Introduction

International relations as an academic discipline emerged relatively recently, only at the

beginning of the 20th century. Although the issues of war and peace, diplomacy and power were
discussed in antiquity by Thucydides, Cicero and later by Machiavelli and Hobbes, it was the
tragic experience of the First World War that stimulated the institutionalization of research in
this field. In 1919, the first Department of International Politics was founded at the University of
Wales in Aberystwyth, which is considered the official starting point for the formation of the
Ministry of Defense as a separate scientific discipline. Understanding the root causes of
international wars and devising preventative measures were the primary goals of the early
scholars. Liberal ideologies centred on advancing democracy, international law, and the growth
of the League of Nations predominated during the interwar years. The Second World War,
however, exposed the shortcomings of these strategies and brought about the resurgence of
realism, which placed a strong emphasis on the state's interests and the anarchy of the
international system. From the very beginning, there was a controversy between different
schools and paradigms in the Ministry of Defense. Researchers identify the so-called "four
debates" in the history of the discipline
Between idealism and realism (1920s-1940s).
Between traditionalism and behaviorism (1950s-1960s).
Between Neorealism and Neoliberalism (1970s-1980s).
Rationalism and reflexivism (1990s—present).
Each of these stages contributed to the expansion of the theoretical base and methodological
tools of the science of international relations. While the first generations of researchers focused
mainly on issues of war, security, and diplomacy, by the end of the 20th and beginning of the
21st centuries, issues of international economics, human rights, identity, gender, postcolonial
heritage, and global transnational threats had also become the focus of attention. Thus, the
development of the discipline can be seen as a reflection of changes in the international system
itself: from the bipolar confrontation of the Cold War to the multipolar and interdependent
structure of the modern world.
Classical theories of international relations
1. Realism

Realism occupies a central place in the history of the discipline and remains one of the most
influential paradigms. Its origins go back to Thucydides, who in the History of the
Peloponnesian War showed that "the strong do what they want, and the weak endure what they
must." Machiavelli, in his treatise The Sovereign, also emphasized the need for rulers to rely on
force and pragmatism, and Thomas Hobbes described the international state as a "natural state of
war."

Modern realism took shape during the interwar period in the works of Edward Hallett Carr (The
Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1939) and Hans Morgenthau (Politics Among Nations, 1948). Morgenthau
formulated six principles of political realism, among which are the understanding of politics as a
struggle for power, the universality of the interests of states and the autonomy of the political
sphere.

The main principles of realism:

States are the main actors of international politics.

The international system is anarchic: there is no supranational institution capable of guaranteeing

order.

National interests, above all security and survival, determine foreign policy.

Strength and balance of power are the key categories of analysis.

Realism explained many aspects of the Cold War: the bipolar rivalry between the USSR and the
USA, the creation of military blocs, and the arms race. However, critics point out that realism
does not sufficiently take into account economic, cultural and transnational processes.

Neorealism (structural realism), proposed by Kenneth Waltz (Theory of International Politics,

1979), developed the ideas of classical realism, focusing not on human nature, but on the
structure of the international system. According to Waltz, it was the bipolar structure of the Cold
War that provided relative stability.
Liberalism
Liberalism as a paradigm is based on Immanuel Kant's ideas about the possibility of "eternal
peace" through a republican system, international law and trade. During the interwar period,
liberalism manifested itself in the concepts of Woodrow Wilson and the League of Nations
project, which emphasized the prevention of wars through collective security and the
development of international institutions. In the second half of the 20th century, liberalism
transformed into neoliberal institutionalism, the key representatives of which were Robert
Keohane and Joseph Nye (Power and Independence, 1977). The basic principles of liberalism:
International institutions and regimes are reducing the level of anarchy.
Economic interdependence makes wars less likely.
Democratic states are less likely to fight among themselves (the "democratic peace" hypothesis).
Cooperation is possible even in the presence of competition, if the actors are interested in long-
term benefits.
 Liberalism is particularly productive in studying integration processes (for example, the
European Union), the role of international organizations (the UN, WTO, WHO), and global
governance mechanisms.
Marxism Marxism occupies a special place among classical theories. Unlike realism and
liberalism, which focus on the state, Marxism views international relations through the lens of
the global economy and class struggle. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels emphasized the
expansionist nature of capitalism in the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848), and in the
20th century the Marxist perspective was developed in theories of imperialism (Vladimir Lenin,
Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 1916). In the second half of the 20th century,
Marxism received a new development in the form of:
Dependency theory (Andre Gunder Frank, Fernando Cardoso), which argued that the countries
of the "periphery" are economically exploited by the center
The world is a system analysis by Immanuel Wallerstein, who considered the international
system as a hierarchy of "center", "semi-periphery" and "periphery".
Marxist approaches have had a strong influence on the study of global inequality, development
issues, and postcolonial studies. However, critics point out their excessive economic reduction
and weak explanatory power in relation to cultural and political factors.
Cold war
One of the central characteristics of the Cold War was the bipolar structure of the international
system. The United States and the USSR were the main poles of power around which military
blocs (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) were formed. Traditional realism has received a new
development in the form of neorealism. Kenneth Waltz, in his seminal work Theory of
International Politics (1979), argued that it is the structure of the international system that
determines the behavior of States. Whereas classical realism explained international politics
through human nature or the interests of elites, Walz focused on anarchy and the distribution of
power between states. In conditions of bipolarity, according to Waltz, the system was relatively
stable: there were only two centers of power, which reduced the risk of miscalculations and
errors characteristic of multipolarity. This thesis explained the relative absence of direct wars
between the superpowers. The emergence of nuclear weapons has fundamentally altered global
politics. The emergence of nuclear weapons has fundamentally altered global [Link]
concept of mutually assured destruction (MAD) has become a key element of strategic
[Link] Schelling and other representatives of the "strategic school" have developed
models of nuclear deterrence based on game theory. The point of these models was that the
possession of a nuclear arsenal makes a full-scale war between superpowers irrational, since it
will lead to mutual [Link], nuclear weapons have simultaneously intensified rivalry
and stabilized the international system, creating a "delicate balance of fear." The Cold War
became a catalyst for the theoretical and methodological development of the discipline. It
established systems analysis, made security research a central focus, and laid the foundations for
a modern understanding of international institutions and economic [Link] the
fierce ideological rivalry and militarization of world politics, it was during this period that
international relations as a science reached a high degree of institutionalization: specialized
journals (International Organization, World Politics), professional associations (International
Studies Association), as well as interdisciplinary ties appeared.
Modern approaches in international relation
The present phase of international relations is marked by a shift away from the prevalence of
realism and liberalism, alongside the rise of new strategies that arose following the Cold War.
Constructivism has demonstrated that global politics is shaped not just by power and interests,
but also by ideas, norms, and identity. Alexander Wendt contended that anarchy is not an
objective reality, but rather is created by states, with their interests developing during the process
of interaction. Feminist theory highlighted that international politics has historically been
perceived through a "male" lens, overlooking the contributions and experiences of women.
Cynthia Enlo and J. Ann Tickner highlighted that security must be perceived not just as
safeguarding the state, but also as safeguarding individuals, particularly those in vulnerable
groups. Postcolonialism exposed the West-focused nature of the field and reminded us that the
impact of colonialism still shapes global politics. The researchers highlighted the importance of
considering the experiences of "Global South" nations and the critiques of international
institutions that frequently perpetuate inequality. Ultimately, the pluralistic perspective reveals
that world politics is influenced by not just states, but also international organizations,
businesses, NGOs, and individuals. Within globalization, the variety of participants and
interconnected interactions shape the dynamics of global relations. All these fields have not
supplanting classical theories, but have enhanced them by broadening the topic and approaches
of the discipline. Currently, international relations exemplify a domain of theoretical diversity,
where no single model is exclusive, and a thorough examination necessitates an integration of
various methods

Modern challenges
Globalization has emerged as a crucial element influencing the evolution of international
relations in the 21st century. It is reflected in the increased speed of transnational movements of
capital, goods, information, and people, which renders States interdependent and simultaneously
more susceptible to global risks. New challenges have arisen that cannot be addressed or
clarified within the confines of conventional interpretations of anarchy and the balance of power.
Challenges include global terrorism, climate issues, large-scale migration, health crises, and
cyber threats. These phenomena transcend national boundaries and necessitate collaborative
solutions, which enhances the function of international organizations and global governance
institutions. The UN, WTO, WHO, and regional groups like the European Union or ASEAN are
evolving into platforms where both states and non-state entities seek to establish shared
regulations. Simultaneously, globalization heightens inequality and social unrest, leading to
critiques of the global system and necessitating fresh strategies in the theory and practice of
international relations.

Conclusion
The evolution of the field of international relations has transitioned from classical realism and
liberalism to various contemporary theories, such as constructivism, feminism, postcolonialism,
and pluralism. This process illustrates the intricacy and multiple dimensions of global politics,
which is no longer confined to interactions between nations. Theoretical pluralism has emerged
as the primary outcome of research development: no solitary paradigm can fully elucidate
international reality, yet each aids in grasping specific elements. Currently, the field emphasizes
not just the examination of power and security, but also the exploration of norms, identity,
international challenges, and cross-border interactions. In the future, international relations are
expected to progress towards a deeper interdisciplinary integration, merging political science,
sociology, economics, and environmental studies. Consequently, the development of
international relations theories illustrates the shift from limited and uniform models to a
multifaceted and accessible area of understanding that embodies the variety of the contemporary
world
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Morgenthau, H. Politics Among Nations. New York: Knopf, 1948. Waltz, K. Theory of
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Keohane, R., Nye, J. Power and Interdependence. Boston: Little, Brown, 1977.

Wallerstein, I. The Modern World-System. Academic Press, 1974.

Wendt, A. Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge: CUP, 1999.

Tickner, J. Ann. Gender in International Relations. Columbia University Press, 1992.

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