UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate. However, modern computers
can do a lot more than calculate. Computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores
or processes the input as per user instructions and provides output in desired format.

Input-Process-Output Model

Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it, based on user’s
instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures which can be processed using
arithmetic and logical operations to obtain information are called data.

The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −

 Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition, subtraction,

differentials, square root, etc.

 Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater than, less
than, equal to, opposite, etc.

The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something like this −

The basic parts of a computer are as follows −

 Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and
instructions to the computer are called input unit.
  Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide
information to the user in desired format are called output unit.

 Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the
computer. All devices or parts of computer interact through the control unit.

 Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic
operations and logical operations take place.

 Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are stored in
the memory. Memory is of two types – primary memory and secondary memory.
Primary memory resides within the CPU whereas secondary memory is external to it.

Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central processing
unit or CPU. Computer devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. that we can see and
touch are the hardware components of a computer. The set of instructions or programs that
make the computer function using these hardware parts are called software. We cannot see
or touch software. Both hardware and software are necessary for working of a computer.

Characteristics of Computer

To understand why computers are such an important part of our lives, let us look at some of
its characteristics −

 Speed − Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per second.

 Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur
are usually due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human
errors.

 Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without
throwing up errors due to tiredness or boredom, which are very common among
humans.

 Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and
ticket booking to complex mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical
observations. If you can input the necessary data with correct instructions, computer
will do the processing.
  Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a fraction of
cost of traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear

 associated with paper.

Digital and Analog Computers:

The following table highlights the basic differences between analog and digital −

Analog Digital

Its functions on physical analog system. It functions on discrete numbers system.

The calculations in this system are primarily The calculations in this system are converted
converted to equations and later converted into binary numbers (i.e., 1s and 0s).
into electrical signals.

To function, it requires physical analog. To function, it requires discrete numbers.

It gives output in the form of ‘graph’. It gives output in the form of discrete values.

Accuracy comparatively is less. Accuracy is very high.

Performs at a low speed. It performs at a very high speed.

Difficult to make changes, as it is less

It is highly flexible.
flexible.

It has memory of low capacity. It has memory of high capacity.

 Its application is limited to certain Its application is applicable to a number of
applications. applications.

It is hardly applicable for the business It is very much suitable for the business
applications. applications.

It cannot process alpha-numeric data. It can process alpha-numeric data.

It requires RF technology. It requires IP networking.

Static channel assignment. Automatic channels exist as required.

Characteristics of computers:

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed

A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds
and nanoseconds.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence

A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.

Versatility

Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability

A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.

Automation

Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention.

Memory

A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used
to store data.

History of computers:

The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones
as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing
devices were developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the first to
recent ones are described below;

Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were
moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations.
Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is
shown below;

Computer Abacus 1

Napier's Bones

It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-
1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked
with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was
also the first machine to use the decimal point.

Computer napier bones 1

Pascaline

Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between
1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was
the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform
addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a
wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given
on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

Computer pascaline 1

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in

1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical
calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted
drums. See the following image;

Computer Stepped reckoner or leibnitz wheel 1

Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a
steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

Computer Difference engine 1

Analytical Engine

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a
mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.

Computer Analytical engine 1

Tabulating Machine

It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical

tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or
information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the
Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which later became International Business Machine
(IBM) in 1924.

Computer Tabulating machine 1

Differential Analyzer

It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog
device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical
signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

Computer Differential analyzer 1

Mark I

The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken
planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In
1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first
programmable digital computer.

Generations of Computers:
[Link] Generation (1940-1956)

The first generation computers had the following features and components −

Hardware

The hardware used in the first generation of computers was: Vacuum Tubes and Punch
Cards.

Features

Following are the features of first generation computers −

 It supported machine language.

 It had slow performance

 It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.

 It had a poor storage capacity.

 It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

Memory

The memory was of 4000 bits.

Data Input

The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer, mostly through
punched cards and paper tapes.

Examples

The examples of first generation computers are −

 ENIAC

 UNIVACTBM 701

[Link] Generation (1956-1963)

Several advancements in the first-gen computers led to the development of second
generation computers. Following are various changes in features and components of second
generation computers −

Hardware

The hardware used in the second generation of computers were −

 Transistors

 Magnetic Tapes

Features

It had features like −

 Batch operating system

 Faster and smaller in size

 Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation

 Less costly than the previous generation

Memory

The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.

Data Input

The input was provided through punched cards.

Examples

The examples of second generation computers are −

 Honeywell 400

 CDC 1604

 IBM 7030

[Link] Generation (1964-1971)

Following are the various components and features of the third generation computers −

Hardware

The hardware used in the third generation of computers were −

 Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials

 Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes

Features

The features of the third generation computers are −

 Supports time-sharing OS

 Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations

 Easy to access

Memory

The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.

Data Input

The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.

Examples

The examples of third generation computers are −

 IBM 360/370

 CDC 6600

 PDP 8/11

[Link] Generation (1972-2010)

Fourth generation computers have the following components and features −

Hardware
The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were −

 ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology

 Semiconductor memory

 Magnetic tapes and Floppy

Features

It supports features like −

 Multiprocessing & distributed OS

 Object-oriented high level programs supported

 Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved

 No external cooling required & affordable

 This generation saw the development of networks and the internet

 It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse

Memory

The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.

Data Input

The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and mouse.

Examples

The examples of fourth generation computers are −

 Apple II

 VAX 9000

 CRAY 1 (super computers)

[Link] Generation (2010-Present)

These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes in the components and
operations have made fifth generation computers handy and more reliable than the previous
generations.

Hardware

The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are −

 Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nano technology

 Large capacity hard disk with RAID support

 Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing

Features

It supports features like −

 Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.

 Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super Large Scale Integrated
Circuits.

 Rapid software development is possible.

Memory

The capacity of the memory is unlimited.

Data Input

The input is provided through CDROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice sensitive
input devices.

Examples

The examples of fifth generation computers are −

 IBM

 Pentium

 PARAM
Classification of Computers:

Computer scan is broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

[Link]. Type Specifications

1 PC (Personal Computer) It is a single user computer system having a moderately

or Micro-Computers powerful microprocessor. It is termed as a computer that is
equipped microprocessor as its CPU.

2 Workstation It is also a single user computer system, similar to the

personal computer, however, has a more powerful
microprocessor.

3 Mini-Computer It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

hundreds of users simultaneously.

4 Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.

5 Super-Computer It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds

of millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual

user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, nowadays high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

The workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop

publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which require a
moderate amount of computing power and relatively high-quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, a large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless
workstations, comes without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form
a local area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe

The mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs
concurrently and supports much simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require an immense
amount of mathematical calculations (number-crunching).
For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated)graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g.
in petrochemical prospecting).

Application of Computers:

Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility

which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations

 Budgeting

 Sales analysis

 Financial forecasting

 Managing employee database

 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −

 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits
and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.

 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers.
Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers
for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies

 Next due installment of a policy

 Maturity date

 Interests due

 Survival benefits

 Bonus

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).

 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.

 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer
to educate the students.

 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried

out on this basis.

Marketing

In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,

write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more
products.

 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are
being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in
scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are
also done by computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of
illness.

 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by
computer.

 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.

 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.

 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design

Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −

 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.

 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and

improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.

 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing

buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been
used are −

 Missile Control

 Military Communication

 Military Operation and Planning

 Smart Weapons

Communication

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received

and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in
this category are −

 E-mail

 Chatting

 Usenet

 FTP

 Telnet

 Video-conferencing

Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this
category are

 Budgets

 Sales tax department

 Income tax department

 Computation of male/female ratio

 Computerization of voters lists

 Computerization of PAN card

  Weather forecasting

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE

CPU:

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory
(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit
are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,

selecting, matching, and merging of data.
Instruction Format
Each instruction is represented by a sequence of bits within the computer. The
instruction is divided into group of bits called field. The way instruction is expressed
is known as instruction format. It is usually represented in the form of rectangular
box. The instruction format may be of the following types.

Variable Instruction Formats

These are the instruction formats in which the instruction length varies on the basis
of opcode & address specifiers. For Example, VAX instruction vary between 1 and
53 bytes while X86 instruction vary between 1 and 17 bytes.

Format

Advantage

These formats have good code density.

Drawback

These instruction formats are very difficult to decode and pipeline.

Fixed Instruction Formats

In this type of instruction format, all instructions are of same size. For Example,
MIPS, Power PC, Alpha, ARM.

Format

Advantage

They are easy to decode & pipeline.

Drawback

They don't have good code density.

Hybrid Instruction Formats
In this type of instruction formats, we have multiple format length specified by
opcode. For example, IBM 360/70, MIPS 16, Thumb.

Format

Advantage

These compromise between code density & instruction of these type are very easy
to decode

INSTRUCTION SET

The instruction set, also

called ISA (instruction set architecture), is
part of a computer that pertains to
programming, which is basically machine
language. The instruction set provides
commands to the processor, to tell it what it
needs to do. The instruction set consists of
addressing modes, instructions, native data
types, registers, memory architecture,
interrupt, and exception handling, and
external I/O.

An example of an instruction set is

the x86 instruction set, which is common
to find on computers today. Different
computer processors can use almost the
same instruction set while still having very
different internal design. Both
the Intel Pentium and AMD Athlon
processors use nearly the same x86
instruction set. An instruction set can be
built into the hardware of the processor, or
it can be emulated in software, using an
interpreter. The hardware design is more
efficient and faster for running programs
than the emulated software version.

Examples of instruction set

 ADD - Add two numbers together.

 COMPARE - Compare numbers.

 IN - Input information from a device,

e.g., keyboard.

 JUMP - Jump to designated RAM

address.

 JUMP IF - Conditional statement that

jumps to a designated RAM address.

 LOAD - Load information from RAM to

the CPU.

 OUT - Output information to device,

e.g., monitor.

 STORE - Store information to RAM.