Chapter 3

Insulating Materials and Media Used

in High-Voltage Elements of Electric
Power Systems

Abstract The severity of the consequences from the impact on high-voltage equip-
ment of numerous factors (Chapter 4) to a decisive extent depends on the type
and quality of the dielectric materials and media used in it. It is quite natural that
most methods for control the condition of equipment are based on monitoring the
initial quality of insulation and changes in its characteristics during operation. The
main characteristics of all insulating materials and media—solid, liquid, gaseous and
vacuum—are considered. The requirements for electrical insulation are formulated
taking into account the modes of operation and external conditions of operation of
the equipment.

3.1 The Most Important Characteristics of Insulating

Materials and Media

3.1.1 Resistivity of Dielectric Materials

The measured resistance R of insulation depends on the geometry of the specimen

or system measured, which for a parallel-plate arrangement is:

r ×t
R= Ohms, (3.1)
A
where: t is the insulation thickness in centimeters, A is the area in square centimeters,
and r is the dielectric resistivity in ohm-centimeters. If t and A vary from place to
place, the effective “insulation resistance” will be determined by the effective integral
of the t/A ratio over all the area under stress, on the assumption that the material
resistivity p does not change. If the material is not homogeneous and materials of
different resistivity appear in parallel, the system can be treated as parallel resistors.
In this case, the lower-resistivity material usually controls the overall behavior. But,
if materials of different resistivity appear in series in the electric field, the higher-
resistivity material generally will control the current, and a majority of the voltage
will appear across it, as in the case of series resistors. The resistance of dielectrics and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 81

V. Y. Ushakov et al., High-Voltage Equipment of Power Systems, Power Systems,
[Link]
82 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

insulation is usually time-dependent and (for the same reason) frequency-dependent.

The dc behavior of dielectrics under stress is an extension of the low-frequency
behavior. The ac and dc resistance and permittivity can, in principle, be related for
comparable times and frequencies.
Current flow in dielectrics can be divided into parts: (a) the true dc current, which
is constant with time and would flow indefinitely, is associated with a transport of
charge from one electrode into the dielectric, through the dielectric, and out into the
other electrode, and (b) the polarization or absorption current, which involves, not
charge flow through the interface between the dielectric and the electrode, but rather
the displacement of charge within the dielectric.
Polarization current results from any of the various forms of limited charge
displacement which can occur in the dielectric. The displacement occurring first
(within less than nanoseconds) is the electronic and intramolecular charged atom
displacement responsible for the very high frequency permittivity. The next slower
displacement is the rotation of dipolar molecules and groups which are relatively
free to move. The displacement most commonly observed in dc measurements, that
is, currents changing in times of the order of seconds and minutes, is due to the very
slow rotation of dipolar molecules and ions moving up to internal barriers in the
material or at the conductor surfaces. When those slower displacement polarizations
occur, the dielectric constant declines with increasing frequency and approaches the
square of the optical refractive index h2 at optical frequencies.
In composite dielectrics (material with relatively lower resistance intermingled
with a material of relatively higher resistance), a large interfacial or Maxwell–Wagner
type of polarization can occur. A circuit model of such a situation can be represented
by placing two of the circuits in series and making the parallel resistance of one much
lower than the other. To get the effect, it is necessary that the time constant Rp C be
different for each material [1, 2].
A simple model of the polarization current predicts an exponential decline of
the current with time: Ip = Ae–t , similar to the charging of a capacitor through a
resistor. Composite materials are likely to have many different time constants 1/
RC superimposed. It is found empirically that the polarization or absorption current
decreases inversely as a simple negative exponent of the time:

I = A × t −n . (3.2)

The ratio of the current at 1 min to that at 10 min has been called the polariza-
tion index and is used to indicate the quality of composite machine insulation. A
low polarization index associated with a low resistance sometimes indicates parallel
current leakage paths through or over the surface of insulation (e.g., in adsorbed
water films).
The level of the conduction current which flows essentially continuously through
insulation is an indication of the level of the ionic concentration and mobility in
the material. Frequently, as with salt in water, the ions are provided by dissolved,
absorbed, or included impurity electrolytes in the material rather than by the material
3.1 The Most Important Characteristics of Insulating Materials and Media 83

itself. Purifying the material will therefore often raise the resistivity. If it is liquid,
purification can be done with adsorbent clays or ion-exchange resins.
The ionic conductivity also varies widely with material purity. Among the poly-
mers and resins, nonpolar resins such as polyethylene are likely to have high resis-
tivity, on the order of 1016 or greater, since they do not readily dissolve or dissociate
ionic impurities. Harder or crystalline polar resins have higher resistivity than do
similar softer resins of similar dielectric constant and purity. Resins and liquids of
higher dielectric constant usually have higher conductivities because they dissolve
ionic impurities better, and the impurities dissociate to ions much more readily in a
higher dielectric constant medium. Ceramics and glasses have lower resistivity if they
contain alkali ions (sodium and potassium), since these ions are highly mobile [3].
The change in dielectric properties with frequency is not considered in this text-
book, because in the power system, high-voltage equipment operates mainly on alter-
nating voltage of industrial frequency and on direct voltage. Lightning and switching
overvoltages, due to their short duration, cannot significantly affect the properties of
dielectrics through frequency dependence.

3.1.2 Variation of Dielectric Properties with Temperature

The trend in ac permittivity and conductivity, as measured by the dissipation factor,

is controlled by the increasing ionic migrational and dipolar molecular rotational
mobility with increasing temperature. This curve, which is indicated in Fig. 3.1, is
in most respects a mirror image of the frequency trend since the two effects are
interrelated.
The permittivity-dispersion and dissipation factor maximum region occurs below
room temperature for viscous liquids and still lower for mobile liquids. In fact, mobile
liquids may crystallize before they would show dispersion, except at high frequencies.
With polymers, the dissipation factor maxima is likely to occur, at power frequencies,
at a temperature close to a softening-point or internal second-order transition-point
temperature. Dielectric dispersion and mechanical modulus dispersion usually can
be correlated at the same temperature for comparable frequencies.

3.1.3 Potential Distribution in Dielectrics

The maximum potential gradient in dielectrics is of critical significance insofar as the

breakdown is concerned, since breakdown or corona is usually initiated at the region
of highest gradient. In a uniform-field arrangement of conductors or electrodes, the
maximum gradient is simply the applied voltage divided by the minimum spacing.
In divergent fields, the gradient must be obtained by calculation (which is possible
for some simple arrangements) or by field mapping.
84 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

Fig. 3.1 Typical variation in dielectric properties with temperature

A common situation is the coaxial geometry with inner and outer radii R1 and
R2 . The gradient at radius r (centimeters) with voltage V applied is given by the
equation:

V
E= ( ), (3.3)
r × ln RR21

where E is in V /cm. The gradient is a maximum at r = R1 .

When different dielectrics appear in series, the greater stress with ac fields is on
the material having the lower dielectric constant. This material will frequently break
down first unless its dielectric strength is much higher [4].
The effect of the insulation thickness and dielectric constant (as well as the sharp-
ness of the conductor edge) to create sufficient electric stress for local air breakdown
(partial discharges). With dc fields, the stress distributes according to the resistivity
of the materials, the higher stress being on the higher-resistivity material.
3.1 The Most Important Characteristics of Insulating Materials and Media 85

3.1.4 Dielectric Strength

This is the maximum potential gradient that the material can withstand without
rupture. Practically, the strength is often reported as the breakdown voltage divided
by the thickness between electrodes, regardless of electrode stress concentration.
Breakdown appears to require not only sufficient electric stress but also a certain
minimum amount of energy. It is a property which varies with many factors such
as thickness of the specimen, size and shape of electrodes used in applying stress,
form or distribution of the field of electric stress in the material, frequency of the
applied voltage, rate and duration of voltage application, fatigue with repeated voltage
applications, temperature, moisture content, and possible chemical changes under
stress.
The practical dielectric strength is decreased by defects in the material, such as
cracks, and included conducting particles and gas cavities. The dielectric strength
of liquids and gases is very adversely affected by conductive particles. To state
the dielectric strength correctly, the size and shape of specimen, method of test,
temperature, manner of applying voltage, and other attendant conditions should be
particularized as definitely as possible.
ASTM standard methods of dielectric strength testing should be used for making
comparison tests of materials, but the levels of dielectric strength measured in such
tests should not be expected to apply in service for long times. It is best to test an
insulation in the same configuration in which it would be used. Also, the possible
decline in dielectric strength during long-time exposure to the service environment,
thermal aging, and partial discharges (corona), if they exist at the applied service
voltage, should be considered. ASTM has thermal life test methods for assessing
the long-time endurance of some forms of insulation such as sheet insulation, wire
enamel, and others. There are IEEE thermal life tests for some systems such as
random wound motor coils.
The dielectric strength varies as the time and manner of voltage application. With
unidirectional pulses of voltage, having rise times of less than a few microseconds,
there is a time lag of breakdown, which results in an apparent higher strength for very
short pulses. In testing sheet insulation in mineral oil, usually a higher strength for
pulses of slow rise time and somewhat higher strength for dc voltages is observed.
The trend in breakdown voltage with time is typical of many solid insulation
systems. With ac voltages, the apparent strength declines steadily with time as a
result of partial discharges (in the ambient medium at the conductor or electrode
edge). These penetrate the solid insulation. The discharges result from breakdown
of the gas or liquid prior to the breakdown of the solid. Mica in particular, as well as
other inorganic materials is more resistant to such discharges. Organic resins should
be used with caution where the ac voltage gradient is high and partial discharges
may be present. Since the presence of partial discharges on insulation is so important
to the long- time voltage endurance, their detection and measurement have become
very important quality control and design tools. If discharges continuously strike the
insulation within internal cavities or on the surface, the time to failure usually varies
86 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

inversely as the applied frequency, since the number of discharges per unit time
increases almost in direct proportion to the frequency. But in some cases, ambient
conditions prevent continuous discharges.
When organic resin insulation is fabricated to avoid partial discharges using
conductors or electrodes intimately bonded to the insulation, as in extruded polyethy-
lene cables with a plastic semi- conducting interface between the resin and the
coaxial inner and outer metal conductors, respectively, the voltage endurance is
greatly extended. Imperfections, however, in this “semicon”- resin interface, or at
conducting particle inclusions in the resin, can lead to local discharges and the devel-
opment of “electrical tree” growth. Vacuum impregnating and casting electrodes or
conductors into resin also tend to avoid cavities and surface discharges and greatly
improve the voltage endurance at high stresses.
The dc strength of solid insulation is usually higher and declines much less with
time than the ac strength, since corona discharges are infrequent.
The dielectric strength is much higher where surface discharges are avoided and
when the electric field is uniform. This can be achieved with solid materials by
recessing spherical cavities into the material and using conducting paint electrodes.
The “intrinsic” electric strength of solid materials measured in uniform fields,
avoiding surface discharges, ranges from levels on the order of 0.5–1 MV/cm for
alkali halide crystals, which are about the lowest, upward to somewhat more than
10 MV/cm. Polymers and some inorganic materials, such as mica and aluminum
oxide, have strengths of 2–20 MV/cm for thin films. The strength decreases with
increasing thickness and with temperature above a critical temperature (which is
usually from 1 to 100 °C), below which the strength has a level value or a moderate
increase with increasing temperature. Below the critical temperature, the breakdown
is believed to be strictly electronic in nature and is constant or increases slightly with
temperature. Above this temperature, it declines owing to dielectric thermal heating.
The breakdown voltage of thin insulation materials containing defects, which give
the minimum breakdown voltage, declines as the area under stress increases. The
effect of area on the strength can be estimated from the standard deviation S of tests
on smaller areas by applying minimum value statistics: V 1–V 2 = 1.497 S log(A1/
A2), where V 1 and V 2 are the breakdown voltages of areas A1 and A2.
If the ac or dc conductivity of a dielectric is high or the frequency is high, break-
down can occur as a result of dielectric heating, which raises the temperature of the
material sufficiently to cause melting or decomposition, formation of gas, etc. This
effect can be detected by measuring the conductivity as a function of applied elec-
tric stress. If the conductivity rises with time, with constant voltage, and at constant
ambient temperature, this is evidence of an internal dielectric heating. If the heat
transfer to the electrodes and ambient surroundings is adequate, the internal temper-
ature eventually may stabilize, but if this heat transfer is inadequate, the temperature
will rise until breakdown occurs.
3.1 The Most Important Characteristics of Insulating Materials and Media 87

3.1.5 Influences Water Penetration and Ionizing Radiation

Water penetration into electrical insulation also degrades the dielectric strength
by several mechanisms. The effect of water to increase the insulation conduc-
tivity contributes there by to a decreased dielectric strength, probably by a thermal
breakdown mechanism. Another effect noticed recently, particularly in polyethylene
cables, is the development of “water” or “electro- chemical trees.” Water (and/or
a similar high dielectric constant chemical) can diffuse through polyethylene and
collect at tiny hygroscopic inclusion sites, where the water or chemical is adsorbed.
Then the electric field causes an expansion and growth of the adsorbed water or
chemical in the electric field direction. This may completely bridge the insulation or
possibly increase the local electric stress at the site so as to produce an electric tree
and eventual breakdown.
Ionizing radiation, as from nuclear sources, may degrade insulation dielectric
strength and integrity by causing polymer chain scission, and cracking of some
plastics, as well as gas bubbles in liquids. Also, the conductivity levels in solids
and liquids are increased. Ionizing radiation in the electrical power engineering is
a rather rare phenomenon (except for nuclear power plants), and therefore it is not
considered in detail here.

3.1.6 Arc Tracking of Insulation

High-current arc discharges between conductors across the surface of organic resin
insulation may carbonize the material and produce a conducting track. In the presence
of surface water films, formed from rain or condensation, etc., small arc discharges
form between interrupted parts of the water film, which is fairly conducting, and
conducting tracks grow progressively across the surface, eventually bridging between
conductors and causing complete breakdown. Materials vary widely in their resis-
tance to tracking, and there are a variety of dry and wet tests for this property. With
proper fillers, some organic resins can be made essentially nontracking. Some resins
such as polymethyl methacrylate and polymethylene oxide burst into flame under
arcing conditions.

3.1.7 Thermal Aging

Organic resinous insulating materials in particular are subject in varying degrees to

deterioration due to thermal aging, which is a chemical process involving decompo-
sition or modification of the material to such an extent that it may no longer function
adequately as the intended insulation. The aging effects are usually accelerated by
increased temperature, and this characteristic is used to make accelerated tests to
88 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

failure or to an extent of deterioration considered dangerous. Such tests are made at

appreciably higher than normal operating temperatures, if the expected life is to be
several years or more, since useful accelerated tests reasonably should be completed
in less than a year.
Frequently, other environmental factors influence the life in addition to the temper-
ature. These include presence or absence of oxygen, moisture, and electrolysis.
Mechanical and electrical stress may reduce the life by setting a required level
of performance at which the insulation must perform. If this level is high, less
deterioration of the insulation is required to reach this level.
Sometimes a complete apparatus is life-tested, as well as smaller specimens
involving only one insulation material or a simple combination of these in a
simple model. New tests are being devised continually, but there has been some
standardization of tests by the IEEE and ASTM and internationally by the IEC.
It is important to note that frequently materials are assigned temperature ratings
based on tests of the material alone. Often that material, combined with others in an
apparatus or system, will perform satisfactorily at appreciably higher temperatures.
Conversely, because of incompatibility with other materials, it may not perform at
as high a temperature as it would alone. For this reason, it is considered desirable to
make functional operating tests on complete systems. These can also be accelerated at
elevated temperatures and environmental exposure conditions such as humidification,
vibration, cold-temperature cycling, etc. introduced intermittently.

3.2 Solid Dielectrics

Solid insulating materials in high-voltage apparatus and devices simultaneously

perform the functions of both insulating and structural materials, which is taken
into account in the development and operation of such equipment.
The main requirements of the insulating materials used for power apparatus are:
1. High insulation resistance
2. High dielectric strength
3. Good mechanical properties i.e., tenacity and elasticity
4. It should not be affected by chemicals around it
5. It should be non-hygroscopic because the dielectric strength of any material goes
very much down with moisture content
6. Resistance to high temperatures. The negative effect of elevated temperatures on
solid dielectrics (mainly solid ones) is considered in the previous section. This
requirement not universal, but common.
3.2 Solid Dielectrics 89

3.2.1 Organic Insulating Materials

Vulcanized rubber. Rubber in its natural form is highly insulating but it absorbs
moisture readily and gets oxidized into a resinous material; thereby it loses insu-
lating properties. When it is mixed with sulphur along with other carefully chosen
ingredients and is subjected to a particular temperature, it changes into vulcanized
rubber, which does not absorb moisture and has better insulating properties than even
the pure rubber. It is elastic and resilient.
The electrical properties expected of rubber insulation are high breakdown
strength and high insulation resistance. In fact, the insulation strength of the vulcan-
ized rubber is so good that for lower voltages the radial thickness is limited due to
mechanical consideration.
The physical properties expected of rubber insulation are that the cable should
withstand normal hazards of installation and it should give trouble-free service.
Vulcanized rubber insulated cables are used for wiring of houses, buildings and
factories for low-power work.
There are two main groups of synthetic rubber material: (i) general purpose
synthetics which have rubber-like properties and (ii) special purpose synthetics which
have better properties than the rubber e.g., fire resisting and oil resisting proper-
ties. The four main types are: (i) butyl rubber, (ii) silicon rubber, (iii) neoprene,
and (iv) styrene rubber.
Butyl rubber. The processing of butyl rubber is similar to that of natural rubber but
it is more difficult and its properties are comparable to those of natural rubber. The
continuous temperature to which butyl rubber can be subjected is 85 °C whereas for
natural rubber it is 60 °C. The current rating of butyl insulated cables is approximately
same as those of paper or PVC insulated cables. Butyl rubber compound can be so
manufactured that it has low water absorption and offers interesting possibilities for
a non-metallic sheathed cable suitable for direct burial in the ground.
Silicone rubber. It is a mechanically weak material and needs external protection
but it has high heat resistant properties. It can be operated at temperatures of the
order of 150 °C. The raw materials used for the silicon rubber are sand, marsh gas,
salt, coke and magnesium.
Neoprene. Neoprene is a polymerized chlorobutadiene. Chlorobutadiene is a
colorless liquid which is polymerized into a solid varying from a pale yellow to
a darkish brown color. Neoprene does not have good insulating properties and is
used up to 660 V a.c. but it has very good fire resisting properties and therefore it is
more useful as a sheathing material.
Styrene rubber. Styrene is used both for insulating and sheathing of cables. It has
properties almost equal to the natural rubber.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is a polymer derived generally from acetylene and it
can be produced in different grades depending upon the polymerization process. For
use in cable industry the polymer must be compounded with a plasticizer which
makes it plastic over a wide range of temperature. The grade of PVC depends upon
the plasticizer. PVC is inferior to vulcanized in respect of elasticity and insulation
90 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

resistance. PVC material has many grades. It is used both for sheathing and as an
insulating material. In this compound monomeric plasticizers are used. It is to be
noted that a V.R. insulated PVC sheathed cable is not good for use.
Hard grade PVC. These are manufactured with less amount of plasticizer as
compared with general purpose type. Hard grade PVC are used for higher temper-
atures for short duration of time like in soldering and are better than the general
purpose type. Hard grade can not be used for low continuous temperatures.
Heat resisting PVC. Because of the use of monomeric plasticizer which volatilizes
at temperature 80–100 °C, general purpose type compounds become stiff. By using
polymeric plasticizers it is possible to operate the material continuously around
100 °C. PVC compounds are normally costlier than the rubber compounds and the
polymeric plasticized compounds are more expensive than the monomeric plasticized
ones. PVC is inert to oxygen, oils, alkalis and acids and, therefore, if the environ-
mental conditions are such that these things are present in the atmosphere, PVC is
more useful than rubber.
Polythene can be used for high frequency cables. This has been used to a limited
extent for power cables also. The thermal dissipation properties are better than those
of impregnated paper and the impulse strength compares favorably with an impreg-
nated paper-insulated device. The maximum operating temperature of this material
under short circuits is 100 °C. The use of polythene for cables has been limited by
its low melting point. By cross-linking the molecules, in roughly the same way as
vulcanizing rubber, a new material is produced which does not melt but carbonizes
at 250–300 °C. By using chemical process it has been made technically possible to
cross-link polythene in conventional equipment for the manufacture of rubber. This
is why the product is said to be “vulcanised” or “cross-linked” polythene.
The polythene is inert to chemical reactions as it does not have double bonds and
polar groups. Therefore, it was thought that polythene could be cross-linked only
through special condition, e.g., by irradiating polythene with electrons, thereby it
could be given properties of cross-linking such as change of tensile strength and
better temperature stability. Many irradiation processes have been developed in the
cable making industry even though large amounts of high energy radiations are
required and the procedure is expensive.
Polythene can also be irradiated with ultraviolet light, after adding to it a small
quantity of ultra- violet sensitive material such as benzophenone. Under the influence
of ultraviolet light on benzophenone, a radical is formed of the same type as in the
decomposition of peroxide by the radical mechanism. Organic peroxides have also
been used successfully to crosslink the polythene.
It should be noted that polyethylene has proved to be an excellent material for the
manufacture of large-sized insulating structures with a large thickness of the insu-
lating layer for high-voltage electrophysical installations (Pulsed Power), Fig. 3.2,
and some electric power equipment, Fig. 3.3, in turn, insulation parts (polyethylene
rings) and vacuum diode are shown on Figs. 3.4 and 3.5.
In them, insulating structures (centering insulators in coaxial forming lines, bush-
ings, diaphragm seals, and high-current electron gun housings) are not affected by
most of the adverse factors that will be discussed in Chapter 4. But, on the other
3.2 Solid Dielectrics 91

Fig. 3.2 Blanks made of

high-density polyethylene
(LDPE) of various shapes
insulating structures for
high-voltage installations
(Outer diameter of
horizontally lying
rings—1.4 m)

Fig. 3.3 View and size of

bushing

hand, they must operate at very high field strengths due to severe restrictions on
the dimensions of high-voltage electrophysical installations. The manifestation of
the effects of a strong electric field in an insulating material is enhanced by a high
rate of change in field strength, since the operating voltage, as a rule, is pulses with
nanosecond duration. Under these conditions, the reliability and service life of mono-
lithic polymer insulation (for example, polyethylene) are determined mainly by the
following processes:
92 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

Fig. 3.4 Polyethylene rings

with an outer diameter of 3 m
for a vacuum diode (electron
gun) of a high-voltage
electron accelerator

Fig. 3.5 View of the

vacuum diode

– cold (autoelectronic) emission, supplying free electrons to the dielectric, which

can cause ionization, initiate chemical reactions, and also distort the initial electric
field,
– chemical transformations in polymers and changes in their supramolecular
structure,
– development of submicro- and microcracks,
– the origin and development of dendrites.
To study the nature of these “fine” processes and their influence on electrical aging,
it is necessary to apply special methods and techniques of physical experiment:
– sounding of space charge fields by albedo β-method and (or) acoustic probe
method,
3.2 Solid Dielectrics 93

– study of the emergence and development of microinhomogeneities in a polymer

by light scattering (for optically transparent dielectrics) and small-angle X-ray
scattering,
– study of the processes of degradation (structural changes) of dielectrics in the final
phases of aging—the formation and development of microcracks and dendritic
channels—using optical and thermal imaging techniques.
In subsequent years, some of these methods found practical application for diag-
nostics, the use of others was postponed until the appearance of cheaper and more
reliable equipment that meets the needs of practice.
These methods and the results obtained with their help are described in sufficient
detail in [9].
Impregnated paper. A suitable layer of the paper is lapped on the conductor
depending upon the operating voltage. It is then dried by the combined application
of heat and vacuum. This is carried out in a hermetically sealed steam heated chamber.
The temperature is 120–130 °C before vacuum is created. After the device is dried,
an insulating compound having the same temperature as that of the chamber is forced
into the chamber. All the pores of the paper are completely filled with this compound.
After impregnation the device is allowed to cool under the compound so that the void
formation due to compound shrinkage is minimized.
In case of pre-impregnated type the papers are dried and impregnated before they
are applied on the conductor.
The compound used in case of impregnated paper is a semifluid and when the
cables are laid on gradients the fluid tends to move from higher to lower gradient. This
reduces the compound content at higher gradients and may result in void formation
at higher gradients. This is very serious for cables operating at voltages higher than
3.3 kV. In many cases, the failures of the cables have been due to the void formation
at the higher levels or due to the bursting of the sheath at the lower levels because of
the excessive internal pressure of the head of compound.
Insulating press boards. If the thickness of paper is 0.8 mm or more, it is called
paper board. When many layers of paper are laminated with an adhesive to get
desired thickness, these are known as press boards and are used in bushings, trans-
formers as insulating barriers or supporting materials. The electrical properties of
press boards varies depending upon the resin content. The application of these press
boards depends upon the thickness and density of paper used. For high frequency
capacitors and cables usually low density paper (0.8 gm/cm3 ) is used where medium
density paper is used for power capacitors and high density papers are used in d.c.
machines and energy storage capacitors. The electric strength of press board is higher
than that of resins or porcelain. However, it is adversely affected by temperature
above 20 °C. The loss angle tan also decreases with increase in temperature. The
main advantage of this material is that it provides good mechanical support even at
higher temperatures up to 120 °C.
Epoxy resins are low molecular but soluble thermosetting plastics which exhibit
sufficient hardening quality in their molecules. The chemical cross-linking of epoxy
94 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

resins is normally carried out at room temperatures either by a catalytic mechanism

or by bridging across epoxy molecule through the epoxy or hydroxyl group.
Epoxy resins have high dielectric and mechanical strength. They can be cast into
desired shapes even at room temperature. They are highly elastic and it is found
that when it is subjected to a pressure of 175,000 psi, it returned to its original
shape after the load is removed. The dielectric constant varies between 2.5 and 4.0.
Epoxy resins basically being non-polar substances have high dc specific insulation
resistance and low loss tan compared to polar materials like PVC. However, when
the temperature exceeds 100 °C the specific insulation resistance begins to decrease
considerably and tan δ in creases. Compared to porcelain the breakdown strength of
epoxy resin is almost double at temperatures up to 100 °C but decreases rapidly at
higher temperatures.
As filler materials, the inorganic substances like quartz powder (SiO2 ) are used
for casting applications. In SF6 gas insulated systems having epoxy resin spacers,
aluminium oxide and also dolomite are used as filler materials. These are found to be
more compatible to the decomposed products of SF6 by partial discharge and arcing
discharges.
It is to be noted that the cast or encapsulation should not contain voids or humidity
especially in high voltage applications and the material is desired to be homogeneous.
It is, therefore, desirable to dry and degas the individual components of the mixture
and casting is preferably carried out in vacuum.
The epoxy resins casts are inert to ether, alcohol and benzol. However, most of
them are soluble in mineral oils at about 70 °C. It is for this reason that they are not
found suitable for applications in filled transformers.
There are certain application which require insulating materials to operate between
a high range of temperature e.g., −270 to 400 °C. Some of the applications are space
shuttle solar arrays, capacitors, transformers high speed locomotive, microprocessor
chip carriers, cryogenic cables and other applications at cryogenic temperatures.
For this some thermoplastic polymer films are used which have unique combination
of electrical, mechanical and physical quantities and these materials are able to
retain these properties over a wide range of temperatures where other insulating
materials may fail. Perfluoro carbon films have high dielectric strength very low
dielectric constant of 2 and low dielectric loss of 2 × 10–4 at 100 Hz and 7.5 ×
10–4 at 100 MHz. These films are used under extreme conditions of temperature and
environment. These films are used for insulation on high temperature wires, cables,
motor coils phase and ground insulation and for capacitors. This is also used as a
substrate for flexible printed circuits and flexible cables.
Another insulating film in which has the best thermal properties in this category
of insulating materials is polyimide film under the trade name of Kapton manufac-
tured by DuPont of America. These films can be used between a very wide range of
temperature variation varying between −270 °C and 350 °C. Its continuous temper-
ature rating is 240 °C. It has high dielectric and tensile strength. The disadvantages
of the film are:
i. high moisture absorption rate and
ii. it is affected by alkalies and strong inorganic acids.
3.2 Solid Dielectrics 95

Kepton films can be used capacitors, transformers formed coil insulation, motor state
insulation and flexible printed circuits. The film is selectively costlier and is mainly
used where its unique characteristics makes it the only suitable insulation. The use
of this insulation for motors reduces the overall dimensions of the motors for the
same ratings. It is, therefore, used in almost all situations whose space is a serious
problem and the other nature insulation result in bigger dimension.
Another recently developed resins is poly carbonate (PC) which is good heat
resistant; it is flexible and has good dielectric characteristic. It is not affected by
oils, fats and dilute acids but is adversely affected by alkalies, esters and aromatic
hydrocarbons. The film being cost effective and fast resistant, it is used for coil
insulation, slot insulation for motors and for capacitor insulation. This is known as
the lexon polymer.
General Electric Co. of USA has developed a film under the trade name Ultem
which is a polyetherimine (PEI) film which has dielectric strength comparable to that
of polyimide film and has higher thermal conductivity and lower moisture absorption
and is relatively less costlier. It is used as insulation for transformers and motors.

3.2.2 Inorganic Insulating Materials

Mica consists of crystalline mineral silicates of alumina and potash. It has high
dielectric strength, low dielectric losses and good mechanical strength. All these
properties make it useful for many electrical devices e.g., commutator segment sepa-
rator, armature windings, electrical heating and cooling equipments and switchgear.
Thin layers of mica are laminated with a suitable resin or varnish to make thick sheets
of mica. Mica can be mixed with the required type of resin to obtain its application
at different operating temperatures. Mica is used as a filler in insulating materials to
improve their dielectric strength, reduce dielectric loss and improve heat resistance
property.
Ceramics materials are produced from clay containing aluminium oxide and other
inorganic materials. The thick parts of these substances is given the desired shape
and form at room temperature and then baked at high temperature about (1450 °C)
to provide a solid inelastic final structure. Ceramics also known as porcelain in one
of its forms have high mechanical strength and low permittivity (Er < 12) are widely
used for insulators and bushings. These have 40–50% of clay, 30– 20% of aluminium
oxide and 30% of field-spar. The ceramics with higher permittivity (Er > 12) are used
in capacitors and transducers.
The specific insulation resistance of ceramics is comparatively low. The tan δ of
these materials is high and increases with increase in temperature resulting in higher
dielectric loss. The breakdown strength of porecelain compared to other insulating
material is low but it remains unaffected over a wide range of temperature variation.
Porcelain is chemically insert to alkalies and acids and, therefore, corrosion resistant
and does not get contaminated. Alumina (Al2 O3 ) has replaced quartz because of its
96 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

better thermal conductivity, insulating property and mechanical strength. It is used

for the fabrication of high current vacuum circuit breakers.
Glass is a thermoplastic inorganic material consisting of silicondioxide (SiO2 ),
which is available in nature in the form of quartz. Different types of metal oxides could
be used for producing different types of glasses but for use in electrical engineering
only non-alkaline glasses are suitable having alkaline content less than 0.8%.
The dielectric constant of glass varies between 3.6 and 10.0 and the density varies
between 2000 kg/m3 and 6000 kg/m3 . The loss angle tan δ is less than 10–3 and
losses are higher for lower frequencies. Its dielectric strength varies between 300
and 500 kV/mm and it decreases with increase in temperature. Glass is used for
X-ray equipment, electronic valves, electric bulbs etc.

3.3 Liquid Dielectrics

3.3.1 General Consideration

The main functions of liquid insulation are: isolating the current-carrying parts of
high-voltage equipment at different potentials, removing excess heat from operating
equipment and extinguishing the arc in switches and other high-voltage switching
equipment. In addition, liquid insulation helps to obtain information about the state
of the internal insulation system as a whole and take timely measures to prevent
equipment failures [3].
Thus, for the perfect performance of its functions, any liquid dielectric must have
high electrical strength, good thermal conductivity, chemical and thermal stability,
as little combustibility and toxicity as possible, suitable viscosity for cold conditions,
and the ability to maintain its main properties over a long period of operation. At
elevated temperatures and high electrical voltages. The list of basic requirements for
liquid dielectrics is given in Fig. 3.6 [4].
The search for liquids that best meet the named list of properties began at the
end of the nineteenth century and continues to the present, as shown below. Only
research on polychlorinated biphenyls as insulation for high-voltage equipment was
discontinued in 1970.
1884—Mineral oil
1930—polychlorinated biphenyl
1974—Silicone fluids
1985—Synthetic esters
1990—Natural Esters
2002—Mixed liquids
2008—Nanofluids
The most important properties of liquids as insulation for high-voltage equipment
are dielectric strength, dielectric losses, dielectric constant, and volume resistivity.
3.3 Liquid Dielectrics 97

Fig. 3.6 Basic requirements for insulating liquids

The electrical properties of the most commonly used insulating liquids are shown in
Table 3.1.
The most important properties of liquids as insulation for high-voltage equipment
are dielectric strength, dielectric losses, dielectric constant, and volume resistivity.
The electrical properties of the most commonly used insulating liquids are shown in
Table 3.1.
For dielectric liquids, dielectric strength should be considered as an integral char-
acteristic, since this indicator strongly depends on the degree of their contamina-
tion with moisture and conductive solid particles (cellulose fibers, carbon, dust,
metal microparticles, colloidal compounds, etc.). Clean dielectric liquids prepared
for pouring into the apparatus, free from water and other impurities, regardless of

Table 3.1 Electrical properties of insulating liquids [3, 4]

Indicator BMIO SF SE NE
Breakdown voltage, kV 30 ÷ 80 35 ÷ 60 50 ÷ 80 60 ÷ 85
Dielectric loss factor, 50/60 Hz, at 90 °C <0.001 <0.002 <0.006 <0.040
Dielectric constant, 50/60 Hz, at 100 °C 2.1 ÷ 2.5 2.6 ÷ 2.9 3.0 ÷ 3.3 3.2 ÷ 3.3
Specific volume resistance, Ohm cm, at 23 °C 1013 1015 1013 1014
PBMIO—petroleum based mineral insulating oil
SF—silicone fluid (organosilicon or polydimethylsiloxane)
SE—synthetic ester
NE—natural ester
98 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

their chemical composition, have a high breakdown voltage (from 60 kV and higher
in a standard test cell), Table 3.1.
The leading position as a liquid dielectric and heat-removing agent in high-voltage
equipment continues to be occupied by mineral oil. Several million units of various
types of electrical equipment and billions of tons of oil are operated by energy
companies around the world.
Mineral petroleum oils remain a priority due to their inherent advantages:
– affordable cost,
– good insulating properties,
– low viscosity,
– the presence of standardized requirements for their properties, both for unused
fresh oil and for oil in operation,
– for more than a century of their operation, many valuable methods and criteria
for assessing the condition of the insulation system of oil-filled equipment have
been developed,
– over the decades, methods for diagnosing electrical equipment, algorithms for
restoring insulation characteristics have been developed, in particular, methods
for regenerating mineral oil, drying solid insulation, operating in an oil medium,
topping up, replacing or mixing petroleum oils of different brands, etc.

3.3.2 Mineral Insulating Oils

Mineral insulating oils are hydrocarbons (compounds of hydrogen and carbon)

refined from crude petroleum deposits from the ground. About 10 types of oils are
used only in the power engineering of Russia. The chemical composition of fresh
(not exploited) oil is determined by the properties of the original oil feedstock and
production technology [3–7].
They consist partly of aliphatic compounds with the general formula Cn H2n
comprising a mixture of straight- and branched-chain and cyclic or partially cyclic
compounds. Many oils also contain a sizable fraction of aromatic compounds
related to benzene, naphthalene, and derivatives of these with aliphatic side chains.
The ratio of aromatic to aliphatic components depends on the source of the oil
and its refining treatment. The percentage of aromatics is of importance to the
gas-absorption or evaluation characteristics under electrical discharges and to the
oxidation characteristics.
Many manufacturers now approve the use of any of several brands of mineral
insulating oil in their apparatus provided that they meet their specifications which
are similar to ASTM D1040. Low values of dielectric strength may indicate water
or dirt contamination. A high neutralization number will indicate acidity, developed
very possibly from oxidation, particularly if the oil has used been already. Presence
of sulfur is likely to lead to corrosion of metals in the oil.
The solubility of gases and water in mineral oil is of importance about its function
in apparatus. Solubility is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the
3.3 Liquid Dielectrics 99

oil where S is the amount dissolved at pressure p if the solubility is expressed as the
amount S 0 dissolved at pressure p0 .
The solubility is frequently expressed in volume percent of the oil. Values for solu-
bility of some common gases in transformer oil at atmospheric pressure (760 torr)
and 25 °C are air 10.8%, nitrogen 9.0%, oxygen 14.5%, carbon dioxide 99.0%,
hydrogen 7%, and methane 30% by volume. The solubilities of all the gases, except
CO2 , increase slightly with increasing temperature. Water is dissolved in new trans-
former oil to the extent of about 60 to 80 ppm at 100% relative humidity and 25 0 C.
The amount dissolved is proportional to the relative humidity. Solubility of water
increases with oxidation of the oil and the addition of polar impurities, with which
the water becomes associated. Larger quantities of water can be suspended in the oil
as fine droplets.

[Link] Dielectric Properties of Mineral Oils

The permittivity of mineral insulating oils is low, since they are essentially nonpolar,
containing only a few molecules with electric dipole moments. Some oils possess a
minor fraction of polar constituents, which have not been identified. These contribute
a dipolar character to the dielectric properties at low temperature and/or high
frequency. A typical permittivity for American transformer oil at 60 Hz is 2.19
at 25 °C declining almost linearly to 2.11 at 100 °C. At low temperatures and high
frequencies, values of permittivity as high as 2.85 have been noted in oils with a rela-
tively high level of polar constituents. The dc conductivity levels of mineral oils range
from about 10−15 Ω per cm for pure new oils up to 10–12 Ω per cm for contaminated
used oils. This conductivity is due to dissociated impurity ions or ions developed
by oil oxidation. It increases approximately exponentially with temperature about 1
decade in 80 °C.
Corona or partial breakdown can occur in mineral oil, as with any liquid or gas,
when the electric stress is locally very high and complete breakdown is limited by a
solid barrier or large oil gap (as with a needle point in a large gap). Such discharges
produce hydrogen and methane gas, and sometimes carbon with larger discharges.
Dissolved air is also sometimes released by the discharge. If the gas bubbles formed
are not ejected away from the high field, they will reduce the subsequent discharge
threshold voltage to as much as 80%. The resistance of insulating oils to partial
discharges is measured by two ASTM gassing tests: D2298 (Merrill test) and D2300
(modified Pirelli test). These tests measure the amount of decomposition gas evolved
under specified conditions of expo- sure to partial discharges. A minimum amount
of gas is, of course, preferred, particularly in applications for cables or capacitors.
In fact, conventional mineral oils are inadequate in this respect for application in
modern 50 or 60 Hz power capacitor designs.
In power systems (mainly at substations), oil-filled equipment of the following
types is used:
100 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

1. power transformers;
2. measuring current and potential transformers;
3. shunt reactors;
4. circuit breakers and other switching devices;
5. high-voltage bushings;
6. oil-filled cable lines.
Experts note that a significant proportion of oil-filled equipment is operated at the
limit of its capabilities, i.e. over the standard operating life. Along with other parts
of the equipment, oil is also subject to aging. Under the influence of electric and
magnetic fields (PD, thermal destruction processes, etc.), its initial molecular compo-
sition changes. In addition, due to operation, a change in its volume is possible, which,
in turn, can be dangerous both for the operation of the equipment and for the mainte-
nance personnel. Therefore, correct and timely oil diagnostics is the key to reliable
and safe operation of the equipment.
Oil analysis is carried out to determine not only its quality indicators, which must
comply with the requirements of regulatory and technical documentation, but also to
assess the condition of the equipment as a whole. This is due to the fact that the oil
contains about 70% of information about the condition of the oil-filled equipment.
Table 3.2 shows the most commonly used quality indicators of transformer oil
today and the types of violations detected with their help in oil-filled equipment.

Table 3.2 Quality indexes of transformer oil

Oil quality index Detectable faults
Electrical strength Interleaf shorts in the stator
Acid number Locations of stray magnetic fields
Evaluation of the efficiency of cooling systems
Content of water-soluble acids Overheating of contacts of current-carrying tires,
working and arcing chambers
The state of tank insulation
Flash point in closed cup Overheating of external and internal contact
connections
Deterioration of the internal insulation of the
windings
The presence of mechanical impurities Violation of the sealing of elements
Breakage of shunt resistances
Oil color Breakdown of element sections
Oil dielectric loss tangent Overheating of contact connections
Total gas content in oil Overheating of contact connections of switches,
disconnectors, current transformers, cables,
current-carrying tires, etc.
The presence of soluble sludge Overheating of power cables, assessment of fire
hazard of cables
3.3 Liquid Dielectrics 101

[Link] Deterioration of Oil

Deterioration of oil in apparatus partially open or “breathing” is subject to air oxida-

tion. This leads to acidity and sludge. There is no correlation between the amount
of acid and the likelihood of a sludge or the amount of sludge. Sludge clogs the
ducts, reduces the heat transfer, and accelerates the rate of deterioration. ASTM tests
for oxidation of oils are D1904, D1934, D1313, and D1314. Copper and lead and
certain other metals accelerate the oxidation of mineral oils. Oils are considerably
more stable in nitrogen atmospheres.
Inhibitors are now commonly added both to new and to used oils to delay the
oxidation. Ditertiary butyl paracresol (DBPC) is the inhibitor most commonly used
at present.

[Link] Servicing, Filtering, and Treating

Oil in service is usually maintained by testing for acidity, dielectric strength, inhibitor
content, interfacial tension, neutralization number, peroxide number, pour point,
power factor, refractive index and specific optical dispersion, resistivity, saponifi-
cation, sludge, corrosive sulfur, viscosity, and water content, as outlined in ASTM
D117. These properties indicate various types of contamination or deterioration,
which might affect the operation of the insulating oil.
Depending on the voltage rating of the apparatus, the oil is maintained above
16 to 22 kV (ASTM test D877). The usual contaminants are water, sludge, acids,
and in circuit-breaker oils, carbon. The centrifuge is best suited for removing large
quantities of water, heavier solid particles, etc. The blotter filter press is used for
the removal of minute quantities of water, fine carbon, etc. In another method, after
removing the larger particles, the oil is heated and sprayed into a vacuum chamber,
where the water and volatile acids are removed. Sludge and very fine solids are then
taken out by a blotter filter press. All units are assembled together so that the process
is completed in a single pass. Some work has been done in reclaiming oil by treating
it to reduce acidity. One process is similar to the later stages in refining. Another
treatment uses activated alumina, Fuller’s earth, or silica gel. The IEEE Guide for
Maintenance of Insulating Oil is published as IEEE Standards Publ.
It has been found that analysis of the dissolved gas in oil or above the oil in
oil-insulated transformers and cables is a good diagnostic tool to detect electrical
faults, particularly, or deterioration, generally. For example, continuing or intermit-
tent partial discharges produce hydrogen and low- molecular-weight hydrocarbons
such as methane, ethane, and ethylene, which accumulate in the oil and can be
measured accurately to assess the magnitude of the fault. Higher-current arc faults
pro- duce acetylene in addition to H2 and other low-molecular-weight hydrocar-
bons. Thermal deterioration of cellulosic or paper insulation is indicated by elevated
concentrations of CO and CO2 in the oil [5–7].
Experts note that a significant proportion of oil-filled equipment is operated at
the limit of its capabilities, i.e. over the standard operating life. Along with other
102 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

parts of the equipment, oil is also subject to aging. Under the influence of electric
and magnetic fields (PD, thermal destruction processes, etc.), its initial molecular
composition changes. In addition, due to operation, a change in its volume is possible,
which, in turn, can be dangerous both for the operation of the equipment and for the
maintenance personnel. Therefore, correct and timely oil diagnostics is the key to
reliable and safe operation of the equipment [7–10].
Oil analysis is carried out to determine not only its quality indicators, which must
comply with the requirements of regulatory and technical documentation, but also to
assess the condition of the equipment as a whole. This is due to the fact that the oil
contains about 70% of information about the condition of the oil-filled equipment.
Under the pressure of tightening environmental regulations, manufacturers of high-
voltage equipment with liquid insulation are forced to work not only to improve
the culture of handling transformer oil, but also to find new insulating liquids that
cause minimal environmental damage. The development of high-voltage apparatus
building is closely related, among other things, to progress in the production of
insulating materials, including insulating liquids based on esters.
Considering the specific properties of ester fluids (high viscosity and density,
increased tendency to accumulate electrostatic charges, faster propagation of
discharge channels in a non-uniform electric field compared to petroleum-based
oils, etc.), energy companies are very cautious about using alternative dielectrics in
electrical equipment. To date, synthetic and natural ethers are mainly used in elec-
trical equipment installed in places where there are increased requirements for fire
safety and environmental protection (densely populated areas, tunnels, subways, oil
and gas platforms, river and marine fleets, underground substations, ecological zones
and etc.), Table 3.3. The scope of biodegradable liquid dielectrics in high-voltage
equipment is gradually expanding. Progress in the field of biogenic technologies
allows us to successfully solve this problem. The use of biodegradable ester fluids in
high-voltage equipment, in contrast to petroleum-based oils, fits this trend very well.
Transformers with synthetic esters as liquid insulation are mainly operated by
European companies, while transformers with natural esters are used in the USA

Table 3.3 Use of insulating liquids in electrical equipment [3–6]

Type of electrical equipment Mineral oil Silicone fluid Natural ether Synthetic ether
Power transformers ++ - + +
Traction transformers ++ ++ - ++
Distribution transformers ++ ++ ++ ++
Current transformers ++ - - -
Voltage transformers ++ - - -
High voltage bushings ++ - - -
Regulation devices under voltage ++ ++ - +
High voltage circuit breakers ++ - - -
Note “++”—often used; “+”—used less often; “-”—not applicable
3.3 Liquid Dielectrics 103

and Brazil. In 1978, small power transformers filled with synthetic esters were tested.
In 1992, mass production of new transformers began in Germany and the filling of
old transformers with ethereal synthetic fluid began [4].
Unlike synthetic esters, natural ester fluids came into use much later, around
the 1990s. In terms of the scope of application, they are still significantly inferior
to oil. Basically, these are sealed transformers of small and medium power (with
film protection, nitrogen cushion in the oil space or completely sealed). To date,
according to expert estimates, the number of transformers and reactors filled with
natural ethers is more than 2.5 million units. Data based on several years of operation
of such transformers indicates that natural ester fluids can replace transformer oil in
some types of high voltage equipment.
Due to the difference in physical, electrical, chemical and thermal properties
of ester fluids from mineral oil, for their effective use in power transformers, it is
necessary to modify some structural parts of the equipment.

3.3.3 Synthetic Liquid Insulation

Synthetic chlorinated diphenyl and chlorinated benzene liquids (askarels) have been
used widely from the middle1930s up to the middle1970s and are still in service in
many power capacitors and transformers, where they were adopted for their non-
flammability as well as good electrical characteristics. Since the mid-1970s, their
use has been banned in most countries due to their alleged toxicity and resistance
to biodegradation in the environment. Now, when apparatus containing these fluids,
which are commonly referred to as PCBs, are taken out of service, environmental
regulations in the United States require that the fluid not be released into the envi-
ronment. Waste fluid should be incinerated at high temperature with HCl reactive
absorbent scrubbers in the stack, since this acid gas is a product of the combustion.
New synthetic fluids have been developed and are now widely applied in power
capacitors where the electrical stresses are very high. These fluids include aromatic
(containing benzene rings) hydro- carbons, some of which have excellent resistance
to partial discharges. They are not fire-resistant, however.
Very high boiling, low-vapor-pressure, high-flash-point (about 300 °C) hydro-
carbon oils are being tried for power transformers with some fire resistance. Methods
for assessing the risk of fire with such liquids, as well as with silicones, are still being
debated.
Perchlorethylene (tetrachloroethylene), a nonpolar liquid, is now in use in sealed
medium-power transformers, where nonflammability is required. With a boiling point
at atmospheric pressure of 121 °C, this fluid is completely nonflammable. It is also
widely used in dry cleaning. Other important classes of synthetic insulating fluids
are discussed in the following sections.
Fluorocarbon Liquids. A number of nonpolar nonflammable perfluorinated
aliphatic compounds, in which the hydrogen has been completely replaced by fluo-
rine, are available with different ranges of viscosity and boiling point from below
104 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

room temperature to more than 200 °C. These compounds have low permittivities
(near 2.0) and very low conductivity. They are inert chemically and have low solu-
bilities for most other materials. The chemical formula for these compounds is one
of the following: Cn F2n , Cn F2n + 2 , or Cn F2n O. The presence of the oxygen in the
latter formula does not seem to reduce the stability. These compounds have been
used for filling electronic apparatus and large transformers to give high heat-transfer
rates together with high dielectric strength. The vapors of these liquids also have
high dielectric strengths.
Silicone Fluids. These fluids, chemically formed from Si—O chains with organic
(usually methyl) side groups, have a high thermal stability, low temperature coef-
ficient of viscosity, low dielectric losses, and high dielectric strength. They can be
obtained with various levels of viscosity and correlated vapor pressures. Rated service
temperatures extend from –65 to 200 °C, some having short-time capability up to
300 °C. Their permittivity is about 2.6–2.7, declining with increasing temperature.
These fluids have a tendency to form heavier carbon tracks than other insulating
liquids when breakdown occurs. They cannot be considered fireproof but will reduce
the risk of fire due to their low vapor pressure.
Ester Fluids. There are a few applications, mostly for capacitors, where organic
ester compounds are used [4]. These liquids have a somewhat higher permittivity, in
the range of about 4 to 7, depending on the ratio of ester groups to hydrocarbon chain
lengths. Their conductivities are generally somewhat higher than those of the other
insulating liquids discussed here. The compounds are easily subject to hydrolysis
with water to form acids and alcohols and should be kept dry, particularly if the
temperature is raised. Their thermal stability is poor. Specifically, dibutyl sebacate has
been used in high-frequency capacitors and castor oil in energy-storage capacitors.

3.4 Insulating Gases and Vacuum

3.4.1 General Properties of Gases

A gas is a highly compressible dielectric medium, usually of low conductivity and

with a dielectric constant only a little greater than unity, except at high pressures. In
high electric fields, the gas may become conducting because of impact ionization of
the gas molecules by electrons accelerated by the field and by secondary processes,
which produce partial breakdown / partial discharge (PD) or complete breakdown.
Conditions which ionize the gas molecules, such as very high temperatures and
ionizing radiation (ultraviolet rays, x-rays, gamma rays, high-velocity electrons, and
ions such as alpha particles), will also produce some conduction in a gas.
The gas density d (grams per liter) increases with pressure p (torrs or millimeters
of mercury) and gram-molecular weight M and decreases inversely with the absolute
temperature T (degrees Celsius—273).
3.4 Insulating Gases and Vacuum 105

The use of air as internal insulation at pressures of 10–15 atm and above compli-
cates the design of apparatuses, their inputs and seals and reduces the safety of
maintenance and makes operation difficult. Therefore, for these purposes, gases with
increased electrical strength are used much more often, which makes it possible to
avoid the problems mentioned above [10–12].
The most important requirements for gases used as electrical insulation are high
electrical strength and low liquefaction temperature, Table 3.4.
Gases must also be chemically inert, non-toxic, fire and explosion-proof, inex-
pensive, have sufficient thermal conductivity, and also be chemically resistant when
exposed to an electric field and discharges. As follows from Table 3.4, SF6 meets all
the requirements most fully. In its pure form, it is inert, non-flammable, heat-resistant
up to 800 °C, non-toxic, odorless. SF6 molecules have a high electron affinity, which
determines its high dielectric strength and good arc-quenching ability. It is applied in
transformers, switches, capacitors, cables and some other high-voltage equipment.
In high-voltage structures nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur hexafluoride (SF6 ) and
its mixture with nitrogen are mainly used as internal gas insulation. Their main
characteristics are given in Table 3.5.
Nitrogen and carbon dioxide do not exceed atmospheric air in electrical strength,
but they are chemically inert and therefore, in their environment, oxidative processes
of thermal aging of structural elements made of solid materials are excluded or
sharply slowed down. They, like SF6 , are fire and explosion-proof.

Table 3.4 The most important characteristics of gases used as electrical insulation or promising
for such use
Gas Air N2 SF6 CCl2 F2 CO2 CCl4 SeF6
UG Br /UA Br 1.0 1.0 2.3–2.5 2.4–2.6 0.95 6.3 4.5
Tc , °C −192 −195.8 −62 −28 −34.6 76 49.2
Here UG Br/UA Br is—the ratio of the electrical strength of a given gas and air, Tliq , °C—the
temperature of liquefaction of air and gases

Table 3.5 Physical properties of gases used in high voltage equipment

Parameters Nitrogen Carbon Sulfur
dioxide hexafluoride
Molecular mass 28.013 44.011 146.05
Gas density, Kg/m3 , at 0 °C and pressure 0.1 MPa 1.25 1.98 6.39
Boiling point, K, at a pressure of 0.1 MPa 77.4 194.7 318.7
Heat capacity of gas at a pressure of 0.1 MPa and 0° C, 1.06 0.82 0.625
kJ/kg.K
Thermal conductivity of gas at a pressure of 0.1 MPa 0.024 0.015 0.0127
and 0 °C, W/(m.K)
Electrical strength of gas (relative to air strength) 1.0 0.9 2.6
106 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

The main dielectric “material” for creating the external insulation of high-voltage
equipment is atmospheric air. Insulated current-carrying parts (buses of distribution
devices, wires of overhead power transmission lines, external current-carrying parts
of electrical apparatus) are located at certain distances from each other and from
the ground (or grounded parts of the apparatus) and are strengthened in a given
position with the help of insulators. Insulating distances in air are determined by the
magnitude of the acting voltage and the dielectric strength of the air [13].
Under normal atmospheric conditions, the electric strength of air is relatively small
and in intervals longer than 1 cm with a uniform field does not exceed 30 kV/cm.
The electric strength of air in sharply inhomogeneous fields, which are predominant
for high-voltage equipment, and at distances of 1–2 m is only 5 kV/cm, and at
distances of 10–20 m it decreases, respectively, to 2.5–1.5 kV/cm. In this regard, the
dimensions of the overhead transmission line and switchgears are largely determined
by the electrical strength of the air and increase rapidly with an increase in the rated
operating voltage. The discharge (breakdown) voltages of air gaps are influenced
by pressure p, temperature T and absolute humidity Ɣ of the air, so the insulating
distances through the air are chosen so that they have sufficient dielectric strength
under adverse weather conditions. In particular, conventional electrical equipment
is designed to operate at altitudes up to 1000 m above sea level and at ambient
temperatures up to +40 °C. It should be borne in mind that every 100 m rise above
sea level reduces the discharge voltage by about 1%. The same decrease gives an
increase in temperature for every 3 °C above normal. As a normal temperature,
20 °C is taken, normal pressure (at sea level)—760 mm Hg. Art., normal humidity
Ɣ0 = 11 g/m3 . The given data characterizing the change in discharge voltages under
the influence of atmospheric conditions refer to inter-electrode distances up to 1 m.
At large distances, the effect of atmospheric conditions decreases as the distance
increases. Rain has practically no effect on the discharge voltages of gaps with a
non-uniform field.
If the gas is a vapor in equilibrium with a liquid or solid, the pressure will be the
vapor pressure of the liquid or solid. The logarithm of the pressure varies as –ΔH/
RT, where ΔH is the heat of vaporization in calories per mole and R is the molar gas
constant, 1.98 cal/(mol) (°C). This relation also applies to all common atmospheric
gases at low temperatures, below the points where they liquefy.
Dielectric Constant. The dielectric constant k of gases is a function of the molec-
ular electrical polarizability and the gas density. It is independent of magnetic and
electric fields except when a significant number of ions is present.
Conduction. The conductivity of a pure molecular gas at moderate electric stress
and moderate temperature can be assumed, in the absence of any ionizing effect such
as ionizing radiation, to be practically zero. Ionizing radiation induces conduction
in the gas to a significant extent, depending on the amount absorbed and the volume
of gas under stress. The energy of the radiation must exceed, directly or indirectly,
the ionization energy of the gas molecules and thus produce an ion pair (usually an
electron and positive ion). The threshold ionization energy is on the order of 10–25
electron-volts (eV)/molecule for common gases (10.86 eV for methyl alcohol, 12.2
for oxygen, 15.5 for nitrogen, and 24.5 for helium). Only very short wavelength
3.4 Insulating Gases and Vacuum 107

ultraviolet light is effective directly in photoionization, since 10 eV corresponds to

a photon of ultraviolet with a wavelength of 1240 A. Since the photoelectric work
function of metal surfaces is much lower (2–6 eV; e.g., copper about 4 eV), the
longer-wavelength ultraviolet commonly present is effective in ejecting electrons
from a negative conductors surface. Such cathode-ejected electrons give the gas
apparent conductivity [14].
High-energy radiation from nuclear disintegration is a common source of ioniza-
tion in gases. Nuclear sources usually produce gamma rays on the order of 106 eV
energy. Only a small amount is absorbed in passing through a low- density gas. A
flux of 1 R/h produces ion pairs corresponding to a saturation current (the flat part
of the curve V1 −V2 in the Fig. 3.7) of 0.925 × 10–13 A/cm3 of air at 1 atm. pressure
if all the ions formed are collected at the electrodes. The effect is proportional to
the flux and the gas density. The part of curve V2 −V3 corresponds to end of satura-
tion part the beginning of the electron growth, so as electric field is strong enough
for this. Rapid increasing of Volt-Ampere characteristic from the V4 implies a shift
to strong field area. The penetration to this region of Volt-Ampere characteristic
means extremely fast growth of current carriers and next breakdown in any case.
At a voltage stress below about 100 V/cm, some of the ions formed will recombine
before being collected, and the current will be correspondingly less. Higher stresses
do not increase the current if all the ions formed are collected. A very small current,
on the order of 10–21 A/cm3 of air, is attributable to cosmic rays and residual natural
radioactivity. Electrons (beta rays) produce much more ionization per path length
than gamma rays, because they are slowed down by collisions and lose their energy
more quickly.
Correspondingly, the slower alpha particles (positive helium nuclei) produce a
very dense ionization in air over a short range. For example, a 3-million-eV (MeV)

Fig. 3.7 Volt-Ampere characteristic

108 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

alpha particle has a range in air of 1.7 cm and creates a total of 6.8 × 105 ion pairs. A
beta particle (an electron) of the same energy creates only 40 ion pairs per centimeter
and has a range of 13 m in air.
It should be noted that ionizing radiation of significant levels has only a small
effect on gas dielectric strength. For example, the ionization current produced by a
corona discharge from a needle point is typically much higher than that produced by
a radiation flux of significant level, 1011 gamma photons per square centimeter.
At temperatures increasing above 600 °C, it has been shown that thermionic
electron emissions from negative conductor surfaces produce significant currents
compared with levels typical of electrical insulation.
Since the rate of production of ions by the various sources mentioned above is
limited, the current in the gas does not follow Ohm’s law, unless the rate of collection
of the ions at the electrodes is small compared with the rate of production of these
ions.

3.4.2 Breakdown of Gases

Uniform Fields. The dielectric breakdown of gases is a result of an exponential

multiplication of free electrons induced by the field. It is generally assumed that the
initiation of breakdown requires only one electron. However, if only a few electrons
are present prior to breakdown, it is not easily possible to measure the trend of current
shown in Fig. 3.7. If the breakdown is completed between metal electrodes, the spark
develops extremely rapidly into an arc, involving copious emission of electrons from
the cathode metal and, if the necessary current flow is permitted, vaporization of
metal from the electrodes.
In uniform electric fields, breakdown occurs at a critical voltage which is a function
of the product of the pressure p and spacing d (Paschen’s law), Fig. 3.8.
It would be more accurate to consider the gas density-spacing product, since
the dielectric strength varies with the temperature only as the latter affects the gas
density. It will be noted that the electric field at breakdown decreases as the spacing

Fig. 3.8 Paschen’s curve

3.4 Insulating Gases and Vacuum 109

increases. This is typical of all gases and is due to the fact that a minimum amount of
multiplication of electrons must occur before breakdown occurs. A single electron
accelerated by the field creates an avalanche which grows exponentially as x.eα,
where x is the distance and α is the Townsend ionization coefficient (electrons formed
by collision per centimeter), which increases rapidly with electric field. At small
spacing, α and the field must be higher for sufficient multiplication. In divergent
electric fields or large spacing, it has been found that when the integral increases to
about 18.4 (108 electrons), sufficient space charge develops to produce a streamer type
of breakdown. It seems to be apparent that the final step in gas breakdown before arc
development is the development of a branched filamentary streamer which proceeds
more easily from the positive electrode toward the negative electrode.
The relative dielectric strength, with few exceptions, tends upward with increasing
molecular weight. There are a number of factors other than molecular or atomic size
which influence the retarding effect on electrons. These include ability to absorb
electron energy on collision and trap electrons to form negative ions. The noble
atomic gases (helium, argon, neon, etc.) are poorest in these respects and have the
lowest dielectric strengths.
The relative strengths vary with the p. d value, as well as gap geometry, and
particularly in divergent fields where corona begins before breakdown. It is best to
consult specific references with regard to divergent field breakdown values.
In nonuniform fields, when the ratio of spacing to conductor radius of curvature
is about 3 or less, breakdown occurs without prior corona. The breakdown voltage
is controlled by the integral of the Townsend ionization coefficient α across the gap.
At larger ratios of spacing to radius of curvature, corona discharge occurs at voltage
levels below complete gap breakdown.
Corona in air at atmospheric pressure occurs before breakdown when the ratio
of outer to inner radius of coaxial electrodes exceeds 2.72 or where the ratio of
gap to sphere radius between spheres exceeds 2.04. These discharges project some
distance from the small-radii conductor but do not continue out into the weaker elec-
tric field region until a higher voltage level is reached. Such partial breakdowns are
often characterized by rapid pulses of current and radio noise. With some conductors
at intermediate voltages between onset and complete breakdown, they blend into a
pulseless glow discharge around the conductor. When corona occurs before break-
down, it creates an ion space charge around the conductor, which modifies the electric
field, reducing the stress at sharp conductor points in the intermediate voltage range.
At higher voltages, streamers break out of the space-charge region and cross the gap.
The surface voltage stress at which corona begins increases above that for uniform
field break- down stress, since the field to initiate breakdown must extend over a
finite distance. An empirical relation developed by Peek is useful for expressing the
maximum surface stress for corona onset in air for several geometries of radius r.
It has been shown by a number of investigators that the discharge-threshold voltage
stresses on or between insulator surfaces is the same as between metal electrodes.
Thus, the threshold voltage for such discharges can be calculated from the series
dielectric capacitance relation for internal gaps of simple shapes, such as plane and
coaxial gaps, insulated conductor surfaces, and hollow spherical cavities.
110 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

The corona-initiating voltage at a conductor edge on a solid barrier depends on

the electric stress concentration and generally on the ratio of the barrier thickness
to its dielectric constant, except with low surface resistance. Any absorbed water or
conducting film raises the corona threshold voltage by reducing stress concentration
at the conductor edge on the surface.
It is sometimes possible to overvoltage such gaps considerably prior to the first
discharge, and the offset voltage may be below the proper voltage due to surface-
charge concentration. With ac voltages, pulse discharges occur regularly back and
forth each half cycle, but with dc voltage, the first discharge deposits a surface charge
on the insulator surface which must leak away before another discharge can occur.
Thus, corona on or between insulator surfaces is very intermittent with steady dc
voltages, but discharges occur when the voltage is raised or lowered.
As has been mentioned in the previous section on partial discharges, the break-
down in gases is influenced by the presence of solid insulation between conductors.
This insulation increases the electric stress in the gas. A particular case of this is the
complete breakdown between conductors across or around solid insulator surfaces.
This can occur when the conductors are on the same side of the insulation or on
opposite sides. A significant reduction in flashover voltage can occur whenever a
significant part of the electric field passes through the insulation. The reduction is
influenced by the percentage of electric flux which passes through the solid insulation
and the dielectric constant of the insulation.

3.4.3 Relative Dielectric Strengths of Gases

The relative dielectric strength, with few exceptions, tends upward with increasing
molecular weight. There are a number of factors other than molecular or atomic size
which influence the retarding effect on electrons. These include ability to absorb
electron energy on collision and trap electrons to form negative ions. The noble
atomic gases (helium, argon, neon, etc.) are poorest in these respects and have the
lowest dielectric strengths.
The relative strengths vary with the p. d value, as well as gap geometry, and
particularly in divergent fields where corona begins before breakdown. It is best to
consult specific references with regard to divergent field breakdown values.

3.4.4 Corona and Breakdown in Inhomogeneous Fields

In non-uniform fields, when the ratio of spacing to conductor radius of curvature is

about 3 or less, breakdown occurs without prior corona. The breakdown voltage is
controlled by the integral of the Townsend ionization coefficient α across the gap.
At larger ratios of spacing to radius of curvature, corona discharge occurs at voltage
levels below complete gap breakdown.
3.4 Insulating Gases and Vacuum 111

Corona in air at atmospheric pressure occurs before breakdown when the ratio of
outer to inner radius of coaxial electrodes exceeds 2.72 or where the ratio of gap to
sphere radius between spheres exceeds 2.04. These discharges project some distance
from the small-radii conductor but do not continue out into the weaker electric field
region until a higher voltage level is reached.
Such partial breakdowns are often characterized by rapid pulses of current
and radio noise. With some conductors at intermediate voltages between onset
and complete breakdown, they blend into a pulseless glow discharge around the
conductor. When corona occurs before breakdown, it creates an ion space charge
around the conductor, which modifies the electric field, reducing the stress at sharp
conductor points in the intermediate voltage range. At higher voltages, streamers
break out of the space-charge region and cross the gap.
Figure 3.9 illustrates the case of a strongly non–uniform field in a positive point—
plane gap. For the special case of a coaxial cylindrical geometry in air, an empirical
relation based on many measurements of the critical field strength Ec (corona incep-
tion) for different diameters of the inner conductor (2r) and relative air density δ was
developed by Peek of the form:

EC 9.63
= 31.53 + √
δ δr ,

where E C is in kV/cm, r in cm.

Fig. 3.9 Electric field distribution in a non-uniform field gap

112 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

In uniform field and quasi–uniform field gaps the onset of measurable ionization
usually leads to complete breakdown of the gap. In non-uniform fields various mani-
festations of luminous and audible discharges are observed long before the complete
breakdown occurs. These discharges may be transient or steady state and are known
as corona. The phenomenon is of particular importance in high voltage engineering
where non–uniform fields are unavoidable. It is responsible for considerable power
losses from high voltage transmission lines and often leads to deterioration of insu-
lation by the combined action of the discharge ions bombarding the surface and the
action of chemical compounds that are formed by the discharge. It may give rise to
interference in communication systems. On the other hand, it has various industrial
applications such as high–speed printing devices, electrostatic precipitators, paint
sprayers, Geiger counters, etc.
The voltage gradient at the surface of the conductor in air required to produce
a visual a.c. corona in air is given approximately by the Peek’s expression. There
is a distinct difference in the visual appearance of a corona at wires under different
polarity of the applied voltage. Under positive voltage, a corona appears in the form of
a uniform bluish–white sheath over the entire surface of the wire. On negative wires
the corona appears as reddish glowing spots distributed along the wire. The number
of spots increases with the current. Stroboscopic studies show that with alternating
voltages a corona has about the same appearance as with direct voltages. Because of
the distinctly different properties of coronas under the different voltage polarities it
is convenient to discuss separately positive and negative coronas.

3.4.5 Corona Discharges on Insulator Surfaces

It has been shown by a number of investigators that the discharge-threshold voltage

stresses on or between insulator surfaces is the same as between metal electrodes.
Thus, the threshold voltage for such discharges can be calculated from the series
dielectric- capacitance relation for internal gaps of simple shapes, such as plane and
coaxial gaps, insulated conductor surfaces, and hollow spherical cavities.
The corona-initiating voltage at a conductor edge on a solid barrier depends on
the electric stress concentration and generally on the ratio of the barrier thickness
to its dielectric constant, except with low surface resistance. Any absorbed water or
conducting film raises the corona threshold voltage by reducing stress concentration
at the conductor edge on the surface.
It is sometimes possible to overvoltage such gaps considerably prior to the first
discharge, and the offset voltage may be below the proper voltage due to surface-
charge concentration. With ac volt- ages, pulse discharges occur regularly back and
forth each half cycle, but with dc voltage, the first discharge deposits a surface charge
on the insulator surface which must leak away before another discharge can occur.
Thus, corona on or between insulator surfaces is very intermittent with steady dc
voltages, but discharges occur when the voltage is raised or lowered.
3.4 Insulating Gases and Vacuum 113

Fig. 3.10 Corona discharge over the surface of an insulator

Figure 3.10 shows a corona discharge over the surface of an insulator in

atmospheric air at AC voltage.

3.4.6 Flashover on Solid Surfaces in Gases

As has been mentioned in the previous section on partial discharges, the breakdown
in gases is influenced by the presence of solid insulation between conductors. This
insulation increases the electric stress in the gas. A particular case of this is the com-
plete breakdown between conductors across or around solid insulator surfaces. This
can occur when the conductors are on the same side of the insulation or on opposite
sides. A significant reduction in flashover voltage can occur whenever a significant
part of the electric field passes through the insulation. The reduction is influenced
by the percentage of electric flux which passes through the solid insulation and the
dielectric constant of the insulation.

3.4.7 Vacuum

When going along the left branch of the Paschen curve toward low pressure of about
10–3 Pa and then to vacuum, the breakdown voltage first increases and then remains
essentially unchanged. The pressure decrease is accompanied by a simultaneous
decrease in the breakdown voltage spread. This is typical of fairly short gaps (less then
2 cm). Starting with p about 1–10–1 Pa or less, the behavior of U = f(p) depends on
many factors including the interelectrode gap length, residual gases, rate of increase
in voltage across the gap (the voltage duration, and so on.
114 3 Insulating Materials and Media Used in High-Voltage Elements …

Fig. 3.11 Dependence of

breakdown voltage on
residual gas pressure for
direct current, with d > 2 cm
(1) and d < 2 cm (2)

The strongest negative influence on the electric strength of vacuum gaps comes
from vapors of organic compounds and active gases, even though their partial pres-
sure are much lower than the pressure of other residual gases and do not exceed
0.01–0.1 μPa. Impurities and active gases especially significantly reduce the long-
term withstand voltage in the presence of dark currents, which facilitate cracking
of hydrocarbon vapor at the surface and the formation of carbon-bearing film. For
voltage pulses, their influence is much weaker.
For large interelectrode gap lengths at 10−1 –1 Pa, the electric strength for dc
voltage and pulses of tens of microseconds or longer is greater than for higher vacuum,
Fig. 3.11.
This excess can vary from several percent to double the electric strength as a
function of the degree of evacuation, gap parameters, applied voltage, and electrodes
material. For voltage pulses shorter than 1 μs, the residual gas pressure has essen-
tially no effect on the breakdown voltage. Much attention has been paid to investiga-
tions into the dynamics of gas layer formation near electrodes and surface of design
elements, and its effect on the electric strength of vacuum-insulated systems.
The electrical strength of the vacuum gap is largely affected by the material of
the anode, primarily its refractoriness. For example, the electrical strength increases
when the material of the electrodes is replaced in the following sequence: copper,
iron, tungsten. High purity metals or alloys must be used in vacuum circuit breakers.
As the distance between the electrodes increases, the average breakdown strength
decreases, as in the case of other dielectric materials and media, due to the distortion
of the macroscopic field and the field near microinhomogeneities on the surface of
the electrodes.
In installations with vacuum insulation, as well as with gas insulation, the electrical
strength of the gap is very often determined by the discharge voltage on the surface
of solid insulators, which are used to fasten various components of the installation.
To increase and stabilize the discharge voltage on the surface of a solid dielectric,
a training is carried out, which is an exposure of the gap under voltage. Vacuum
insulation is mainly used in electrophysical equipment (accelerators, space engines,
electrostatic separators, etc.). In electric power systems, it is used in 20–50 kV capac-
itors, switches, vacuum arresters and relays. The use of vacuum insulation in switches
is of interest due to the rapid restoration of the electrical strength of the gap after
References 115

a breakdown ( 10–3 –10–4 s); the use of vacuum insulation in spark relays makes it
possible to obtain good timing—the instability of the operation time is less than 10 ns.
The disadvantage of vacuum insulation is the design and technological difficulties
of retention in a high vacuum apparatus.

Questions and Tasks

1. What are the three main groups of causes of premature failure of high-voltage
equipment.
2. List the factors that affect the equipment and cause it to age and fail.
3. Which kinds of circumstances could cause equipment failure?
4. Formulate requirements to high voltage insulation.
5. Which are the most important characteristics of insulating materials and media?
6. Which are the main requirements of the insulating materials used for power
apparatus?
7. Which are the characteristic of organic insulating materials?
8. Which are the main insulating properties of polythene?
9. Call the reasons, which make a polythene main prospect insulation of high
voltage cables?
10. Which are main features of epoxy resins?
11. Explain, which are good quality properties of mica?
12. Name the main parameters of transformer oil and their numerical values.
13. What are the main barriers to the wider use of ester fluids as high voltage
insulating media?
14. Explain, general properties of vacuum as isolation?
15. Formulate main law, which is responsible for electrical strength of gas
insulation.

References

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able and environmental-friendly insulation systems for high voltages applications. Molecules
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2. Fofana I (2013) 50 years in the development to insulating liquids. IEEE Electr Insul Mag
29(5):13–25
3. CIRGE Brochure 436 (2010) Experiences in service with new insulating liquids. Working
Group A2.35, p 95
4. Lyutikova M, Korobeinikov S, Vohan Rao U, Fofana I (2022) Mixed insulating liquids with
mineral oil for high voltage transformer applications: a review. IEEE Trans Dielectr Insul
29(2):1–10. Paper number TDEI – 9938-2022
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5. Ushakov VYa, Klimkin VF, Korobeynikov SM (2007) Impulse breakdown of liquids (ed:
Ushakov VYa). Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidrlberg, p 397
6. Ushakov VYa (2004) Insulation of high-voltage equipment. Springer, Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
p 422
7. Beyer M, Boeck W, Moller K, Zaengl W (1986) Hochspannungstechnik. Springer Verlag,
Theoretische und Praktische Grundlagen
8. Bogatenkov IM, Bocharov YN, Gumerova NI, et al (2003) High voltage engineering: textbook
for universities (ed: Kuchinsky GS). St. Petersburg: Energoatomizdat. St. Petersburg Branch,
p 608 (in Russian)
9. Ushakov VYA (1988) Electrical aging and resource of monolithic polymer insulation.
Energoatomizdat, Moscow, p 152 (in Russian)
10. Warne DF (2005) Newnes electrical power engineers’s handbook. 2nd edn. Linarce House,
Burlington, Amsterdam, p 477
11. Fink DG, Beaty HW (2006) Standard handbook for electrical engineers, 15th edn. McGraw-Hill
12. Wadhwa CL (2007) High voltage engineering, 2nd edn. New Age International Publishers, p
312
13. Arakelian VG, Fofana I (2007) Water in oil-filled high-voltage equipment part I: states,
solubility and equilibrium in insulating materials. IEEE Electr Insul Mag 6(4): 15–27
14. Heathcote MJ (2007) Basic materials. In: J and P transformer book—a practical technology of
the power transformer, 13th Edn. Elsevier