while you read requires exactly the
same willingness to look at the evidence and come to a conclusion that has not been expressed in
words. Only in reading, the evidence for your inference consists solely of words rather than actual
events, expressions, or gestures.
To pull meaning from the page, readers need to draw all kinds of inferences. They need to infer main
ideas; figure out how sentences and paragraphs relate; connect supporting details to main ideas;
match pronouns to antecedents (the words to which pronouns refer); understand the function of
allusions (references to people and events that are used to make a point); and determine how visual
aids contribute to the author's message (This is just a partial list). While it's commonly assumed that
writers supply every word readers need to construct meaning, nothing could be further from the
truth. Readers almost always help create the texts they read. Those readers who don't draw inferences
to fill in gaps in the text are likely to miss or misunderstand the meaning intended by the author.
For an illustration of how important inferences are to communication between reader and writer,
read the following sentence: "After reading that Paris Hilton told an interviewer how the beauty of her
hit song 'Stars Are Blind' made her want to cry, I couldn't help thinking of a quotation from Mark
Twain: 'Man is the only animal that blushes—or needs to.' " To understand that sentence, readers
need to draw at least three essential inferences:
a. The author thinks the song is just awful.
b. Mark Twain thought that only humans blushed because they were the only ones who did
things they needed to be ashamed of.
c. The author makes a connection between Hilton and Twain because she thinks Paris Hilton is
one of those humans who should blush from shame.
Note as well how the author expects readers to infer that the antecedent for the pronoun "her" is Paris
Hilton. Linking pronouns to antecedents is one of the most common kinds of inferences readers are
expected to draw on a consistent basis.
What You Need to Know About Inferences
1. There are logical and illogical inferences, inferences that "fit" the rest of the text and inferences
that don't. Make sure your inference has the right fit by relying on the author's words more
198 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

than on your own feelings and opinions. To give you an obvious example: If the writer uses
glowing language to describe the presidency of Bill Clinton but never states an opinion of the
Clinton years in office, you probably shouldn't infer that the writer is a Clinton critic just
because you yourself thought Bill Clinton was a terrible president.
2. Think of inferring implied main ideas as a two-step process, moving from part to whole. Your
first step is to understand what each sentence contributes to your knowledge of the topic.
Next ask yourself what the sentences combine as group to suggest. The answer to that question
is the implied main idea of the paragraph.
3. If you draw an inference about the main idea, check to see if the your inference is contradicted
by any statements in the paragraph. If it is, you have probably drawn an illogical inference,
one that does not follow from the information given. With particularly difficult readings, see
if you can actually identify the language or statements that led you to the main idea you
inferred. This kind of close reading is a great inference check. It also gives you practice doing
the kind of thoughtful reading that guarantees remembering.
4. Transitions such as "consequently," "next," and "in summary" definitely help readers make
connections between sentences and paragraphs. Transitions are the considerate author's
way of saying, "This is the connection you need to make between what you just read and
what's coming up." However, transitions are not as commonly used as readers might like. It's
often the reader's job to supply sentence and paragraph connections. In other words, it's the
reader's job to draw the right inference. If a sentence doesn't open with a transition—and a
good many won't—make sure you know how the sentence you are reading connects to the
ideas that came before.
5. Pay especially close attention to sentence openers. That's where you will often get the clues
you need to infer relationships between sentences and paragraphs.
6. Be on the look-out for key allusions or idioms (expressions that might seem completely out of
place to those just learning the language, but which make sense to those who grew up
hearing or reading these expressions), e.g., she loved her job; the money was "icing on the
cake"). Allusions and idioms often suggest meanings that are central to the author's message.
For instance, if the writer says that "the shotgun marriage between the unions and
management dissolved once the war was over" you can infer that the unions and management
were working together because they were forced to by necessity. However, the writer doesn't
say anything about either side being forced by necessity. Instead, she uses an idiom and
expects reader to draw the correct inference.
7. If the text includes visual aids, but neither the title nor caption tells you exactly how they
relate to the author's meaning, take the time to figure out the relationship between text and
graphic. Inferring relationships between the author's words and the visual aids will deepen
your overall understanding of the point or points being made. You will also have two ways,
one verbal, one visual, to anchor information in long-term memory.
8. To get you started thinking about inferences, here are a few warm-up exercises. If you sail
through these, you can find more at Online Practice for Reading for Results.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 199

Exercise 1
Directions : Each item in this exercise describes a famous person. It's your job to infer the name of
the person described.

1. A small-town lawyer from Illinois, tall and lanky with an Adam's apple that could have gone
down in the Guinness Book of Records had it existed in the nineteenth century. Nevertheless,
he changed the face of American history, steering it through a civil war that left both sides
bloody. Who knows what more he could have done had an assassin's bullet not cut him
down.

The person described is _______________________________

In drawing the correct inference, which piece of information is more useful:

a. He had a big Adam's apple.

b. He steered the nation through a civil war.
Answer and Explanation:
1. Abraham Lincoln

Clue : He steered the country through civil war.

Explanation : Lots of people have big Adam’s apples, but America has had only one civil
war.

2. Glittering and shaking to the strains of "Proud Mary," this lady ruled the stage in the sixties,
but Ike ruled the roost until she walked out the door. It took her almost a decade to get
back on top but she still remains one of pop's great divas. Closing in on sixty, she can still
belt out rock and roll with singers half her age, and "Simply the Best" just may qualify as
her own personal theme song.

The person described is _____________________________

In drawing the appropriate inference, which piece of information is more useful.

a. She ruled the stage but Ike ruled the roost.

b. She was a popular singer in the sixties.

Answer and Explanation

Tina Turner

Clue : She ruled the stage but Ike ruled the roost.

Explanation : There were many popular women singers in the sixties but only one was
linked to a domineering husband named Ike.
200 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Exercise 2
Directions : For each situation, draw what you think is an appropriate inference.
1. You have just gotten a pit bull puppy from an animal shelter. He's lovable but nervous. If you
raise your voice for any reason, he cowers and trembles. If you scold him, he hides. When
you got him from the shelter, he had a slight limp and a deep scratch across his nose.
Inference :
2. You are a high school student sitting in class when a substitute teacher walks in and announces
that your regular teacher is ill. Everyone in the class including you erupts in applause. The
substitute raps his knuckles on the desk for order, but the students ignore him and talk louder.
Inference : Answers may vary.
1. Inference: The puppy may well have been abused by its former owners.
2. Inference: The students are going to take advantage of the substitute teacher.
Exercise 3
Directions : Each item in this exercise introduces a topic. Six specific statements about the topic
follow. Read them carefully. Then choose the more appropriate inference.
1. Topic: Shakespeare in nineteenth-century America
Specific Statements :
a. In the early nineteenth century, Shakespeare was the most widely performed playwright
in both the North and Southeast.
b. In the first half of the nineteenth century, English and American actors could always earn
money by performing Shakespeare in towns both big and small.
c. American audiences were famous for their participation in performances of Shakespeare's
plays: They hurled eggs and tomatoes at the villains and cheered and whistled for the
heroes.
d. By the end of the nineteenth century, theater owners claimed that most ordinary people
couldn't understand Shakespeare, and they were refusing to stage his plays.
e. In the early 1800s, theater goers in big cities could often choose between three different
productions of Macbeth or Romeo and Juliet; by the end of the nineteenth century, it
was hard to find one production of a Shakespeare play, let alone several.
Answer B
Inference
a. Early American audiences embraced Shakespeare's plays enthusiastically because they
wanted to prove that they were as clever and sophisticated as their former British rulers.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 201

b. The role of Shakespeare in America changed dramatically as the nineteenth century

drew to a close.
2. Topic : The medics in World War II
Specific Statements
a. During training for combat, the medics were often despised because most of them had
refused to take up arms.
b. The medics had their own barracks and were separated from combat soldiers, who
referred to them as "pill pushers" and laughed at their medical drills.
c. In actual combat, it was often the medics who meant the difference between life and
death for soldiers wounded in battle; they were the ones who braved gunfire to carry
wounded soldiers to the hospital.
d. In many divisions, soldiers who had lived through combat took up collections in order to
provide bonuses for the medics.
e. Interviewing veterans of World War II, author Stephen Ambrose consistently heard from
men who believed they owed their lives to some member of the medical core.
Inference
a. The combat experience profoundly changed the way soldiers felt about the medical
core.
b. Despite their bravery in the battles of World War II, medics never really received the
respect that was due them.
Answer A
Exercise 4
Directions : Read each paragraph. Then choose the inference that could effectively sum up the
main idea.
1. When World War II broke out in Europe in 1939, the United States was the only major power
without a propaganda agency. More important, despite prodding from England and France,
the U.S. had no plans to create one. During World War I, a government-based group known
as the Committee for Public Information had successfully stirred up public feeling against
German-Americans because America was at war with Germany. As a result, many innocent
German-American citizens had been insulted, beaten, even lynched. In addition, a good
portion of the American public still believed that the United States had been tricked into
entering World War I because of British propaganda. Distrustful of propaganda in general,
there was little widespread support for a government agency dispensing it when the Second
World War broke out.
Inference
a. Because of what had happened during World War I, the American public was suspicious
of propaganda and not inclined to support its use when World War II first erupted.
202 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

b. Aware of how the German government was using propaganda to spread hate and
violence, the American public was reluctant to make use of it at the beginning of World
War II.
Answer A
2. At his death in 1971, trumpeter Louis Armstrong was much loved as a celebrity. Yet as a
musician, he no longer commanded wide respect among the general public. To most people,
he was the man with the toothy smile who made occasional appearances in television and
movies usually singing what had become his signature songs "Hello, Dolly" and "It's a Wonderful
World." Jazz enthusiasts, however, had another take on the passing of Louis Armstrong. To
them he was the New Orleans-born musician who had, along with Bix Beiderbecke, introduced
the solo to jazz. With records like "Struttin' with Some Barbecue," "I'm not Rough," and "Potato
Head Blues," Louis became the first great jazz influence. As music critic Terry Teachout has
written, Louis Armstrong was "the player other players copied." Still, at his death, few really
knew what Louis had accomplished. In his honor, radio and television broadcasts played
"Hello Dolly," not "West-End Blues," his 1928 recording that starts off with what may be the
most famous horn solo in jazz.
Inference
a. A hero to much of the jazz community, Louis Armstrong was forgotten by the general
public at the time he died.
b. At his death, Louis Armstrong was a beloved celebrity whose spectacular achievements
had been forgotten by all but devoted jazz fans.
Answer B
Exercise 5
Directions : Read each paragraph. Then draw an inference that sums up the main idea.
1. In the movies, England's King Richard the First—he of the lion heart and Robin Hood fame—
is a hero of spotless reputation. In Hollywood's many versions of the Robin Hood story, for
example, Robin worships good King Richard and would willingly die for him. History, however,
offers a different slant on Richard's supposed goodness. In 1189, the Pope called for yet
another crusade to take back the holy land of Jerusalem from Moslem rule. Intent on following
the Pope's order, Richard combined forces with King Philip the II of France. Together, they
managed to take the town of Acre, a port on what is now Israel's Northwestern coast.
Attempting to blackmail the Moslem ruler Saladin into giving up sacred lands, Richard took
2,500 civilians hostage, many of them women and children. When Saladin refused, Richard
promptly slaughtered every last one of his hostages.
Inference :
2. When Bonnie Parker met Clyde Barrow, she was twenty years old. Although she had been a
rebellious child and teenager, she had never broken a law in her life. The worst thing she had
done in her mother's opinion was run off and get married to a shiftless womanizer who
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 203

humiliated and neglected her. When Clyde came along, Bonnie was ripe for the attentions of
a man who seemed to think she was both important and attractive. As long as he didn't desert
her, Bonnie didn't much care about Clyde's two-year jail sentence. In jail at least, she knew
where he was, and she could write him daily letters about how much she loved him. Bonnie,
however, got nervous when she heard that Clyde was planning a jailbreak. To bind him more
tightly to her, she smuggled him a gun and helped him escape. After he got caught and sent
back to prison, Bonnie was even more determined to wait for the man she called her "one
true love." Upon his release from jail, Bonnie took Clyde home to meet her folks and announced
she was going to Houston, Texas to get a new job. The next time her mother heard from her,
Bonnie Parker was sitting in jail and had formally started her career as one half of the most
famous bandit duo in history.
Answers will vary.
1. Richard the Lionhearted was not as pure of heart as some movies suggest.
2. Her romantic attachment to Clyde Barrow led Bonnie Parker into a life of crime.
204 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Topic 7
Number Test

Self – Exercise Questions

Directions to Solve
In each series, look for the degree and direction of change between the numbers. In other words,
do the numbers increase or decrease, and by how much
1. Look at this series: 2, 1, (1/2), (1/4) ... What number should come next?
A. (1/3)
B. (1/8)
C. (2/8)
D. (1/16)
Answer : Option B
Explanation
This is a simple division series; each number is one-half of the previous number.
In other terms to say, the number is divided by 2 successively to get the next result.
4/2 = 2
2/2 = 1
1/2 = 1/2
(1/2)/2 = 1/4
(1/4)/2 = 1/8 and so on.
2. Look at this series: 7, 10, 8, 11, 9, 12,... What number should come next?
A. 7
B. 10
C. 12
D. 13
Answer : Option B
Explanation
This is a simple alternating addition and subtraction series. In the first pattern, 3 is added; in
the second, 2 is subtracted.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 205

3. Look at this series: 36, 34, 30, 28, 24, ... What number should come next?
A. 20
B. 22
C. 23
D. 26
Answer: Option B
Explanation:
This is an alternating number subtraction series. First, 2 is subtracted, then 4, then 2, and so
on.
4. Look at this series: 22, 21, 23, 22, 24, 23, ... What number should come next?
A. 22
B. 24
C. 25
D. 26
Answer: Option C
Explanation:
In this simple alternating subtraction and addition series; 1 is subtracted, then 2 is added, and
so on.
5. Look at this series: 53, 53, 40, 40, 27, 27, ... What number should come next?
A. 12
B. 14
C. 27
D. 53
Answer: Option B
Explanation:
In this series, each number is repeated, then 13 is subtracted to arrive at the next number.
6. Look at this series: 21, 9, 21, 11, 21, 13, 21, ... What number should come next?
A. 14
B. 15
206 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

C. 21
D. 23
Answer: Option B
7. Look at this series: 58, 52, 46, 40, 34, ... What number should come next?
A. 26
B. 28
C. 30
D. 32
Answer: Option B
8. Look at this series: 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12,... What number should come next?
A. 7
B. 10
C. 14
D. 15
Answer: Option D
9. Look at this series: 8, 22, 8, 28, 8, ... What number should come next?
A. 9
B. 29
C. 32
D. 34
Answer: Option D
10. Look at this series: 31, 29, 24, 22, 17, ... What number should come next?
A. 15
B. 14
C. 13
D. 12
Answer: Option A
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 207

Topic 8
Sequence and Series

Number series is important for various competitive examinations. In this category of questions, a
series of various numbers is given with a blank. We are supposed to find out a pattern between every
number and its predecessor and find out the answer using the same logic.
For the purpose of better understanding of the concept, we classify them into the following categories:
• Series with a constant difference
• Series with an increasing difference
• Series with a decreasing difference
• Squares/ Cubes series
• Combination of different operations
• Miscellaneous
The Best Approach
The best way of approaching number series questions is to observe the difference between various
terms. If we see a constant difference, then it’s a constant difference series. If the difference is decreasing
or increasing by a constant number, then it is a series of type 2 or type 3. But if there is no such increase
or decrease in the difference, then try dividing the 2nd term with the first, third with the second and
so on. If you obtain the same number each time, then it is a product series.
Also, if none of these seem to work, then you can try writing each term as a product of two factors and
try to see if there is any pattern. If you still observe no pattern and the difference is increasing or
decreasing rapidly, then try to look for square/ cube series.
If the difference is increasing and decreasing in some fixed manner, then it is a type of combination
series.
Let us look at each type of series in greater depth:
1. Series with a constant difference
In this kind of series, any 2 consecutive numbers have the same difference between them.
For example : 1, 5, 9, 13, ?
We can observe that we are adding 4 to the previous number to obtain the next number. So,
answer here will be 13+4 = 17.
2. Series with an increasing difference
In this type of series, the difference between two consecutive terms keep on increasing as we
move forward in a series. Let us try to use this theory in a question.
1,2,4,7,11,16,?
208 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

We can clearly observe that the series is increasing with the difference: +1, +2, +3 ,+4 , +5.
So, we will obtain our number by adding 6 to 16 which gives us 22.
3. Series with a decreasing difference
In this type of series, the difference between two consecutive terms keep on decreasing as we
move forward in a series. Let us try to use this with some modification in the previous question
that we did.
16,11,7,4,2, ?
We can clearly observe that the series is decreasing with the difference: -5, -4, -3 ,-2 .
So, we will obtain our number by subtracting 1 from 2 which gives us 1.
4. Squares/ Cubes series
We can have series where the terms are related to the squares/ cubes of numbers. We can
have a lot of variations here. Let us look at some of the possibilities.
1, 9, 25, 49 , ?
We can observe that the above series is square of odd numbers starting from one. So our
answer will be 9^2 = 81.
Let us look at another example:
1,1,2,4,3,9,4,?
We observe here that the series is formed by writing numbers starting from 1 along with its
square as the next number i.e. ( 1 , 1x1) , (2, 2x2) and so on. So we obtain our answer as 16
which is 4x2.
Consider the following question:
9 , 28 , ? , 126.
The answer for above question will be 65, let us discuss how.
9 , 28 , ? , 126.
(23+1) (33+1) (53+1)
The blank should have 43+1. Hence, the answer is 65.
5. Combination of different operations
This kind of series has more than 1 type of arithmetic operations which have been performed
or it can also have 2 different series which have been combined to form a single series. This
kind of series is the most asked and the most important among all the types of series that we
have discussed so far.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 209

Consider the series:

1, 3 , 6 , 2 , 6 , 9 , 3 , 9 , ?
The first term 1 is multiplied by 3 to give the second term, 3 has been added to the second
term to get the third term. The next term is 2 which is 1 more than the 1st term. It is multiplied
with 3 to give next term and the process is continued. With this process, we obtain our
answer as 12.
Consider the series:
6, 10 , 7, 11 , 8 , 12 , ?
We can see that the above series is a combination of 2 simple series:
1st, 3rd, 5th terms make an increasing series of 6 , 7 , 8….. . The 2nd, 4th and 7th term make a
series of 10, 11, 12…. So, our answer will be 9 which is the 7th term of the original series.
6. Miscellaneous series
Some series do not come under any of the above mentioned categories but are very important
and also asked in many examinations.
The series of prime numbers or any other related operation done on it comes under this
category.
Consider the example:
9, 25 , 49 , 121 , ?
The above series is the squares of prime numbers. So next term will be square of 13 which is
169.
210 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Topic 9
Statement and Assumptions

Logical Reasoning (LR) is an integral part of Competitive Exams. It is designed to measure a person’s
ability to draw logical conclusions based on statements or arguments, and to identify the strengths
and weaknesses of those arguments. It is important to keep in mind that the statements and assumptions
in logical reasoning might defy your expectations rooted in the real world,
For instance, eating a lot makes you lose weight.
Rahul has lost weight.
Rahul eats a lot.
This goes against the knowledge that eating a lot leads to obesity, but within the limits of logical
reasoning, this is a valid argument.
Statements, Premises, Assumptions, Conclusion are some of the terms associated with logical reasoning
and you will be tested on these in IIFT, CAT, XAT, NMAT and MAT Exams.
1. Statement
In logic, a statement is either a meaningful declarative sentence that is either true or false, or
that which a true or false declarative sentence asserts. For instance,
‘Socrates is a mortal’, ‘Delhi is the capital of India.’
A statement is different from a sentence. A sentence is one form of a statement, whereas there
may be several ways of formulating the same statement. For instance,
‘All men are mortal’
‘Every man is mortal’,
are two different sentences that form the same statement.
2. Assumption
An assumption is an unstated premise that supports the conclusion. Both premise and
assumption are unquestionable facts but the assumption, unlike the premise, is not explicitly
stated and needs to be deciphered. Assumption is something that is taken for granted in the
context of a statement. For instance, ‘All kids are happy when they get new gadgets. Vicky will
be thrilled when he gets the new mobile phone.’ In this, the assumption is that Vicky is a kid.
Without this assumption, the argument will make no sense.
3. Statement- Assumption
Questions with statements and assumptions are common in the logical reasoning section of
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 211

entrance examinations such as, CAT, IIFT, XAT, MAT and NMAT. Most questions on Statement
and Assumptions include a statement followed by further statements, which have to be
tested for whether they are implied in the given statement or not. For instance:
Statement- A big retail store was attacked by vegetable vendors in Amritsar.
Assumptions - i. The store has affected the livelihood of local vegetable vendors.
ii. The store is built in thickly populated areas.
Consider the statement and decide which of the given assumption is implicit.
The answer to this will be the first assumption, because the store is affecting the vendors,
which causes the attack. Assumption ii is irrelevant because nothing is mentioned regarding
the location of the store.
b. Statement - “Please switch off the mobile phones while you are in the theatre”, a notice
outside a theatre.
Assumption - i. Every viewer who enters the theatre keeps mobile phones.
ii. Switched on mobile phones might distract the performers.
In this, assumption ii is implied by the given statement.
Statement and assumptions are crucial concepts to understand thoroughly, for doing well in
the logical reasoning section.

Rules
• Assumption is always Indefinite & Positive
• Some, to large extent, many, much , exist in the assumption
• Some words like only, each, any, every, all, question indicating word (why, these, what),
Answer indicating words (therefore), Definitely, But, Certainly exist in the assumption that
assumption will always be explicit (False).
212 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

• Some words like some, to large extent, many, much, exist in the assumption that assumption
will always be implicit (True).
• Any assumption that is conveying the message of advertisement, notice, appeal that assumption
will always be implicit (True).
• Any assumption that is talking about the social welfare (positive), govt. policies that assumption
will always be implicit (True).
• If any assumption is talking about past & future that assumption will always be explicit (False).
• If any assumption showing the word like suggestion, order, request that will always be implicit
(True). Restatement is never implicit.
• Comparison always wrong.
Example:
#1 Statement:
Everybody loves reading adventure stories
Assumption:
Adventures stories are the only reading material.
Nobody loves Reading any other material.
#2
Statement:. "If you want to study account join institute Y",A advice to B.
Assumption:
Institute Y provides good account education.
B listen to A advice.
#3
Statement: The college administration has instructed all the students to stop using cell phone
within the college premises.
Assumption:
The student may stop using cell phone in the college premises
The student may continue to use cell phone in the college premises.
#4
Statement: Read the Notice before entering the club
Assumption:
People are literate.
Club is not for blind person.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 213

#5
Statement: ABC is the only magazine that provides good notes on Reasoning & Mathematics.
Assumption:
It will have some effect on those who read.
People always wait for latest Notes on reasoning & Mathematics.
#6
Statement: If you are a classical singer we have challenging job for you.
Assumption:
We need a classical singer
You are a classical singer.
#7
Statement: Like a mad man I decided to follow him.
Assumption:
I am a mad man.
I am not a mad man.
#8
Statement: All the workers are here by instructed to reach the factory by 8:30 am.
Assumption:
Some of the worker will not arrived at the factory in time.
Worker will follow the strict warning in the notice.
#9
Statement: You can't solve syllogism question
without constructing a diagram (Venn).Difficult
question of syllogism need Venn diagram
solving, A teacher tells his students.
Assumption:
The students are not intelligent.
Problem cannot be solved.
214 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Sample Questions

Directions to Solve
In each question below is given a statement followed by two assumptions numbered I and II. You have
to consider the statement and the following assumptions and decide which of the assumptions is
implicit in the statement.
Give answer
(A) If only assumption I is implicit
(B) If only assumption II is implicit
(C) If either I or II is implicit
(D) If neither I nor II is implicit
(E) If both I and II are implicit.
1. Statement : "You are hereby appointed as a programmer with a probation period of one year and
your performance will be reviewed at the end of the period for confirmation." - A line in an
appointment letter.
Assumptions
The performance of an individual generally is not known at the time of appointment offer.
Generally an individual tries to prove his worth in the probation period.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option E
Explanation
The performance of the individual has to be tested over a span of time as the statement mentions.
So, I is implicit. The statement mentions that the individual's worth shall be reviewed (during
probation period) before confirmation. So, II is also implicit.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 215

2. Statement
It is desirable to put the child in school at the age of 5 or so.
Assumptions
At that age the child reaches appropriate level of development and is ready to learn.
The schools do not admit children after six years of age.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer: Option A
Explanation
Since the statement talks of putting the child in school at the age of 5, it means that the child is
mentally prepared for the same at this age. So, I is implicit. But nothing about admission after 6
years of age is mentioned in the statement. So, II is not implicit.
3. Statement : "In order to bring punctuality in our office, we must provide conveyance allowance
to our employees." - In charge of a company tells Personnel Manager.
Assumptions
Conveyance allowance will not help in bringing punctuality.
Discipline and reward should always go hand in hand.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer: Option B
Explanation
Assumption I goes against the statement. So, it is not implicit. The allowance will serve as a reward
to the employees and shall provoke them to come on time. So, II is implicit.
216 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

4. Statement : Unemployment allowance should be given to all unemployed Indian youth above 18
years of age.
Assumptions
There are unemployed youth in India who needs monetary support.
The government has sufficient funds to provide allowance to all unemployed youth.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option A
Explanation
I directly follow from the statement, so is implicit. Also, the statement is a suggestion and does not
tell about a government policy or its position of funds. So, II is not implicit.
5. Statement : "If you trouble me, I will slap you." - A mother warns her child.
Assumptions
With the warning, the child may stop troubling her.
All children are basically naughty.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option A
Explanation :
The mother warns her child with the expectation that he would stop troubling her. So, I is implicit.
The general nature of children cannot be derived from the statement. So, II is not implicit.
6. Statement : The State government has decided to appoint four thousand primary school teachers
during the next financial year.
Assumptions
There are enough schools in the state to accommodate four thousand additional primary school
teachers.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 217

The eligible candidates may not be interested to apply as the government may not finally appoint
such a large number of primary school teachers.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option A
Explanation
Such decisions as given in the statement are taken only after taking the existing vacancies into
consideration. So, I implicit while II isn't.
7. Statement : A warning in a train compartment - "To stop train, pull chain. Penalty for improper use
Rs. 500."
Assumptions
Some people misuse the alarm chain.
On certain occasions, people may want to stop a running train.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option E
Explanation
Clearly, the penalty is imposed to prevent people from misusing the alarm chain. This means that
some people misuse it. So, I is implicit. The alarm chain is provided to stop the running train in
times of urgency. So, II is also implicit.
8. Statement : If it is easy to become an engineer, I don't want to be an engineer.
Assumptions
An individual aspires to be professional.
One desires to achieve a thing which is hard earned.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
218 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

B. Only assumption II is implicit

C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option B
Explanation
Clearly, nothing is mentioned about the professional nature of the job. So, I is not implicit. The
statement hints that one rejects a thing that is easy to achieve. So, II is implicit.
9. Statement : The concession in rail fares for the journey to hill stations has been cancelled because
it is not needed for people who can spend their holidays there.
Assumptions
Railways should give concession only to needy persons.
Railways should not encourage people to spend their holidays at hill stations.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option A
Explanation
The statement mentions that concessions should not be given to people who can afford to spend
holidays in hill stations. This means they should be given only to needy persons. So, I is implicit.
But, II does not follow from the statement and is not implicit.
10. Statement : "The bridge was built at the cost of Rs. 128 crore and even civil bus service is not
utilizing it, what a pity to see it grossly underutilized." - A citizen's view on a new flyover linking east
and west sides of a suburb.
Assumptions
The building of such bridges does not serve any public objective.
There has to be some accountability and utility of money spent on public projects.
A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 219

C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Answer : Option B
Explanation
Clearly, the statement expresses grave concern over a newly-built flyover not being utilized by
public. This implies that such projects need to be taken up only after working out their utility and
that the huge expenditure incurred on building such structures is worthwhile only if they prove
useful for the public. Thus, only II is implicit.

Foot Notes

1. Doyle Alison (2019), The Importance of Logical Thinking in the Workplace’, The Balance
Career. available at: [Link]
examples-2059690

2. See, [Link]

3. Source: [Link]

4. Source: [Link]

***
220 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Lesson 7

VERBAL
REASONING

220
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 221

Introduction
Reasoning means the action of thinking about something in a logical and sensible way. In our day to
day work, we apply the reasoning and try to work with logical sense. The general mental ability of a
person can be well tested with the approach of Verbal and Non-verbal reasoning developed in the
mind. In short the mental ability is depicted through this technique.
We begin with the word “Analogy”. As per New Concise Oxford Dictionary, “Analogy” means agreement,
or similarity. Analogue is the process of reasoning from parallel cases. In simple way, we can say that,
analogy means correspondence or relationships.
Following are to be noticed:
1. Measurements and Instruments :
When we say Temperature, we immediately think of Thermometer. When it comes to Blood
Pressure, we think of BP measuring machine.
2. Quantity and unit:
If mass is to be measured, we say Kilograms.
However, if time is to be measured, we say minutes or seconds or hours etc. depends on the
nature of counting the time.
3. Selection of Groups for individuals:
When we say “Man” it gets associated with “Crowd”
When we say “Singer” it can get associated with “Chorus”
4. Male and Female:
We can have a logical flow as Gentleman-Lady or Son-Daughter etc.
5. Worker and working place:
For example we may say Doctor-Hospital or Clinic, and Manager-Bank, Teacher-School or
college etc.
6. Product and Raw material:
For example, the Book-Paper, Jewelry-Gold, Shoes-Leather are some of the examples of the
link of product and Raw Materials.

Illustrative Examples:

Q1. Mumbai: Maharashtra:: Ahmedabad:

a. Maharashtra b. Gujrat c. Uttar Pradesh d. Canada
Here the correct answer is ‘b’ Gujrat as Ahmedabad is capital city of Gujrat.
222 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Q2. Doctor: Nurse::Follower:

a. Worker b. Employer c. Leader d. Union.
Here, the correct answer is ‘c’ Leader as the nurse follows the instructions of the doctor,
then, the follower also follows the instructions of the leader.
Questions based on Directions
In the following types of questions, there are certain directions which one can understand; it
is expected to choose the correct alternatives:
Q3. Moon: Satellite: : Earth: ?
a. Solar system b. Sun c. Planet d. Asteroid
The correct answer should be c. Planet in the above case.
Q4. Clock: Time : Thermometer: ?
a. Temperature b. Energy c. Heat d. radiation.
The correct answer should be ‘a’ temperature as the Thermometer gives the direction of
temperature.
Questions Based on Relationship
Each of the following questions consists of two words that have a certain relationships to
each other, followed by four letter head pairs of words. Select that letterhead pair that has
same relationship as the original letterhead pair.
Q5. Sound: Muffled::
a. Moisture: Humid b. Colour: faded c. Despair : Anger d. Odour: Pungent
The correct answer is ‘b’ because the second is the process of the gradual disappearance of
the first.
Q6. Knowledge: Ignorance: :
a. Cure: Health b. Conceal : Hide c. Breath : Suffocation d. Construction : war
The correct answer is ‘c’ as the words in each pair are antonyms of each other.
Logical order:
Sometimes there can be logical order of the words or the given things. We understand more
from the following questions:
Q7. Arrange the following words in the logical order: [Link] [Link] [Link] 4. Palm 5.
Finger
a. 2,4,5,3,1, b. 5,4,2,1,3, c. 3,4,5,2,1, d. 3,1,4,2,5
The correct answer is ‘b’ as the logic of the arrangement matches in that order.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 223

Q8. The mobile manufacturing companies have increased the the prices of smartphones. The
government has recently increased the duty on the smartphones.
a. The statement II is the cause and statement I is the effect.
b. Statement I is cause and statement II is the effect.
c. Both statement I and II are independent causes
d. Both statement I and II are effects of independent causes.
The correct answer is ‘a’ as the statement II is cause and statement I is an effect.
Q9. Choose the some relationship of the given words: Bald Eagle: America:: Wolf : ?
a. Australia b. Spain c. Italy d. France
Answer is ‘c’ Italy as the Bald Eagle is national bird of America and Wolf is national animal of
Italy.
Q10. Appointment: Abiligy
a. Transfer : Punishment b. Business : Money c. Promotion : Merit d. Examination: Success
The correct answer is ‘c’ as the first is the result of the second thing.
Q11. Pulp: Paper
a. Rope : Hamp b. Rayon : Cellulose c. Thread : needle d. Yarn : fabric
Here the correct answer is ‘d’ as the first is used to make the second.
Q12. Liquor : Drink

a. Bread: Butter b. Tea : Bevarage c. Snuff: Inhale d. Water : Sip

The correct answer is ‘b’ as the second denotes the class to which the first belongs.

Series Completion:

In this types of questions, the series of numbers are given and we have to choose that which
is most logically fitting to the same.

Q13. Completing the given series: Which number would replace the question mark in the series
7,12,19,?, 39
a. 29 b. 28 c. 26 d. 24
One can easily understand that 7+5=12 and 12+7=19 so, the numbers are added by 5,7
and so on. Therefore, 19+9=28. Hence the answer is 28. So the answer is ‘b’
The Alphabet series: In this type of questions, we have to have logical flow of understanding
the alphabets to get to the answer.
224 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Q14. What will be the next term in BDF, CFI, DHL,?

a. CJM b. EIM c. EJO d. EMI
Clearly, the first, the second and the third letters of each term are respectively moved one,
two and three steps forward to obtain the corresponding letters of the next term. So the
missing term is EJO and hence the correct answer is ‘c’.
The Letter Series
This type of questions consists of the series of small letters which follow a certain pattern. However,
some letters are missing from the series. These missing letters are given a proper sequence as one of
the alternatives. The candidate should choose proper alternative answer.
For example : aab__aaa___bba__ ?
a. baa b. abb c. bab [Link]
Answer: We proceed step by step as below:
1. The first blank space should be filled by ‘b’ so that we have two ‘a’ s followed by two ‘b’s
2. The second blank space should be filled in either by ‘a’ so that we have four ‘a’s followed
by two ‘b’s or by ‘b’s or by ‘b’ so that we have three ‘a’ s followed by three ‘b’s
3. The last space must be filled in by ‘a’
4. Thus we have two possible answers ‘baa’ and ‘bba’ but only ‘baa’ appears in the
alternatives. So the correct answer is ‘a’ above.
Number coding
In these type of questions, either the numerical codes are assigned to the word or alphabetical codes
are assigned to the numbers. The candidate should analyses the code with direction:
For example : If in a certain language, A is coded as 1, B is coded as 2, and so on, how is BIDDIC coded
in that code?
a. 294493 b 284563 c. 375582 d. 394492
As the given letters are coded as A B C D E F G H I
123456789
So, in BIDDIC, code B is coded as 2, I as 9, D as 4 and C as 3. Thus BIDDIC is coded as 294493
hence the correct answer is ‘a’.
Relations Puzzles
In this type, the mutual blood relations or other informations of more than two persons are mentioned
and information about two is mentioned.
Example : A and B are brothers. C and D are sisters. A’s son is D’s brother. How is B related to C?
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 225

a. Father b. brother c. Grandfather d. Uncle e. none of these.

In this example, clearly B is brother of A; A’s son is D’s brother. This means D is the daughter
of A. Since C and D are sisters, C is also a daughter of A. So, B is the uncle of C. Hence the
correct answer is ‘d’.
Alphabet Test
This is also called Alphabetical Order. Generally, there is not tough to understand and solve these
types of questions. With enough practice, everyone can ace these questions. Like there may be
questions to find the English letters between two English alphabets given in the question. You will also
be asked to find out the place of English letter to the right or to the left of the one given in the question.
Questions may vary on the arrangement of alphabets. Like in some questions it may be backward,
second half backward or multiple letter segments which are in changed order, etc. In some questions,
one may be asked to find the letters that do not change with the change in their alphabetic arrangement
and in some questions you will be asked to find the middle letter of the two given English letters in the
question.
It is important to note that while solving the questions of alphabetical order you need to keep in mind
the forward and backward position of all the alphabets along with its number.
Questions Asked in Alphabetical Order
There is not one single type of question of alphabetical order that is asked in exams. But rather there
are many types of these questions which can be asked in the competitive exams. They are
1. Series of alphabets
2. Problems related to letter gap
3. Problems related to word formation
4. Words in the alphabetical order
For better understanding, we will provide you with the solved example of each and every type of
question that can come under the Alphabetical Order section of Reasoning Ability.
Series of alphabets
This type of questions does not follow any rule and thus we would advise you to get enough practice.
So that you can quickly solve these type of questions.
Q. Which of the following options is fifth to the left of the 11th letter from the left in a forward
series of the alphabet?
1. H 2. G 3. I 4. E
In this type of question first we need to find the eleventh letter from the left in the forward
series which is as follows:
A B C D E F G H I J K. Here K is the eleventh letter in the series, now from the eleventh letter
226 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

we need to go five letters to the left again which will be: K J I H G. Hence G is the correct
answer which is number 2 in the option.
Problems related to the Letter Gap
This question is purely based on your logic and how quickly you remember the alphabets.
Q. In the word ‘CHAIRS’, how many pairs of the letters have the same number of letters between
them in the word as in alphabet?
1. 1 2. 3 3. 4 4. 2
Here in between C and A, there is one letter H and in general alphabets also there is one letter
between them which is B. While in R and S there are no letters in between which is the same
as in the alphabets. So the correct answer to this question is option - 4.
Problems related to word formation
These questions require more practice than any other type of questions. It is also important to have a
good set of vocabulary.
Q. If the name of a game is formed by rearranging the letters of the word MODBANTIN, than
what will be the first and the last letter of the name?
1. A, T 2. N, D 3. B, N 4. B, T
Here the name of the game that will be formed is Badminton. And its first and last letters are
B and N. Thus option (3) is the correct answer.
Words in the alphabetical order
In these types of questions, you need to find which word will come first based on their alphabetical
order
Q. Arrange the question based on the initial letter of the word given in the alphabetical order.
1. Fame 2. Shame 3. Name 4. Came
‘Came’ comes first in the alphabetical order. ‘Fame’ comes second in the alphabetical order.
‘Name’ comes third in the alphabetical order. ‘Shame’ comes forth in the alphabetical order.
Practice Questions
1. How many meaning words can be formed using the first, fourth, seventh, and eighth letter of
the word ‘SUPERFLUOUS’?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
Answer : Option A
2. How many letters are there in between the 7th letter from the left and 8th from right in the
English Alphabets?
A. 8 B. 9 C. 10 D. 11
Answer : Option D
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 227

3. Which is the 11th letter to the left of the 4th letter from the right when you write the English
alphabets in backward order?
A. P B. Q C. O D. N
Answer : Option C
Alpha Numeric Sequence Puzzle
In Alpha numeric sequence puzzle, a mix up sentence consisting of some letters, numbers and symbols
are given followed by some certain questions based on it.
Based on following types, questions are categorized:
• Satisfying certain conditions in the given sequence, it is required to find elements (letters,
numbers or symbols.
• At a certain given relative position in the sequence, it is need to determine the element.
• By converting the hidden part in relation to the position of the elements in the sequence, it is
required to complete a series consisting of terms formed by a combination of the elements of
the sequence.
• By finding the common property which other combinations share as per their positions in the
given sequence, It is required to find the odd combination from among a given set of
combinations of elements.
• To determine the analogical relationship between a given pair of combination of elements,
later find a combination which carry same relationship with another given combination.
Alphanumeric sequence is a sequence which consists of both alphabets and numbers. In this sequence,
we can also add some symbols along with alphabets and numbers.
For example we can make an alphanumeric sequence as follows -

A$ER9*T5F6@D8

In the above sequence, we can see that there are numbers, alphabets, and symbols. These types of
sequences are called Alphanumeric Sequence. We can make many sequences like this and can
deduce questions based on the sequences.

Important Points to Remember

Let’s have an alphanumeric sequence -

A$ER9*T5F6@D8
Questions regarding this chapter can come in this way -
a. Which element is nth from the left of the sequence?
b. Which element is nth from the right of the sequence?
228 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

c. Which element is mth to the right of nth from the left of the sequence?
d. Which element is mth to the left of nth from the left of the sequence?
e. Which element is mth to the right of nth from the right of the sequence?
f. Which element is mth to the left of nth from the right of the sequence?
g. A precedes B
h. B is preceded by A
i. B follows A
j. A is followed by B
To solve questions like this, we have to watch the sequence thoroughly and answer
accordingly.
a. Which element is nth from the left of the sequence?
To get the answer of the above question, we have to look at the sequence from the left
side and have to count the exact number that is asked in the question.
b. Which element is nth from the right of the sequence?
To get the answer of the above question, we have to look at the sequence from the right
side and have to count the exact number that is asked in the question.
c. Which element is mth to the right of nth from the left of the sequence?
To get the answer for such type of questions, we have to find out the nth element from the
left side of the sequence and then find out the mth element to the right of that particular
element.
d. Which element is mth to the left of nth from the left of the sequence?
To get the answer for such type of questions, we have to find out the nth element from the
left side of the sequence and then find out the mth element to the left of that particular
element.
e. Which element is mth to the right of nth from the right of the sequence?
To get the answer for such type of questions, we have to find out the nth element from the
right side of the sequence and then find out the mth element to the right of that particular
element.
f. Which element is mth to the left of nth from the right of the sequence?
To get the answer for such type of questions, we have to find out the nth element from the
right side of the sequence and then find out the mth element to the left of that particular
element.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 229

g. If it is written that A precedes B then it means A is placed before B.

h. Similarly if it is written that B is preceded by A then it means A is placed before B.
i. If it is written that B follows A then it means B is placed after A.
j. If it is written that A is followed by B then B is placed after A.
These ten type of questions are normally asked in this chapter. Whether it is of a type or b type
or c type or j type we have to read the question carefully and see the sequence and finally we
can get the answer according to the question.
230 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Sample Questions

Study the following arrangement carefully and answer the question given below -
6R 0T4A 8%BF1E#W@9HI$MN*32V $5GP7Q
1. How many such consonants are there in the above arrangement, each of which is immediately
preceded by a consonant and immediately followed by a number?
A None
B One
C Two
D Three
Answer - C
Explanation
According to question –
Consonant – Consonant - Number
B -F -1
G -P -7
2. How many such vowels are there in the above arrangement, each of which is immediately
preceded by a letter but immediately not followed by a symbol?
A None
B One
C Two
D Three
Answer – B
Explanation
According to question
Letter-Vowels-Letter/Number
R-O-T
3. Which of the following is the fourth to left of the twelfth from the left end?
A 8 B B C 2 D %
Answer - D
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 231

Explanation
According to question.
L-L=L
12 - 4 = 8TH
So the required element is %.

4. Three of the following four are alike in a certain way based on their positive in the above
arrangement and so form a group. Which is the one that does not belong to that group?

A 406 B F%A C @#1 D $H9

Answer - D

Explanation

According to question.

5. If all the symbols are eliminated from the above arrangement, than which of the following will
be the 5th to the right of 10th element from the right end?

A 4 B 5 C V D A

Answer - B

Explanation

According to question.

R-R=R

10 - 5 = 5th from right end after deleting all the symbols is 5.

232 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

This question is based on the following letter /symbol/number sequence. Study it carefully and answer
the question.
M3R#AP4 9@KD 1UH5$2N$ WEQ6 TV7*8BX
6. Which of the following elements is the fourth to the right of 12th from right end?
A 9 B 6 C 5 D $
Answer - B
Explanation
Remember, R12 – R4 = R = 6
7. How many such numbers are there in the above arrangement which are immediately
preceded by a symbol?
A 2 B 1 C None D 3
Answer - A
Explanation
The numbers which are preceded by a symbol are $2,*8.
8. If started from M, M is interchanged with 3 and R is interchanged with #and so on than which
element will be twelfth from left?
A 1 B $ C N D D
Answer - D
Explanation
As, M 3 R # A P 4 9 @ K D 1
So it will be D
9. What will come next in the following sequence - MRP,9KU,52W?
A QT7 B 6V8 C QT* D QV7
Answer - C
Explanation
As, M_R_ _P,_9_K_ _U,
_5_2_ _W,_Q_T_ _*.
10. Three of the following four are alike in a certain way based on their position in the above
arrangement. Which of the following does not belong to the group?
A M3X B R#8 C P4V D KDE
Answer - D
Explanation
M3 R#AP49@KDIUH5$2N$WEQ6TV7*8 BX
It should be Q in place of E.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 233

Analogy
Analogy means similarity. In this type of questions, two objects related in some way are given and third
object is also given with four or five alternatives. You have to find out which one of the alternatives
bears the same relation with the third objects as first and second objects are related.

Example 1:
Curd : Milk :: Shoe : ?
(A) Leather (B) Cloth (C) Jute (D) Silver
Answer : Option A
As curd is made from milk similarly shoe is made from leather.
Example 2:
Calf : Piglet :: Shed : ?
(A) Prison (B) Nest (C) Pigsty (D)Den
Answer : Option C
Calf is young one of the cow and piglet is the young of Pig. Shed is the dwelling
place of cow. Similarly Pigsty is the dwelling place of pig.
Example 3:
Malaria : Mosquito :: ? : ?
(A) Poison : Death (B) Cholera : Water (C) Rat : Plague (D) Medicine : Disease
Answer : Option B
As malaria is caused due to mosquito similarly cholera is cause due to water.

Example 4:
ABC : ZYX :: CBA : ?
(A) XYZ (B) BCA (C) YZX (D) ZXY
Answer : Option A
CBA is the reverse of ABC similarly XYZ is the reverse of ZYX.
Example 5:
4 : 18 :: 6 : ?
(A) 32 (B) 38 (C) 11 (D) 37
Answer : Option B
As, (4)2 + 2 =18
Similarly, (6)2 + 2 = 38.
234 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Assertion and Reason

This type of reasoning questions consists of two statements; an assertion (statement of fact) and a
reason (explanation for the assertion). You have to determine whether each statement is correct. If
both the statements are correct, you have to determine whether the reason supports the assertion.
There will be four answer choices for the possible outcomes and you have to select the correct one.
(1) Assertion (A) : James Watt invented the steam engine.
Reason (R) : It was invented to pump out the water from the flooded mines.
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
E. Both A and R are false.
Answer : A
Explanation
The need of self-working engine to pump out the water from the flooded mines led James
Watt to invent the steam engine.
(2) Assertion (A) : Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would melt the polar ice.
Reason (R) : Increased levels of carbon dioxide would increase the temperature.
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
E. Both A and R are false.
Answer : A
Explanation
The carbon dioxide traps the heat in the atmosphere. If its level rises, more heat will be
trapped. It would increase the temperature and eventually the polar ice would melt.
(3) Assertion (A) : Uranium can undergo a nuclear fusion reaction.
Reason (R) : Uranium has a big unstable nucleus.
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 235

B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
E. Both A and R are false.
Answer : D
Explanation
Uranium does not undergo a fusion reaction. It undergoes fission reaction due to the presence
of a heavy unstable nucleus.
(4) Assertion (A) : Baking soda helps reduce stomach acidity.
Reason (R) : It is a powerful natural cleaner.
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
E. Both A and R are false.
F. Hide Answer Workspace
Answer : B
Explanation
Baking soda is alkaline in nature, so it helps reduce stomach acidity. It is also used as a
cleaning agent.
(5) Assertion (A) : Plants have green leaves.
Reason (R) : Plants contain phycoerythrin, the green pigment.
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true, but R is false.
D. A is false, but R is true.
E. Both A and R are false.
Answer: C
Explanation
Plants have green leaves due to the presence of a green pigment called chlorophyll.
Phycoerythrin is a red pigment.
236 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Blood Relations
The questions which are asked in this section depend upon Relation. You should have a sound
knowledge of the blood relation in order to solve the questions.
To remember easily the relations may be divided into two sides as given below:
1. Relations of Paternal side:
1. Father's father ? Grandfather
2. Father's mother ? Grandmother
3. Father's brother ? Uncle
4. Father's sister ? Aunt
5. Children of uncle ? Cousin
6. Wife of uncle ? Aunt
7. Children of aunt ? Cousin
8. Husband of aunt ? Uncle
2. Relations of Maternal side:
1. Mother's father ? Maternal grandfather
2. Mother's mother ? Maternal grandmother
3. Mother's brother Maternal uncle
4. Mother's sister ? Aunt
5. Children of maternal uncle ? Cousin
6. Wife of maternal uncle ? Maternal aunt
Relations from one generation to next
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 237

Sample Questions

1. A man pointing to a photograph says, “The lady in the photograph is my nephew’s maternal
grandmother.” How is the lady in the photograph related to the man’s sister who has no
other sister?
A. Mother B. Cousin C. Mother–in–law D. Sister–in–law
Answer : A
Explanation
Clearly, the lady is the grandmother of man’s sister’s son.
i.e. the mother of the mother of man’s sister’s son.
i.e. the mother of man’s sister.
So, the lady is man’s mother.
2. A woman introduces a man as the son of the brother of her mother. How is the man related
to the woman?
A. Son B. Nephew C. Grandson D. Uncle
Answer : D
Explanation
Brother of mother – Uncle;
Uncle’s son – Cousin.
3. Prasanna said, “This girl is the wife of the grandson of my mother.” Who is Prasanna to the
girl?
A. Husband B. Father C. Father–in–law D. Grandfather
Answer : C
Explanation
Mother’s grandson – Son;
Son’s wife – Daughter–in–law.
4. If Arun says, “Vimal’s mother is the only daughter of my mother”, how is Arun related to
Vimal?
A. Father B. Brother C. Grandfather D. None of these
Answer : D.
Explanation
Only daughter of Arun’s mother –Arun’s sister.
So, Vimal’s mother is Arun’s sister (or)
Arun is the brother of Vimal’s mother i.e . Vimal’s maternal uncle.
238 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

5. Pointing to a man in a photograph. Asha said. “His mother’s only daughter is my mother”.
How is Asha related to that man?
A. Wife B. Sister C. Niece D. Nephew
Answer : C
Explanation
Asha’s mother’s mother is man’s mother i.e.,
Asha’s mother is man’s sister (or)
Asha is man’s niece.
6. A woman going with a boy is asked by another woman about the relationship between them.
The women replied, “My maternal uncle and the uncle of his maternal uncle is the same.”
How is the lady related with that boy?
A. Mother and Son B. Aunt and Nephew C. Grandmother and Grandson
D. None of these
Answer : B
Explanation
Clearly, the brother of woman’s mother is the same as the brother of the father of boy’s
maternal uncle.
So, the woman and boy’s mother are cousins.
Thus, the woman is boy’s aunt.
7. A man said to a lady, “Your mother’s husband’s sister is my aunt.” How is the lady related to
the man?
A. Grand daughter B. Mother C. Daughter D. Sister
Answer : D
Explanation
Lady’s mother husband – Lady’s father;
Lady’s father’s sister – Lady’s aunt.
So, lady’s aunt is man’s aunt and therefore lady is man’s sister.
8. If X is the brother of the son of Y’s son, how is X related to Y?
A. Son B. Cousin C. Grandson D. Brother
Answer : C
Explanation
Son of Y’s son – Grandson;
Brother of Y’s grandson – Y’s grandson.
So X is Y’s grandson.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 239

Decision Making
Decision Making is the process in which an outcome is derived by evaluating and analyzing the given
information. The objective of Decision making is to reach a specific conclusion from the given data or
a given set of conditions.

Sample Questions

DIRECTIONS for questions 1 to 4 : Krishnapuram's town council has exactly three members: Arjun,
Karn, and Bhim. During one week, the council members vote on exactly three bills: a recreation bill,
a school bill, and a tax bill. Each council member votes either for or against each bill. The following is
known:
• Each member of the council votes for at least one of the bills and against at least one of the
bills.
• Exactly two members of the council vote for the recreation bill.
• Exactly one member of the council votes for the school bill.
• Exactly one member of the council votes for the tax bill.
• Arjun votes for the recreation bill and against the school bill.
• Karn votes against the recreation bill.
• Bhim votes against the tax bill.
1. If the set of members of the council who vote against the school bill are the only ones who
also vote against the tax bill, then which one of the following statements must be true?
A. Arjun votes for the tax bill.
B. Karn votes for the recreation bill.
C. Karn votes against the school bill.
D. Bhim votes against the recreation bill.
E. Bhim votes against the school bill.
Answer : E
2. If Karn votes for the tax bill, then which one of the following statements could be true?:
A. Arjun and Karn each vote for exactly one bill.
B. Karn and Bhim each vote for exactly one bill.
240 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

C. Arjun votes for exactly two bills.

D. Karn votes for the recreation bill.
E. Bhim votes against the recreation bill.
Answer : A
3. Karn votes for exactly two of the three bills, which one of the following statements must be
true?
A. Arjun votes for the tax bill.
B. Karn votes for the recreation bill.
C. Karn votes for the school bill.
D. Karn votes against the tax bill.
E. Bhim votes for the school bill.
Answer : C
4. If one of the members of the council votes against exactly the same bills as does another
member of the council, then which one of the following statements must be true?
A. Arjun votes for the tax bill
B. Kam votes for the recreation bill.
C. Kam votes against the school bill.
D. Kam votes for exactly one bill.
E. Bhim votes for exactly one bill.
Answer : E
DIRECTIONS for the question 5 : The year 2004 was a great year for Top-Cloth cotton mill. Manufacturing
towels for the export market employing more than 2000 workers, the company had an impressive
growth in sales and profits. The Chairman felt that employees were entitled to a share in the profits
and it was proposed that the employee mess be air-conditioned. The proposal was discussed in a
meeting that was attended by, among other senior officials, the marketing director, the personnel
director and the finance director. The proposal was based on the fact that the shop floor of the mill
often had temperatures in excess of 40°C with a relative humidity of 99%. The air-conditioned mess
would represent management's appreciation of the employee's hard work.
At the end of 2005, management reviewed the mill's performance. Profits were higher, and employee
attrition was negligible. Chairman decided that employees deserved additional recognition for their
fine work. Since the mess had already been air-conditioned, the chairman wanted to know if the
employees appreciated this sort of action. In the course of discussion, the chairman asked the personnel
director to send a questionnaire to a sample of fifty employees and obtain their reaction to the air-
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 241

conditioned mess. The management agreed to decide only after obtaining the feedback from the
employees.
The personnel director mailed a simple form to fifty employees asked them for the following information:
"Please state your reaction to the air-conditioned mess."
Of the fifty forms mailed, forty-six were returned. The answers received were as follows:

5. This decision-making situation best highlights

A. Managerial short-sightedness in decision making
B. Managerial benevolence in sharing profits among the workers
C. Managerial incompetence in handling a negative feedback in employee survey
D. Inefficient infrastructure management
E. None of the above
Answer : A
DIRECTIONS for questions 6 to 7 : For each question, an answer (A) and a reason (R) has been given.
Base your analysis on the information presented in the passage. Mark
The Society for Education in India (in short SEI) had been engaged in running primary schools in
different parts of the country since 1950s. While attending a conference on employee selection, Mr. J
Mehta, a senior member of the society learned that a leading school had recently employed a
242 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

psychologist to perform employment functions, i.e. recruitment and selection of teachers. Within two
months of his return, Mr. J Mehta contacted a reputed university and employed a graduating
psychologist, Mr. Bibek Gupta. Mr. Bibek Gupta was employed by SEI with the single directive that he
was to contribute to the selection of teachers. This task had previously been the prerogative of
principals of each school. Mr. Gupta immediately notified each principal that in the future he was to be
notified of the personnel needs and in return he would recruit, screen and select the teachers.
At the end of his first year with SEI, Mr. Gupta realized that his efforts had resulted in failure. During his
first few months he encountered much opposition from several principals who had been managing
schools for ten or more years. They did not believe in newer psychological techniques and preferred
selecting people based on their own assessment. Other principals frequently refused to accept the
teachers selected by Mr. Gupta. Finally, Mr. Gupta began to notice fewer and fewer principals notifying
him of vacancies in their schools. Realizing that he was not making any effective contribution, Mr.
Gupta submitted the suggestion to the society members that support and co-operation of the school
principals should be a matter of executive order, or else his resignation should be considered.
6. What was the flaw in the decision of selecting a psychologist for selecting teachers that led to
the final situation?
A: Mr. Mehta's decision was predominantly driven by the information about another school
that had enlisted the services of a psychologist for recruitment and selection.
R: Both the administration of the school and managing teachers have been primary responsibilities
of the principal of the school.
A. If both A and R are based on information given in the passage and R is the correct
explanation of A.
B. If both A and R are based on information given in the passage but R is not the
correct explanation of A.
C. If A is based on information given in the passage but R is not based on the facts given.
D. If A is not based on information given in the passage but R is based on the information
given in the passage.
E. If both A and R are not based on information given in the passage.
Answer : B
7. What responsibilities were shouldered by Mr. Bibek in his first year of employment?
A: Mr. Bibek had the responsibility of contributing his expertise to recruitment and selection of
teachers.
R: The board members wanted to systematize the recruitment and selection of the entire
organization.
A. if both A and R are based on information given in the passage and R is the correct
explanation of A.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 243

B. if both A and R are based on information given in the passage but R is not the correct
explanation of A.
C. if A is based on information given in the passage but R is not based on the facts
given.
D. if A is not based on information given in the passage but R is based on the information
given in the passage.
E. if both A and R are not based on information given in the passage.
Answer : C
DIRECTIONS for questions 8 to 11: A famous retail electronics showroom chain has six new mobile
phone models - T, V, W, X, Y, and Z – each equipped with at least one of the following three options:
digital camera, music player, and office document viewer. No mobile has any other option. The
following conditions apply:
A. V features both a digital camera and an office document viewer.
B. W has digital camera and music player
C. W and Y have no options in common.
D. X has more options as compared to W
E. V and Z have exactly one option in common
F. T has fewer options as compared to Z.
8. For exactly how many of the six mobile phones is it possible to determine exactly which
option each one has?
A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Five E. Six
Answer : C
9. Which one of the following must be false?
A. Exactly five mobile phones feature a music player.
B. Exactly five mobile phones feature a document viewer.
C. Exactly four mobile phones feature a music player.
D. Exactly four mobile phones feature a digital camera.
E. Exactly four mobile phones feature a document viewer.
Answer : A
10. If Z has no option in common with T but has at least one option in common with every other
mobile phone, then which one of the following must be false?
A. T has digital camera
B. Z has document viewer
244 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

C. Exactly four of the six mobile phones have digital camera.

D. Exactly four of the six mobile phones have document viewer.
E. Exactly four of the six mobile phones have music player.
Answer : E
11. Suppose no two mobile phone models have exactly the same options as one another. In that
case each of the following could be true EXCEPT:
A. Exactly three of the six mobile phones have digital camera.
B. Exactly four of the six mobile phones have digital camera.
C. Exactly three of the six mobile phones have document viewer.
D. Exactly four of the six mobile phones have document viewer.
E. Exactly four of the six mobile phones have music player.
Answer : C
Answers & Explanation of Questions related to Decision Making
Decision Making 1-4
Bill For Against
Recreation Bill Arjun, Bhim Karn
School Bill Karn / Bhim Arjun and Either Karn or Bhim
Tax Bill Karn / Arjun Bhim and Either Karn or Arjun
1. We can modify the above table based on the additional information given in the question.
Accordingly, Arjun and Bhim are the members who voted against the School Bill and Tax bill.
Bill For Against
Recreation Bill Arjun, Bhim Karn
School Bill Karn Arjun, Bhim
Tax Bill Karn Bhim, Arjun
By visual observation, it can be checked that Bhim votes against the school bill, thus option E
is correct.
2. We can modify the above table based on the additional information given in the question as
follows:
Bill For Against
Recreation Bill Arjun, Bhim Karn
School Bill Bhim Arjun, Karn
Tax Bill Karn Bhim, Arjun
Thus, it can be verified that Arjun and Karn each vote for exactly one bill. The other answer
choices do not follow from the above table. Hence, option A is correct.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 245

3. We can modify the above table based on the additional information given in the question as
follows:
Bill For Against
Recreation Bill Arjun, Bhim Karn
School Bill Karn Arjun, Bhim
Tax Bill Karn Bhim, Arjun
Thus, it can be observed that Karn votes for the school bill.
4. We can modify the above table based on the additional information given in the question as
follows:
Bill For Against
Recreation Bill Arjun, Bhim Karn
School Bill Karn Arjun, Bhim
Tax Bill Karn Arjun, Bhim
Thus, Bhim votes for exactly one bill and hence option E is correct.
5. The situation highlights the management’s short-sightedness.
6. Both A and R are mentioned in the passage, but R is not the correct reason for A.
7. A is mentioned in the passage while R is not.
8-11. Mobile Phone Digital Camera Music Player Office Document Viewer
T

V X

Y X X

Z
T may have any of three options.
Z may have Music Player and either Digital Camera or Office Document Viewer.
8. It is clear from the table that it is possible to determine the option(s) of phones V, W, X and Y.
9. Three or four mobile phones feature a music player.
10. Z must have the music player and the office document viewer while T must have the digital
camera. So only 3 models have the music player and option 5 is false.
11. After assigning different features to the mobiles, it is seen that exactly four of the six mobiles
have a document viewer. The best answer is option 3.
246 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Inserting Missing Characters

In such type of questions, a figure, a set of figures, an arrangement or a matrix is given.
Each figure contain certains characters, numbers, letters or a group/combination of letters/numbers,
following a certain pattern.
The candidate is required to convert this pattern and accordingly find the missing character in the
figure. Need to develop the ability to identify the missing character with the help of figures provided.

Sample Questions

Insert the missing number in each of the following

1. 105 2. 142 3. 128 4. 118

Answer : 3
Explanation : The pattern is: 62+28/10 = 9; 18+52/10 = 7.
So, missing number= x+32/10 = 16, x=128

1. 80 2. 90 3. 72 4. 64

Answer : 2

Explanation : The pattern is: (12×4)-(5×3)=33,(15×7)-(8×6)=57.

So, Missing number = (17×9)-(9×7)=90.

 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 247

1. 18 2. 20 3. 23 4. 25
Answer : 2
Explanation : The pattern is: (65+25) – (33+25) =32, (32+9)-(15+6)=20.
So, missing number = (18+20)-(13+5)=20. So answer is option 2

1. 27 2. 15 3. 30 4. 63
Answer : 4
Explanation : Going anticlockwise starting from 0, the terms are: 12 - 1, 22 - 1, 32 - 1. So, missing
number = 42 - 1 = 15. So answer is option 2

1. 64 2. 18 3. 24 4. 27

Answer : 1

Explanation : Going anticlockwise starting from 1, numbers are 13,23,33, 43. So missing number is 64.
So answer is option 1
248 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

1. 41 2. 43 3. 31 4. 40
Answer : 1
Explanation : In the each row middle term is average of extreme terms 17+15/2 = 16, 52+26/2 =
39. So, missing number =37+45/2 = [Link], the answer is option 1

1. F 2. G 3. H 4. K
Answer : 1
Explanation : Positions of alphabets (A to Z) is (1-26) we have:
In the first column, P-A=16-1=15=O.
In the second column, J-D=10-4=6=F.
So, in the third column, missing letter =O-I=15-9=6 =F
So the answer is option 1

Find the missing term in each of the following

1. 445 2. 446 3. 472 4. 435
Answer : 1
Explanation : We have : 1×1+1=2, 2×2+2=6, 6×3+3 = 21, 21×4+4=88.
So, missing number=88×5+5=445 so answer is option 1
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 249

1. 8 2. 9 3. 4 4. 25
Answer : 3
Explanation : The two ends of each line contain a number and its square - 5. e.g. 152-5=220,
182-5=319 So, missing number =32-5=4. So answer is option 3

1. 70 2. 206 3. 106 4. 100

Answer : 2
Explanation : The pattern is middle number is sum of extreme terms. So, missing number =
52+48+49+57=206 So the answer is option 2

Logical Sequence Test

In this type of question, some words are given. You have to arrange these words in a meaningful
order. The order may be according to age, size and need etc.
Example 1:
Arrange the following words in a meaningful order.
1. Death 2. Marriage 3. Education 4. Birth 5. Funeral
A. 5, 1, 2, 3, 4 B. 4, 2, 3, 1, 5 C. 4, 3, 2, 5, 1 D. 4, 3, 2, 1, 5
Answer is Option D
Explanation : First of all a man is born then he takes education; after this he is married. Then after
sometimes he dies. After death the order is of Funeral. So the correct order is 4, 3, 2, 1 and 5.
250 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Example 2:
Arrange the following words in a logical sequence.
1. Grass 2. Curd 3. Milk 4. Cow 5. Butter
A. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
B. 2, 3, 4, 5, 1
C. 4, 1, 3, 2, 5
D. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
Answer is Option C
Explanation : We know that cow eats grass and then gives milk. With the milk, curd is made and
then from curd, butter is made. Hence logical sequence is Cow, Grass, Milk, Curd, Butter.

Sample Questions

1. Arrange the words given below in a meaningful sequence.

1. Key 2. Door 3. Lock 4. Room 5. Switch on
A. 5, 1, 2, 4, 3 B. 4, 2, 1, 5, 3 C. 1, 3, 2, 4, 5 D. 1, 2, 3, 5, 4
Answer : Option C
Explanation : The correct order is : Key Lock Door Room Switch on
2. Arrange the words given below in a meaningful sequence.
1. Word 2. Paragraph 3. Sentence 4. Letters 5. Phrase
A. 4, 1, 5, 2, 3 B. 4, 1, 3, 5, 2 C. 4, 2, 5, 1, 3 D. 4, 1, 5, 3, 2
Answer : Option D
Explanation : The correct order is : Letters Word Phrase Sentence Paragraph
3. Arrange the words given below in a meaningful sequence.
1. Police 2. Punishment 3. Crime 4. Judge 5. Judgement
A. 3, 1, 2, 4, 5 B. 1, 2, 4, 3, 5 C. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 D. 3, 1, 4, 5, 2
Answer : Option D
Explanation : The correct order is : Crime Police Judge Judgement Punishment
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 251

4. Arrange the words given below in a meaningful sequence.

1. Family 2. Community 3. Member 4. Locality 5. Country
A. 3, 1, 2, 4, 5 B. 3, 1, 2, 5, 4 C. 3, 1, 4, 2, 5 D. 3, 1, 4, 5, 2
Answer : Option A
Explanation : The correct order is : Member Family Community Locality Country
5. Arrange the words given below in a meaningful sequence.
1. Poverty 2. Population 3. Death 4. Unemployment 5. Disease
A. 2, 3, 4, 5, 1 B. 3, 4, 2, 5, 1 C. 2, 4, 1, 5, 3 D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Answer : Option C
Explanation : The correct order is : Population Unemployment Poverty Disease Death
Logical Venn Diagram
The main aim of this section is to test your ability about the relation between some items of a group by
diagrams. In these questions some figures of circles and some words are given. You have to choose a
figure which represents the given words.
Some critical examples are given below:
Example 1
If all the words are of different groups, then they will be shown by the diagram as given below.
Dog, Cow, Horse

All these three are animals but of different groups, there is no relation between them. Hence they
will be represented by three different circles.
Example 2
If the first word is related to second word and second word is related to third word. Then they will
be shown by diagram as given below.
Unit, Tens, Hundreds

Ten units together make one Tens or in one tens, whole unit is available and ten tens together
make one hundreds.
252 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Example 3
If two different items are completely related to third item, they will be shown as below.
Pen, Pencil, Stationery

Example 4
If there is some relation between two items and these two items are completely related to a third
item they will be shown as given below.
Women, Sisters, Mothers

Some sisters may be mothers and vice-versa. Similarly some mothers may not be sisters and vice-
versa. But all the sisters and all the mothers belong to women group.
Example 5
Two items are related to a third item to some extent but not completely and first two items totally
different.
Students, Boys, Girls

The boys and girls are different items while some boys may be students. Similarly among girls some
may be students.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 253

Example 6
All the three items are related to one another but to some extent not completely.
Boys, Students, Athletes

Some boys may be students and vice-versa. Similarly some boys may be athletes and vice-versa.
Some students may be athletes and vice-versa.
Example 7
Two items are related to each other completely and third item is entirely different from first two.
Lions, Carnivorous, Cows

All the lions are carnivorous but no cow is lion or carnivorous.

Example 8
First item is completely related to second and third item is partially related to first and second
item.
Dogs, Animals, Flesh-eaters

All the dogs are belonging to animals but some dogs are flesh eater but not all.
254 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Example 9
First item is partially related to second but third is entirely different from the first two.
Dogs, Flesh-eaters, Cows

Some dogs are flesh-eaters but not all while any dog or any flesh-eater cannot be cow.

Sample Questions

1. Which of the following diagrams correctly represents lions, elephants, and animals?

Answer: A
Explanation:

Lions and elephants have no relationship to each other, but both are animals.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 255

2. Which of the following diagrams correctly shows the relationship between potato, food, and
vegetables?

Answer : A
Explanation

Potato is a vegetable, and all vegetables are food.

3. Which of the following diagrams correctly shows the relationship between tea, coffee, and
beverages?

Answer : C
Explanation
Tea and coffee are different from each other, but both are beverages.
256 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

4. Which of the following diagrams correctly shows the relationship between boys, athletes, and
students?

Answer : D
Explanation

Some boys are athletes, and some boys are students. Also, some students are athletes. So, they are
partly related to one another.
5. Select the diagram which correctly illustrates the relationship between a thief, criminal and
judge.

Answer : C
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 257

Explanation

All thieves are criminals, and a judge is not related to a thief or criminal.
Number, Ranking and Time Sequence Test
In this type of questions, generally, one is given a long series of numbers. The candidate is required to
find out how many times a number satisfying the conditions, specified in the question, occurs. This
includes the following category of sequences:
• Date-Time Sequence
• Number Sequence
• Ranking Sequence
Number Test
In this type of questions, generally a set, group or series of numerals is given and the candidate is asked
to trace out numerals following certain given conditions or lying at specifically mentioned positions
after shuffling according to a certain given pattern.
Example
How many such 5s are there in the following number sequence each of which is immediately
preceded by 3 or 4 but not immediately followed by 8 or 9?
35954553584567357554523510
(A) One (B) Three (C) Four (D) Five (E) None of these
Solution
As you know, a number which comes after a given number is said to follow it while the one which
comes before the given number precedes it.
Thus, the number satisfying the given conditions may be marked as follows:
359545358467375542310
Clearly, there are five such 5s. Hence, the answer is (d).
Ranking Test
In this type of questions, generally the ranks of a person both from the top and from the bottom are
258 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

mentioned and the total number of persons is asked. However, sometimes this question is put in the
form of a puzzle of interchanging seats by two persons.
Example
Rohan ranks seventh from the top and twenty-sixth from the bottom in a class. How many students
are there in the class?
(A) 31 (B) 32 (C) 33 (D) 34
Solution
Clearly, the whole class consists of:
(i) 6 student who have ranks higher than Rohan;
(ii) Rohan; and
(iii) 25 students who have ranks lower than Rohan, i.e, (6+1+25) = 32 students. Hence, the
answer is (b).
Time Sequence Test
Example
Satish remembers that his brother’s birthday is after fifteenth but before eighteenth of February whereas
his sister Kajal remembers that her brother’s birthday is after sixteenth but below nineteenth of February.
On which day in February is Satish’s brother’s birthday?
(A) 16th (B) 17th (C) 18th (D) 19th (E) None of these
Solution
According to Satish, the brother’s birthday is on one of the days among 16th and 17th February.
According to Kajal, the brother’s birthday is on one of the days among 17th and 18th February.
Clearly, Satish’s brother’s birthday is on the day common to both the above groups, i.e., 17th February.
Syllogism
Syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning where you arrive at a specific conclusion by examining two
other premises or ideas. Syllogism derives from the Greek word syllogismos, meaning conclusion or
inference.
Some syllogisms contain three components:
• Major Premise
• Minor Premise
• Conclusion
For Example : All roses are flowers (major premise). This is a rose (minor premise). Therefore, I am
holding a flower (conclusion).
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 259

Types of Syllogism
The type of syllogism that typically contains these three components is categorical syllogism. However,
there are two other major kinds of syllogism. We'll discuss each one here, plus enthymemes and
syllogistic fallacy.
Categorical Syllogism
As we know, our first example about roses was a categorical syllogism. Categorical syllogisms follow an
"If A is part of C, then B is part of C" logic.
Let's look at some more examples.
All cars have wheels. I drive a car. Therefore, my car has wheels.
• Major Premise : All cars have wheels.
• Minor Premise : I drive a car.
• Conclusion : My car has wheels.
All insects frighten me. That is an insect. Therefore, I am frightened.
• Major Premise: All insects frighten me.
• Minor Premise: That is an insect.
• Conclusion: I am frightened.
Conditional Syllogism
Conditional syllogisms follow an "If A is true, then B is true" pattern of logic. They're often referred to
as hypothetical syllogisms because the arguments aren't always valid. Sometimes they're merely an
accepted truth.
If Katie is smart, then her parents must be smart.
• Major premise : Katie is smart.
• Conclusion : Katie's parents are smart.
If Richard likes Germany, then he must drive an Audi.
• Major premise : Richard likes Germany.
• Conclusion : He must like all things German, including their cars.
Disjunctive Syllogism
Disjunctive syllogisms follow a "Since A is true, B must be false" premise. They don't state if a major or
minor premise is correct. But it's understood that one of them is correct.
• Major Premise : This cake is either red velvet or chocolate.
• Minor Premise : It's not chocolate.
260 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

• Conclusion : This cake is red velvet.

• Major Premise : On the TV show Outlander, Claire's husband is either dead or alive.
• Minor Premise: He's not alive.
• Conclusion: Claire's husband is dead.
Enthymemes
An enthymeme is not one of the major types of syllogism but is what's known as rhetorical syllogism.
These are often used in persuasive speeches and arguments.
Generally, the speaker will omit a major or minor premise, assuming it's already accepted by the
audience.
He couldn't have stolen the jewelry. I know him.
• Major Premise: He couldn't have stolen the jewelry.
• Minor Premise: I know his character.
Her new purse can't be ugly. It's a Louis Vuitton.
• Major Premise: Her new accessory can't be ugly.
• Minor Premise: It's made by famous designer Louis Vuitton.
In an enthymeme, one premise remains implied. In the examples above, being familiar with someone
or something implies an understanding of them.
Syllogistic Fallacy
Some syllogisms contain false presumptions. When you start assuming one of the major or minor
premises to be true, even though they're not based in fact - as with disjunctive syllogisms and
enthymemes - you run the risk of making a false presumption.
All crows are black. The bird in my cage is black. Therefore, this bird is a crow.
• Major Premise: All crows are black.
• Minor Premise: The bird in my cage is black.
• Conclusion: This bird is a crow.
The scenery in Ireland is beautiful. I'm in Ireland. Therefore, the scenery must be beautiful.
• Major Premise: The scenery in Ireland is beautiful.
• Minor Premise: I'm in Ireland.
• Conclusion: The scenery is beautiful.
Of course, not every black bird is a crow and not all of Ireland is beautiful. When preparing a speech
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 261

or writing a paper, we must always make sure we're not making any sweeping generalizations that will
cause people to make false presumptions.
Rules of Syllogism
There are six known rules of syllogism. However, they mainly apply to categorical syllogism, since that
is the only category that requires three components: major premise, minor premise, and conclusion.
Here are six rules that will ensure you're making a strong and accurate argument.
1. Rule One: There must be three terms: the major premise, the minor premise, and the
conclusion - no more, no less.
2. Rule Two: The minor premise must be distributed in at least one other premise.
3. Rule Three: Any terms distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the relevant
premise.
4. Rule Four: Do not use two negative premises.
5. Rule Five: If one of the two premises are negative, the conclusion must be negative.
6. Rule Six: From two universal premises, no conclusion may be drawn.

Sample Questions

In each of the following questions two statements are given and these statements are followed by two
conclusions numbered (1) and (2). You have to take the given two statements to be true even if they
seem to be at variance from commonly known facts. Read the conclusions and then decide which of
the given conclusions logically follows from the two given statements, disregarding commonly known
facts.
Give answer:
• (A) If only (1) conclusion follows

• (B) If only (2) conclusion follows

• (C) If either (1) or (2) follows

• (D) If neither (1) nor (2) follows and

• (E) If both (1) and (2) follow.

1. Statements : Some actors are singers. All the singers are dancers.

Conclusions:

1. Some actors are dancers.

262 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

2. No singer is actor.
A. Only (1) conclusion follows
B. Only (2) conclusion follows
C. Either (1) or (2) follows
D. Neither (1) nor (2) follows
E. Both (1) and (2) follow
Answer : Option A
Explanation

2. Statements : All the harmoniums are instruments. All the instruments are flutes.
Conclusions:
1. All the flutes are instruments.
2. All the harmoniums are flutes.
A. Only (1) conclusion follows
B. Only (2) conclusion follows
C. Either (1) or (2) follows
D. Neither (1) nor (2) follows
E. Both (1) and (2) follow
Answer : Option B
Explanation:
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 263

3. Statements : Some mangoes are yellow. Some tixo are mangoes.

Conclusions:
1. Some mangoes are green.
2. Tixo is a yellow.
A. Only (1) conclusion follows
B. Only (2) conclusion follows
C. Either (1) or (2) follows
D. Neither (1) nor (2) follows
E. Both (1) and (2) follow
Answer : Option D
Explanation :

4. Statements : Some ants are parrots. All the parrots are apples.
Conclusions :
1. All the apples are parrots.
2. Some ants are apples.
A. Only (1) conclusion follows
B. Only (2) conclusion follows
C. Either (1) or (2) follows
D. Neither (1) nor (2) follows
E. Both (1) and (2) follow
Answer : Option B
264 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Explanation:

5. Statements : Some papers are pens. All the pencils are pens.
Conclusions :
1. Some pens are pencils.
2. Some pens are papers.
A. Only (1) conclusion follows
B. Only (2) conclusion follows
C. Either (1) or (2) follows
D. Neither (1) nor (2) follows
E. Both (1) and (2) follow
Answer : Option E
Explanation
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 265

Truth Tellers and Liars*

These problems will illustrate some of the logical concepts we've looked at, as well as illustrating some
proof techniques that we'll look at in more detail later. These proofs are written entirely in words, so
for the moment we don't need to worry about the presentation details associated with mathematical
symbols.
The general setup : You're on an island where each inhabitant is a truth-teller or a liar. Truth-tellers
always tell the truth; liars always lie. You're given some information about some people, usually in the
form of statements they make. You're asked to determine whether each person is a truth-teller or a liar.
In some cases, it may be impossible to determine what everyone is, or the situation may be impossible.
Example. You're on an island where each inhabitant is a truth-teller or a liar. Truth-tellers always tell
the truth; liars always lie. Calvin and Phoebe are on the island.
Phoebe says: "If 34 is odd, then I am a truth-teller."
Calvin says: "Phoebe is a liar."
Determine whether each person is a truth-teller or a liar.
(In this problem, I notice that I can determine the truth or falsity of the statement "34 is odd" without
knowing anything about Phoebe or Calvin. So I'll start with it and see what follows from it.)
Since "34 is odd" is false, the "if" part of Phoebe's statement is false. Hence, Phoebe's statement is true.
Therefore, Phoebe must be a truth-teller.
Now Calvin says "Phoebe is a liar", and that is false, since I just showed that Phoebe is a truth-teller.
Therefore, Calvin is a liar.
Thus, Phoebe is a truth-teller and Calvin is a liar.
Here are some general ideas about how you might approach a problem like this. Pick a character in
the problem --- let's say you pick "Leopold". Consider the two cases: "Leopold is a truth-teller" or
"Leopold is a liar". You can picture the reasoning process as a tree:

You can start with either case --- let's suppose you start with "Leopold is a truth-teller". (Note that this
means anything he said is true.) Reason from this until you get a contradiction, a solution (that is,
you know what all the characters are), or no conclusion.

1. See, Raymond Smullyan, What is the name of this book. New York: Dover Publications, 2011.
266 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

I'll consider the first of these three cases in more detail, but similar ideas hold for the other two cases.
Thus, suppose "Leopold is a truth-teller" gives a contradiction. Then he can't be a truth-teller, so he
must be a liar. The "Leopold is a truth-teller" branch of the tree is finished: Switch to the "Leopold is a
liar" branch and start reasoning there.
(a) If "Leopold is a liar" gives a contradiction, then both cases have given a contradiction and the
original problem is impossible.

(b) If "Leopold is a liar" gives a solution, then that's the answer to the original problem.

(c) If "Leopold is a liar" gives no conclusion, then you need to take cases on another character.
Let's say Molly is another character. Then we have the cases "Molly is a truth-teller" and "Molly
is a liar", and they are sub-cases of "Leopold is a liar".

Now you have to continue reasoning with the two branches "Molly is a truth-teller" and "Molly is a
liar".
If at some point all the branches end in contradictions, then the problem is impossible. If all the
branches end in contradictions but one ends in a solution, then the solution is the answer to the
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 267

problem. If more than one branch ends in a solution, the problem has multiple answers. If any of the
branches ends in no conclusion, and you have no more characters with which to take cases, then
again the problem has multiple answers.
Similar things would happen if our original choice ("Leopold is a truth-teller") gave a solution, or no
conclusion.
It may also be that you should have started reasoning with another character --- so in the example I
just went through, maybe you should have started by taking cases on Molly instead of Leopold. As
with a lot of problem-solving and proof-writing, you should become accustomed to working on
scratch paper and possibly throwing away early attempts in favor of later ones.
Example. You're on an island where each inhabitant is a truth-teller or a liar. Truth-tellers always tell
the truth; liars always lie. Calvin and Phoebe are on the island.
Calvin says: "One or both of us is a liar."
Determine whether each person is a truth-teller or a liar.
• Suppose Calvin is a liar. Then the statement "One or both of us is a liar" is true, contradicting
the fact that Calvin is a liar.
• Hence, Calvin is a truth-teller. Therefore, his statement is true, and at least one of them is a
liar. Since it isn't Calvin, it must be Phoebe.
• Thus, Calvin is a truth-teller and Phoebe is a liar.
Here are other ideas for these kinds of problems.
1. If there are statements whose truth value you know (like "34 is odd"), begin with that
information and see what you can conclude. For example, if Phoebe says "34 is odd", then
(since the statement is false) I know Phoebe is a liar.
2. You must take cases in pairs, e.g. "Calvin is a liar" and "Calvin is a truth teller". And once you
take cases, you must consider both.
3. Don't take cases unless you have to --- that is, unless you can't go any further with the
information you know.
4. Observe that these solutions are written entirely in words: We aren't using truth tables here.
You should avoid using symbols unless they are necessary. Mathematics does not necessarily
require the use of symbols!
It's okay to use pictures to clarify your reasoning, but a picture is not a substitute for a verbal proof.
Example. You're on an island where each inhabitant is a truth-teller or a liar. Truth-tellers always tell
the truth; liars always lie. Calvin and Phoebe are on the island.
Calvin says: "If I am a liar, then Phoebe is a liar."
Phoebe says: "Calvin is a truth-teller."
268 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Determine whether each person is a truth-teller or a liar.

Suppose Calvin is a liar. Then his statement is false. Since it's an if-then statement, the if-part must be
true and the then-part must be false. The if-part is "I am a liar", which is indeed true (by assumption).
Then then-part must be false, so "Phoebe is a liar" is false, and hence Phoebe is a truth-teller. This
means Phoebe's statement "Calvin is a truth-teller" is true, which contradicts our assumption that
Calvin is a liar.
Since "Calvin is a liar" led to a contradiction, Calvin must be a truth-teller. Now Phoebe says "Calvin is
a truth-teller", so she is telling the truth, and she is a truth-teller. Calvin's statement is "If I am a liar, then
Phoebe is a liar". Both parts ("I am a liar" and "Phoebe is a liar") are false, so the if-then statement is true,
consistent with Calvin being a truth-teller.
Since "Calvin is a liar" led to a contradiction and "Calvin is a truth-teller" led to a solution (consistent
with both characters' statements), we find that Calvin is a truth-teller and Phoebe is a truth-teller.
It is noted that it's possible that a problem like this can't be solved, for either of the following reasons:
(a) There isn't enough information to determine what all the characters are.
(b) The given situation is impossible: All the cases lead to contradictions.

***
Lesson 8

NON-VERBAL
REASONING

269
270 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Analytical Reasoning
Analytical Reasoning is Qualitative and Quantitative reasoning in nature. People use analytical
reasoning to scrutinise speech, documents, diagrams, charts and graphs, and gather the most relevant
information. Those with strong analytical skills will consider how key elements within that information
relate to one another, and are more likely to notice crucial patterns and details.
Analytical reasoning measure a candidate’s critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• Data may be presented in the form of written passages, graphs, tables or shapes.
• Where questions are based on a series of images, they have much in common with inductive
reasoning and non-verbal reasoning tests.
• Written analytical reasoning questions assess many of the same skills as verbal reasoning tests.
Analytical reasoning evaluate Inductive and Deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning involves obtaining specific information relating to a topic/subject in order to
make predictions based on such information.
Example of Inductive Reasoning
1. Every quiz has been eassy. Therefore the test will be easy.
2. The teacher used power point in the last few classes. Therefore, the teacher will use power
point tomorrow.
3. Every fall there have been huricanes in the tropics this coming fall.
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a logical conclusion based on one or more given
statements, or premises.
Example of deductive Reasoning
1. All Students eat pizza. Raman is a students at KKM. Therefore, Raman eats Pizza
2. All athletes work out in the gym. Karan is an athlete. Therefore, Karan works out in the gym.
Analytical Reasoning Thinking Approach
Suppose you have to find the number of triangles in the given figure

Solution : The simplest triangles are AFB, FEB, EBC, DEC, DFE and AFD i.e. 6 in number.
The triangles composed of two components each are AEB, FBC, DFC, ADE, DBE and ABD i.e. 6 in
number.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 271

The triangles composed of three components each are ADC and ABC i.e. 2 in number.
There is only one triangle i.e. DBC which is composed of four components.
Thus, there are 6 + 6 + 2 + 1 = 15 triangles in the figure.

Let’s take the one more example, Find the number of triangles in the given figure.

Solution : The simplest triangles are AEI, AIH, BEJ, BJF, CFK, CKG, DGL, DLH, EOJ, FOJ, FOG, LOG,
HOL and HOE i.e. 14 in number.
The triangles composed of two components each are EAH, FBE, BEO, EOF, BFO, FCG, GDH, HOD,
HOG and GOD i.e. 10 in number.
The triangles composed of three components each are EFH, EHG, FGH and EFG i.e. 4 in number.
Thus, there are 14 + 10 + 4 = 28 triangles in the given figure
272 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Study the given information carefully and answer the questions that follow:
Analytical Reasoning Conditional Based
A team of five is to be selected from amongst five boys A, B, C, D and E and four girls P, Q, R and S. Some
criteria for selection are:
(a) A and S have to be together.
(b) P cannot be put with R.
(c) D and Q cannot go together.
(d) C and E have to be together.
(e) R cannot be put with B.
Unless otherwise stated, these criteria are applicable to all the questions below
1. If two of the members have to be boys, the team will consist of:
(a) A, B, S, P, Q (b) A, D, S, Q, R (c) B, D, S, R, Q (d) C, E, S, P,
Solution : Here we have, If A is selected, S has to be selected. If B is selected, R cannot be
selected.
If D is selected, Q cannot be selected. Hence A, D, S, Q, R and B, D, S, R, Q are wrong. C, E, S,
P, Q is not possible because A and S should be together. So answer is option 1.
2. If R be one of the members, the other members of the team are;
(a) P, S, A, D (b) Q, S, A, D (c) P, S, C, E (d) S, A, C, E
Solution : If R is selected, P cannot be selected. So, P, S, A, D is wrong.
D and Q cannot be together. So, Q, S, A, D is wrong.
S and A have to be together. So, P, S, C, E is wrong. The option (d) satisfies all the conditions.
Hence it is the answer.
3. If two of the members are girls and D is one of the members, the members of the team other
than D are:
(a) P, Q, B, C (b) P, Q, C, E (c) P, S, A, B (d) P, S, C, E
Solution : If D is selected, Q cannot be selected. So P, Q, B, C and P, Q, C, E are incorrect. S and
A have to be together. So, P, S, C, E is also wrong. The third option P, S, A, B satisfies all the
conditions, hence it is the answer.
Classification
Classification means to ‘assort the items of a given group on the basis of a certain common quality they
possess and spot the odd one out.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 273

In these types of questions we will be provided with a group of 5 items out of which 4 would be similar
to one another in a certain relationship among themselves and 1 would differ from them
Example 1: Choose the odd one
(a) Horse
(b) lion
(c) giraffe
(d) cheetah
(e) Panda
Solution : option(A) Except Horse all are wild animals
Example 2 : Choose the odd one
(a) 1728
(b) 64
(c) 1331
(d) 343
(e) 441
Solution : option(e) except 441 all are perfect cube
Example 3 : Choose the odd one
(a) Iron
(b) mercury
(c) Copper
(d) zinc
(e) aluminum
Solution : (b) mercury
Explanation
Among all of the above only mercury is in liquid state at room temperature
1. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group?
(A) Badminton
(B) Table Tennis
274 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

(C) Lawn Tennis

(D) Hockey
(E) Rugby
Solution : (E) Rugby
Explanation
Only sport Rugby contains a single thing Rugby, all other contain 2 things: racket and ball,
stick and ball, etc
*Rugby is not a ball
2. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group?
(A) Morarji Desai
(B) Lal Bahadur Shastri
(C) R. Vekataraman
(D) Rajiv Gandhi
(E) P. V. Narasimha Rao
Solution : (C) R. Vekataraman
Explanation
Venkataraman had been the President, all others PMs
3. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group?
(A) Lima
(B) Wellington
(C) Cairo
(D) Cuba
(E) Kingston
Solution : (D) Cuba
Explanation
Cuba is a country and all other are capitals
4. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group ?
(1) Groundnut
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 275

(2) Cumin
(3) Cinnamon
(4) Pepper
(5) Clove
Solution : (1) Groundnut
Explanation : Remaining all are spice
5. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group ?
(1) 1936
(2) 2916
(3) 2304
(4) 3364
(5) 2744
Solution : ( 5) 2744 (14^3)
Explanation : Remaining all the numbers are Square number
6. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group ?
(1) Butterfly
(2) Crow
(3) Pigeon
(4) Parrot
(5) Peacock
Solution : (1) Butterfly (Insect)
Explanation : Remaining all are birds
7. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group ?
(1) Pelvis
(2) Fibula
(3) Vertebra
276 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

(4) Skull
(5) Appendix
Solution : (5)Appendix (Organ)
Explanation : Remaining all are bones
8. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group ?
(1) Ginger
(2) Onion
(3) Beetroot
(4) Coriander
(5) Potato
Solution : (4) Coriander
Explanation : Coriander – modified stem
9. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group ?
(1) Snake
(2) Frog
(3) Rat
(4) Mongoose
(5) Tortoise
Solution : (1) Snake
Explanation : Snake is only poisonous animal
10. Four of the following five are alike in a certain way and so form a group. Which is the one that
does not belong to that group ?
(1) Italy
(2) Europe
(3) Greece
(4) Poland
(5) Spain
Solution : (2) Europe
Explanation : It is a continent rest all are countries.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 277

Completion of Incomplete Pattern

In this given “Completion of Incomplete Pattern Verbal Reasoning” questions, a figure or a network or
a matrix, containing an arrangement of figures taking after the specific sequence or pattern is given,
in which a section, for the most part, a quarter, is left blank. Contenders need to choose the one which
best fits into the blank space of problem figure to finish the original pattern.
We have to approach the Question according to the Sequence of the given pattern. There are
generally two types of Questions comes in this “Completion of incomplete pattern”
1. Finding the missing figure
2. The movement of the figure in clockwise and anticlockwise in 90-degree pattern or any
movement According to degree.
Example : Complete the given Figure

A B C D
Solution
From the given four option the most appropriate figure which complete it is option(B)
278 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Sample Questions

1. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

• A. • B. • C. • D.

Solution : Option (c)

2. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

• A. • B. • C. • D. .
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 279

Solution : Option (A)

3. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

A B C D

Solution : Option (D)

4. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

A B C D

Solution : Option (D)

280 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

5. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

A B C D

Solution : Option (D)

6. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

Solution : Option(A) figure inside the box moves 90 degree in clockwise direction each time.
7. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which when placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

Solution : Option (B) Rod is moving 90 degree in clockwise direction. Move the Rod from 3rd
box by 90 degree in clockwise direction.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 281

8. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

Solution : Option (A).

The answer figure (a) will complete the figure correctly.
9. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

Solution : Option (2)

10. Select a figure from the four alternatives, which can be placed in the blank space of fig. (x).

Solution : Option (4)

282 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Figure Matrix
There are rows and columns in the matrix. Horizontal line is called row while the vertical line is called
column. There is a certain relation between the elements of rows and columns. In this type of questions,
a matrix is given in which one space is left blank or denoted by a question make. Four answer figures
are followed by the matrix. The candidate has to find out which answer figure will be replaced by the
question mark.
Example : In the following matrix, which of the answer figure will replace the questions mark?

Answer with Explanation (B) : Here the relation is in the columns. In the first column, in the (I) row is
x, in the (II) row the design of (I) is enclosed by a circle while in (III) row the design of (II) is enclosed
by a square. By the same relation in Second column in place of ? The design ‘+’ will be enclosed by a
circle of. Hence the answer is (B).

Sample Questions

1. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix.

Solution : Option (1)

 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 283

In each row, the central part of the first figure rotates either 90o CW or 90o ACW to form the
central part of the second figure and the central part of the first figure rotates through 180o
to form the central part of the third figure. Also, in each row, there are 3 types of side elements-
rectangles, circles and triangles.
2. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix.

Solution : Option (1)

In each row, the second figure is obtained from the first figure by reversing the direction of
the RHS arrow and the third figure is obtained from the second figure by reversing the
direction of both the arrows.
3. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix.

Solution : Option (4)

In each row, there are 3 types of shadings of circles - a circle is unshaded, another circle has
its right half shaded with vertical lines and yet another circle has its upper half shaded with
horizontal lines. There are three specified positions of the two triangles each of which is used
only once in a row. Also, two of the figures in each row have one triangle shaded.
284 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

4. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix.

Solution : Option (3)

In each row, the third figure is a collection of the common elements (line segments) of the
first and the second figures.
5. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix.

Solution : Option (C)

Square is related to circle, in first column no shading in square or circle, in second column
two shaded region in both square and circle, hence option (c) satisfy the given figure.
6. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix.

Solution : Option (B)

One small line is adding to next figure so according to given figure there will be three in line
in next.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 285

7. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix

Solution : Option (D)

The given figure is in decreasing order , we can clearly see in the picture the first row is in
decreasing and same as the second hence third row also will be in decreasing , then option
(D) satisfy the condition

8. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix

Solution : Option (B)

In the given picture one line is increasing in row and same as follow in second row.

9. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix

Solution : Option (D)

In the given figure one dot is decreasing in a sequence order in a row, same as in second row
and third row
286 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

10. Select a suitable figure from the four alternatives that would complete the figure matrix

Solution : Option (A)

In a given figure in first row 1stfigure is merged to second hence the third figure comes, so
according to it option (A)
Grouping of Identical Figures
Arrangements of nine figures, which are numbered, are given. Examine these figures and characterise
them along with gatherings comprising of figures having more or less the same properties. The best
answer is to be chosen from a given arrangement of genuinely close options.
Example : Select the given figures into three sections using each figure only once.

Options :
(a) 1, 4, 7; 3, 6, 9; 2, 5, 8
(b) 1, 6, 9; 2, 4, 7; 3, 5, 8
(c) 1, 4, 7; 2, 6, 9; 3, 5, 8
(d) 1, 5, 7; 2, 6, 9; 3, 4, 8
Solution
3, 5, 8 have similar designs with four leaves placed close to a small circle and forming a symmetrical
design at the centre of the figure.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 287

2, 6, 9 have a similar designs with three of the corners of the main figure are shaded black and
there is a pattern formed around a ‘+’ sign at the centre of the figure.
1, 4, 7 have similar designs with four small circles at the corners of the main figure and there is a
wheel shaped element at the centre of the figure.
Hence, figure (c) is the answer.
1. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. Select the groups into which
the figures can be classified from the given responses.

A. 1, 4, 8; 2, 5, 7; 3, 9, 6
B. 1, 4, 6; 2, 5, 8; 3, 7, 9
C. 1, 4, 6; 2, 5, 7; 3, 8, 9
D. 1, 2, 3; 4, 5, 6; 7, 8, 9
Solution : Correct Option: B

As we can see that, Figures (1, 4, 6) There are two similar designs.
Figures (2, 5, 8)  Irregular figures
Figures (3, 7, 9)  The main design is divided into eight parts.
2. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. Select the group into which
the figures can be classified from the given responses.

A. 1, 4, 5; 2, 6, 8; 3, 7, 9
B. 1, 3, 7; 4, 6, 9; 2, 5, 8
C. 1, 3, 7; 2, 5, 8; 4, 6, 9
D. 1, 3, 8; 2, 5, 7; 4, 6, 9
288 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Correct Option : D
As per the given series of figures, which can be classified as:-
Figures 1, 3 and 8 One big design and one smaller shaded design.
Figures 2, 5 and 7  Each design has a black dot.
Figures 4, 6 and 9  Two similar designs
3. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. Select the groups into which
the figures can be classified from the given responses.

A. 1, 7, 8; 2, 6, 5; 3, 4, 9
B. 1, 8, 9; 2, 3, 5; 4, 6, 7
C. 2, 3, 5; 1, 7, 8; 4, 6, 9
D. 2, 6, 7; 1, 3, 4; 5, 8, 9
Correct Option : B
On the basis of above given series of figures, which can be classified as
Figures (1), (8) and (9); Two black dots
Figures (2), (3) and (5): One black dot
Figures (4), (6) and (7): Three black dots
4. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. Select the group into which
the figures can be classified.

A. 1,3,4 2,5,9 6,7,8

B. 1,2,3 4,5,6 7,8,9
C. 1,5,9 2,4,7 3,6,8
D. 3,7,8 1,6,5 4,2,9
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 289

Correct Option : A
Figures (1), (3) and (4) : having three lines .
Figures (2), (5) and (9) : having five lines .
Figures (6), (7) and (8) : having four lines.
5. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. From the responses, select the
groups into which the figures can be classified.

A. 1, 4, 7; 2, 5, 8; 3, 6, 9
B. 1, 4, 5; 2, 6, 8; 3, 7, 9
C. 1, 7, 9; 3, 5, 8; 2, 4, 6
D. 1, 6, 9; 2, 5, 8; 3, 4, 7
Correct Option : A
Figures 1, 4 and 7 Vessels with lids
Figures 2, 5 and 8  Kettle like vessels
Figure 3, 6 and 9  Flowers
6. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. From the responses, select the
groups into which the figures can be classified.

A. 1,2,6 ; 3,4,7 ; 5

B. 1,3 ; 2,6 ; 4,5,7

C. 1,2,6,7 ; 3 ; 4,5

D. 1,3 ; 2,4,5 ; 6,7

290 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Correct Option : D
1, 3 contain a V-shaped element inside a geometrical figure.
2, 4, 5 contain two similar elements, one placed inside the other and touching it.
6, 7 contain geometrical figures which are divided into four equal parts by two mutually
perpendicular straight lines
7. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. From the responses, select the
groups into which the figures can be classified ?

A. 1,2,5 ; 3,7,8 ; 4,6,9

B. 1,7,2 ; 3,9,6 ; 4,5,8
C. 2,3,8 ; 4,6,9 ; 1,5,7
D. 5,6,9 ; 3,4,1 ; 2,7,8
Correct Option : A
1, 2, 5 are figures that have patterns formed from four lines curved in a concave direction.
3, 7, 8 are figures that have patterns formed from four lines curved in a convex direction.
4, 6, 9 are figures that have patterns formed from these straight line.
8. A series of figures are given which can be grouped into classes. From the responses, select the
groups into which the figures can be classified ?
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 291

A. 1,3,9 ; 2,5,6 ; 4,7,8

B. 1,3,9 ; 2,7,8 ; 4,5,6
C. 1,2,4 ; 3,5,7 ; 6,8,9
D. 1,3,6 ; 2,4,8 ; 5,7,9
Correct Option : A
Explanation
1, 3, 9 have one element placed inside a different element.
2, 5, 6 contain two mutually perpendicular lines dividing the figure into four parts.
4, 7, 8 have two similar elements (unequal in size) attached to each other.
Mirror Image

The picture obtained by putting a mirror in front of the real image is known as a mirror image, or we
can say that the reflection of an object into the mirror is called its mirror image. There are two types
of the questions, which are generally asked in examinations, regarding mirror images. They are
Letter/ Number Images and Geometrical Images. In Letter/ Number Images the question will be given
with a combination of letters/words/numbers. The users need to find their mirror images out of given
alternatives. In Geometrical Images, we deal with figures having defined geometrical shapes. Hence,
the candidates can know all the type of Mirror Images.
Example 1: Find the mirror image of the given figure from options

Solution : Option (B)

It shows that left art of the figure come towards right part of the figure
292 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Example 2 : Choose the alternative which is closely resembles the mirror image of the given
combination

Solution : Option (D). It is clear that letter also behave same left part became right and vice versa.
1. Find the mirror image of the given figure from options

Solution : Option (a)

2. Find the mirror image of the given figure from options

Solution : Option (a)

3. Find the mirror image of the given figure from options

Solution : Option (B)

 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 293

4. Find the mirror image of the given figure from options

Solution : Option (D)

5. Find the mirror image of the given figure from options

Solution : Option (C)

6. Choose the alternative which is closely resembles the mirror image of the given combination

Solution : Option (2)

294 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

7. Choose the alternative which is closely resembles the mirror image of the given combination

Solution : Option (c)

8. Choose the alternative which is closely resembles the mirror image of the given combination

Solution : Option (4)

9. Choose the alternative which is closely resembles the mirror image of the given combination

Solution : Option (1)

10. Choose the alternative which is closely resembles the mirror image of the given combination

Solution : Option (B)

 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 295

Rule Detection
Non-verbal communication includes problem-solving through various diagrams and pictures. Thereby
testing the ability of a student to analyze the visual information and try and solve the problems based
on his/her visual ability. Many times figures are given and you need to find the odd figure among
them. For rule-detection, we are given some figures and based on the rules we need to determine the
correct figure.
For example, you could be asked to identify which figure among the following could become more
open or more closed? You only need to find the figure that obeys the rule given in the question. This
type of questions requires your imaginary as well as logical skills. This can be developed through
practice. When you practice with different figures and shapes, you develop a different mind-set and
thus this allows you to imagine out-of-box. These questions are not at all time consuming so it can
help you boost your score as well.
Example : Choose the set of figures which follows the given rule.
Rule : Closed figures become more and more open and open figures become more and more
closed.

Solution : Option (1)

In the given Figure the rule is satisfy in option (1) the figure is getting more and more open, and in
other it doesn’t follows.
1. Choose the set of figures which follows the given rule.
Rule : Closed figures losing their sides and open figures gaining their sides.

Solution : Option : (C) 3

296 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

2. Choose the set of figures which follows the given rule.

Rule : The series becomes complex as it proceeds.

Solution : Option : (B) 2

3. Which of the following series of figures follows the given rule?
Rule : Closed figure becomes more and more open, and the open figure becomes more and
more closed.

Solution : Option (A)

4. Rule: Open figure becomes more and more closed, and the closed figure becomes more and
more open.

Solution:-option(C)
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 297

5. If the given rule is applied to figure X, which of the following figures (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) would be the
right answer figure?
Rule : The curves turn into straight lines and the straight lines turn into curves.

Solution : Option (B)

6. Which of the following series follows the given rule?
Rule : The outer shape disappears gradually, whereas the inner shape appears slowly as the
series moves one step forward towards the right side.

Solution : Option (B) Only in the second series, the outer shape disappears gradually, and the
inner shape appears gradually as we move one step forward towards the right side. The third
series follows the reverse order; the outer shape appears gradually, and inner shape disappears
gradually. The first and fourth series also do not follow the given rule. So, the answer is option
B.
7. Which of the following series of arrows follows the given rule?
Rule : The arrows of the given series can be combined without changing their direction to
form a meaningful sequence.
298 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Solution : Option (A)

This image indicates the four cardinal directions, which are generally denoted by their initials
N, E, S, and W. The arrows of any other series can't be combined, without changing their
directions, into any meaningful information.
8. Among the following options which closed figure will become more and more open and
which figure that is open will be gradually closed.

Solution : Option (2)

 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 299

9. Out of the following figures, which figure is closed initially and will be opened gradually and
which open figure will be closed?

Solution : Option (C)

10. Which of the following series of figures follows the given rule?
Rule : A single unbroken line can trace any figure in the series without retracting.

Solution : Option (C)

Numeric and Alphabet Series
This chapter covers the following types of questions:
(I) Coding—Decoding
(II) Series
Coding—Decoding
300 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Group of letters consists of alphabet and the English alphabet consists of 26 letters.
You have to remember the position of all the letters from left to right and vice-versa.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26.
Trick to remember:
With the help of this trick, you can easily locate the position of letters.
From Left to Right—Ejoty
EJOTY
5 10 15 20 25
From Right to Left—bglqv
BGLQV
25 20 15 10 5
Type 1 : Letter Coding
In these questions, the real letters in a word are replaced by certain other letters according to a
specific rule to form the code. The candidate is required to detect the common rule and answer
the questions accordingly.
Examples
1. If in a certain language MYSTIFY is coded as NZTUJGZ, how is NEMESIS coded inthat
language?
(a) MDLHRDR
(b) OFNFTJT
(c) ODNHTDR
(d) PGOKUGU.
Solution
Each letter in MYSTIFY is moved one step forward to obtain the corresponding letter of the
code.
MY STIFY
+1 
NZ TUJGZ
So, in NEMESIS, N will be coded as O, E as F, M as N and so on. Thus, code becomes
OFNFTJT. Hence, answer is (b).
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 301

2. If TAP is coded as SZO, then how is FREEZE coded?

(a) EQDFYG
(b) ESDFYF
(c) GQFDYF
(d) EQDDYD.
Solution
Each letter in the word TAP is moved one step backward to obtain the corresponding letter
of the code.
SZO
-1 
TAP
Thus, in freeze, F will be coded as E, R as Q, E as D and Z as Y. So the code becomes
EQDDYD.
Hence, the answer is (d).
3. In a certain code SIKKIM is written as THLJJL. How is TRAINING written in that code?
(a) SQBHOHOH
(b) UQBHOHOF
(c) UQBJOHHO
(d) UQBJOHOH.
Solution
The letters in the word SIKKIM are moved alternately one step forward and one step backward
to obtain the letters of the code.
-1
H -1 J -1 L

SIKKIM
+1 -1 -1
TLJ
In TRAINING, T will be coded as U, R as Q, A as B, I as H and so on. Thus, the code becomes
UQBHOHOF.
Hence, answer is (b)
302 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

4. In a certain code, MENTION is written as LNEITNO. How is PATTERN written in that code?
(a) APTTREM
(b) PTAETNR
(c) OTAETNR
(d) OTAETRN.
Solution
To obtain the code, the first letter of the word MENTION is removed one step backward and
the remaining letters are reversed in order, taking two at a time,
MENTION
-1
L
Thus, PATTERN becomes OTAETNR.
Hence, answer is (c).
5. In a certain code FORGE is written as FPTJI. How is CULPRIT written in that code?
(a) CSJNPGR
(b) CVMQSTU
(c) CVNSVNZ
(d) CXOSULN.
Solution
The first letter in FORGE remains as it is and the second, third, fourth and fifth letters are
respectively moved one, two, three and four steps forward to obtain the corresponding
letters of the code.
Thus, the code for CULPRIT becomes CVNSVNZ.
Hence, answer is (c).
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 303

Sample Questions

Exercise 1
Likewise, HEARTEN would be coded as BFIQOFU.
1. In a certain code, TRIPPLE is written as SQHOOKD. How is DISPOSE written in that code?
(a) CPNCBX
(b) CPNCBZ

(c) CPOCBZ

(d) None of these.

2. If in a certain code, COULD is written as BNTKC and MARGIN is written as LZQFHM, how will
MOULDING be written in that code?

(a) CHMFINTK

(b) LNKTCHMF

(c) LNTKCHMF

(d) NITKHCMF.
3. In a certain code, MONKEY is written as XDJMNL. How is TIGER written in that code?
(a) QDFHS
(b) SDFHS
(c) SHFDQ
(d) UJHFS.
4. If VICTORY is coded as YLFWRUB, how can SUCCESS be coded?
(a) VXEEIVV
(b) VXFFHVV
(c) VYEEHVV
(d) VYEFIVV.
304 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

5. In a certain code TOGETHER is written as RQEGRJCT. In the same code PAROLE will be
written as
(a) NCPQJG
(b) NCQPJG
(c) RCPQJK
(d) RCTQNG.
6. If in a certain code COUNSEL is written as BITIRAK, how will GUIDANCE be written in that
code?
(a) EOHYZKBB
(b) FOHYZJBB
(c) FPHZZKAB
(d) HOHYBJBA.
7. In a code, CORNER is written as GSVRIV. How will CENTRAL be written in that code?
(a) DFOUSBM
(b) GIRXVEP
(c) GJRYVEP
(d) GNFJKER.
8. If BEAUTY is coded as “DHEZZF”, then how will “FLOWER” be written in that language?
(a) HSOBYK
(b) HBOSKY
(c) HOSBKY
(d) SBKYOH.
9. According to a code CERTAIN is written as XVIGZRM, how will MUNDANE be coded?
(a) MFHXZMV
(b) NFMWZMV
(c) NFMWZMX
(d) VMZWMFN.
10. If CIGARETTE is coded as GICERAETT, then DIRECTION will be coded as
(a) RIDTCENOI
(b) NORTECDII
(c) NOIETCRID
(d) IRDCTIONE.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 305

11. In a certain code language the word DIPLOMA is written as FERHQIC. How will the word
FOREIGN be written in that code?
(a) HJTAKCP
(b) HKTALCP
(c) HKTAKCP
(d) HKTAKBP.
12. In a certain code language CREATIVE is written as BDSBFUJS. How is TRIANGLE written in
that code?
(a) BSHSFHKM
(b) BHSSMHHF
(c) BSSHFMKH
(d) BHSSFKHM
13. In a certain code language POETRY is written as QONDSQX and OVER is written as PNUDQ.
How is MORE written in that code?
(a) NNNQD
(b) NLPQD
(c) NLNQD
(d) LNNQD.
14. In certain code ELECTION is written as GLGCVIQN, then VOTER will be coded as
(a) XOVET
(b) VOXET
(c) WPUFU
(d) VQTGR.
15. If BEAUTY is coded as “DHEZZF”, then how will “FLOWER” be written in that language?
(a) HSOBYK
(b) HBOSKY
(c) HOSBKY
(d) SBKYOH
306 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Type 2 : Number Coding

In these questions, either numerical code values are assigned to a word or alphabetical code letters
are assigned to a number. The candidate is required to analyse the code as per the directions.

Examples:
1. If PAINT is coded as 74128 and EXCEL is coded as 93596, then how would you code ACCEPT?
(a) 455978
(b) 547978
(c) 554978
(d) 735961.
Solution
In the given code, the letters are coded as follows.
PA INTEXCL
741289356
So in ACCEPT, A is coded as 4, C as 5, E as 9 and so on.
Therefore answer is (a).
2. If D = 4 and COVER = 63, then BASIS = ?
(a) 49
(b) 50

(c) 54

(d) 55
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 307

Sample Questions

Exercise 2

1. If in a certain code, BEAUTIFUL is coded as 573041208, BUTTER as 504479, how is FUTURE

coded in that code?

(a) 201497

(b) 204097
(c) 704092
(d) 204079.
2. In a certain code, 5 is coded as Z, 7 as E, 2 as S, 9 as T, and 4 as W. How is 977452 coded in that
code
(a) SEEWZT
(b) TEEWZS
(c) ZEEWST
(d) WEEZST.
3. In a certain language, if A is coded as 1, B is coded as 2, and so on, how is STAR coded in that
language?
(a) 1810291
(b) 9120118
(c) 1920118
(d) 1920811.
4. In a certain code, if SCHOOL is coded as 123445, TEAM as 6078, how is HOTEL coded in that
code?
(a) 34605
(b) 43605
(c) 60734
(d) 34785.
308 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

5. In a certain code, if BOX is coded as 213, BITTER as 207749, how is BOXER coded in that
code?
(a) 21359
(b) 23159
(c) 23149
(d) 21349.
6. If ROSE is coded as 6821, CHAIR is coded as 73456 and PREACH is coded as 961473, what
will be the code for SEARCH?
(a) 246173
(b) 214673
(c) 214763
(d) 216473.
7. In a certain code language, QUEUE is written as Q 22, and CHURCH is written as 1UR 1.
Which of the following would be most appropriate code for BANANA in that language?
(a) B5A5
(b) 5N5A
(c) B55A
(d) BA5A5A.
8. If PERFECT is coded as “116” then how will COMPACT be written in that code?
(a) 85
(b) 111
(c) 98
(d) 118.
9. If ACNE is coded as 3, 7, 29, 11, then BOIL will be coded as
(a) 5, 31, 21, 25
(b) 5, 31, 19, 25
(c) 5, 29, 19, 25
(d) 5, 29, 19, 27.
10. If FLARE is coded as 21, 15, 26, 9, 22, how will BREIF be coded in the same language?
(a) 25, 9, 22, 21, 18
(b) 5, 37, 11, 19, 13
(c) 13, 19, 11, 37, 5
(d) 25, 9, 22, 18, 21.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 309

Series
This deals with the questions in which series of numbers or alphabetical letters are given, which are
generally called terms of the series. These terms follow a certain pattern throughout.

The candidate is required to recognize this pattern and either complete the given series with the most
suitable alternative or find the wrong term in the series.

Type 1: Number Series

Important Patterns:

(1) a, a ± d, a ± 2d, a ± 3d,……

(2) a, ak, ak2, ak3,…..

(3) a, a/k, a/k2, a/k3,….

(4) (a)n, (a ± d)n, (a ± 2d)n, (a ± 3d)n,……

(5) an + k, (a + k)n + k, [(an + k)]n + k,……

(6) an + k, (a + 1)n + k, (a + 2)n + k,……

(7) 1n, 1n + 2n, 1n + 2n + 3n, 1n + 2 n + 3 n + 4 n,……

(8) Series of prime numbers i.e. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, etc.

Example

1. Which number would replace question mark in the series 7, 12, 19, ?, 39.

(a) 29

(b) 28

(c) 26

(d) 24

Solution

The given sequence follows the pattern:

+ 5, + 7, + 9….. i.e. 7 + 5 = 12

12 + 7 = 19,……

Missing number = 19 + 9 = 28

Hence, answer is (b).

310 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

2. Find out the missing number in the following sequence:

1, 3, 3, 6, 7, 9, ?, 12, 21
(a) 10
(b) 11
(c) 12
(d) 13.
Solution:
The given sequence is a combination of two series
I. 1, 3, 7, ?, 21 and
II. 3, 6, 9, 12
The pattern followed in I is + 2, + 4,…..; and the pattern followed in II is + 3.
Thus, missing number = 7 + 6 = 13.
Hence, the answer is (d).
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 311

Sample Questions

Exercise 3
Directions: (Qs. 1-22) Find the missing number in the series.
1. 3, 4, 12, 48, .........., 27648

(a) 488

(b) 576

(c) 492

(d) 528.

2. 19, 2, 38, 3, 114, 4, ..........

(a) 228

(b) 256

(c) 352

(d) 456.

3. 95, 115.5, 138, .........., 189

(a) 154.5

(b) 162.5

(c) 164.5

(d) 166.5.

4. 11, 22, 35, 50, .........., 86

(a) 80

(b) 67

(c) 68

(d) 70.
312 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

5. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ..........

(a) 35
(b) 36
(c) 48
(d) 49.
6. 20, 19, 17, .........., 10, 5
(a) 12
(b) 13
(c) 14
(d) 15.
7. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, .........., 17
(a) 12
(b) 13
(c) 14
(d) 15.
8. 1, 5, 15, 19, 57, ...........
(a) 65
(b) 59
(c) 63
(d) 61.
9. 2, 5, 9, 19, 37, ..........
(a) 76
(b) 75
(c) 74
(d) 72.
10. 345, 534, 264, 804, ..........
(a) 552
(b) 662
(c) 442
(d) 384.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 313

11. 363, 275, 484, 891, ..........

(a) 393
(b) 582
(c) 211
(d) 286.
12. 5, 17, 37, 65, .........., 145
(a) 95
(b) 97
(c) 99
(d) 101.
13. 9, 11, 20, 31, .........., 82
(a) 41
(b) 51
(c) 60
(d) 71.
14. 3, 10, 101, .....
(a) 10101
(b) 10201
(c) 10202
(d) 11012.
15. 1, 2, 8, 24, .........., 864
(a) 96
(b) 120
(c) 206
(d) 21
314 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Answers
Exercise 1
1. (d); T R I P P L E
SQ HOO KD
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
Each letter in TRIPPLE is moved one step backward to obtain the corresponding letter of the
code.
DISPOSE
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
CHRONRD
Similarly moving each letter of DISPOSE one step backward, the coded word is CHRONRD,
which is not among the options. Hence (d)
2. (c); C O U L D M A R G I N
BNTKCLZQFHM
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
Moving letters of MOULDING one step backward, we get LNTKCHMF. Hence (c).
3. (a); Each letter of word MONKEY is written in reverse order i.e. YEKNOM and then each
letter is moved one step backward to get X DJMNL. Writing TIGER in reverse order, we get
REGIT. Moving one step backward we get QDFHS.
4. (b); Each letter in the word VICTORY is moved two steps forward i.e. V becomes Y, I becomes
L, C becomes F and so on. Similarly, Success becomes VXFFHVV.
5. (a); T O G E T H E R
RQ EGRJCT
-2 +2 -2 +2 -2 +2 -2 +2
Each letter in TOGETHER is alternatively moved two steps backward and two steps forward.
In the same code PAROLE will be written as NCPQJG.
6. (b); The word COUNSEL is divided into two separate parts. Each alternate letter starting with
C is moved one step backward and remaining letters are respectively moved five, four and
three steps backward.
Thus
C B, O I, U T, N I, S R, E A and C K
In the same manner G F, U O, I H and so on.
7. (b); Each letter in the word CORNER is moved four steps forward to get GSVRIV. Moving
each letter of CENTRAL four steps forward, we get GIRXVEP.
8. (c); Each letter in JOSEPH is moved four steps backward. Similarly GEORGE is coded as
CAKNCA.
9. (b); In the English alphabet, C is third letter from the left and X is the third letter from the right.
Similarly E and V are the fifth letters from left and right respectively.
10. (a); The word CIGARETTE is divided into 3 groups of 3 letters each.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 315

CIG – ARE – TTE. In each group, the first and third letters are interchanged. So the code
becomes GICERAETT. Similarly working for DIR – ECT – ION, we get RIDTCENOI. Hence (a).
11. (c); The letters in DIPLOMA are alternatively moved two steps forward and four steps
backward.
Alphabets and Series 33
© Universal Institute of Legal Studies
12. (d); Step 1: The word Creative is divided into two parts CREA and Tive.
Step 2: In each sub-word, the first letter is replaced with fourth and second with third. So, we
get AERC and EVIT.
Steps 3: Each letter is now moved one step forward and one step backward to get BDSBFUJS.
Similarly working for TRIANGLE we get BHSSFKHM.
13. (c); In both the words POETRY and OVER, each letter is moved one step backward to get
ONDSQX and NUDQ respectively. Then the first letter of the original word is moved one step
forward and added on the left to get QONDSQX and PNUDQ.
14. (a); The letters in the word ELECTION are alternatively moved two steps forward and left
unchanged. Thus E G, L remains unchanged, E G, C C, T V, I I, O Q, N N.
In VOTER.
V X, O O, T V, E E, R T.
15. (c); B E A U T Y
+2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
DHEZZF
Similarly
FLOWER
+2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
HOSBKY
316 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

Exercise 2
1. (b); As given the letter are coded as:
BEAUTIFUL
573041208
So in FUTURE, F is coded as 2, U as 0, T as 4, R as 9 and E as 7. Therefore, FUTURE is coded
as 204097.
Hence, the answer is (b).
As F = 2, (c) is eliminated. Again as the second digit of the other three choices is same, then
check for the third, fourth and fifth digit which gives (b) as the answer.
2. (b); 977452 is coded as TEEWZS. Hence, the answer is (b).
3. (c); S 19 T 20 A 1 R 18. Hence, code is 1920118.
4. (a); S C H O O L T E A M
1234456078
Hence HOTEL 34605
5. (d); B O X B I T T E R
213207749
Hence BOXER 21349
6. (b); From the coding pattern, it is clear that codes for S, E, A, R, C and H are 2, 1, 4, 6, 7 and 3,
respectively as letters of the word are directly substituted.
7. (c); Similar pairs of letters have been given the same numeric in each word. As a result pair UE
in word QUEUE has been coded 2, pair CH has been coded 1 and likewise the pair An has
been coded 5. Hence, the word BANANA would be coded as B55A.
8. (d); In the given code A = 26, B = 25, C = 24 and so on.
So PERFECT 11 + 22 + 9 + 21 + 22 + 24 + 7 116
Similarly
COMPACT 24 + 12 + 14 + 11 + 26 + 24 + 7 118
i.e., opposite value concept.
9. (b); (2n+1) is the coding pattern used, where n = position of the alphabet in the alphabetical
order.
10. (d); Numbers in the coding show the positions of the respective letters from the end of the
alphabetical series.
 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning 317

Exercise 3
1. (b); 3 x 4 = 12
4 x 12 = 48
Similarly 12 x 48 = 576
Also 576 x 48 = 27648
2. (d); The sequence is a combination of two series:
I. 19, 38, 114, ….. and II. 2, 3, 4
The pattern followed in I is × 2, × 3, ........

The missing no. = 114 × 4 = 456

3. (b); The pattern is + 20.5, + 22.5, …..

Missing term = 138 + 24.5 = 162.5

4. (b); The given sequence follows the pattern:
+11, +13, +15 ... i.e. 11 + 11 = 22, 22 + 13 = 35
35 + 15 = 50

Missing number = 50 + 17 = 67
Hence, the answer is (b).
5. (b); The numbers are 12, 22, 32, 42, 52.

Missing number = 62 = 36.

6. (c); The pattern is -1, -2, ....

Missing number = 17 - 3 = 14.

7. (b); Clearly, the given series consists of prime numbers starting from 2. The prime number
after 11 is 13. So, 13 is the missing number.
8. (d); The pattern is
1+4=5
5 x 3 = 15
15 + 4 = 19
19 x 3 = 57
Hence the next number in the series should be 57 + 4 = 61.
318 Legal Aptitude and Logical Reasoning

9 (b); The pattern is x2+1, x2-1, x2+1, x2-1, ....

Missing number = 37 x 2 + 1 = 75.

10. (a); 3 + 4 + 5 = 12
5 + 3 + 4 = 12
2 + 6 + 4 = 12
8 + 0 + 4 = 12
So, 5 + 5 + 2 = 12.
11. (d); Adding of two corner numbers is equal to the middle number:
363
+
2 7 5, and so on.
+
Similarly, 2 8 6
+
12. (d); The numbers are 22 + 1, 42 + 1, 62 + 1, 82 + 1, ..., 122 + 1.

Missing number = 102 + 1 = 101.

13. (b); Each term in the series is the sum of the preceding two terms.

Missing number = 20 + 31 = 51.

14. (c); Each term in the series is obtained by adding 1 to the square of the preceding term.
So, missing term
= (101)2 + 1 = 10202
15. (d); The series is x 2; x 22; x 3; x 32; x 4; x 42
So correct answer would be (24 x 32) = 216

***