Chapter 4
Effects on Equipment Causing Insulation
Aging and Failure
Abstract This chapter considers the influence on high-voltage equipment (primarily
on its insulation) of the main factors that cause its aging and failure. All factors are
divided into two groups. The first group includes factors that are constantly acting or
easily predictable, the second—those that can be attributed to the consequences of
force majeure. The materials of this chapter will allow students to understand what
factors and what consequences of their impact are objects of control and diagnostics
of power equipment, as well as measures that need to be taken to prevent them or
reduce their negative consequences.
4.1 Effects of Electrical Voltage
Numerous causes of premature failure of high-voltage equipment can be combined
(rather conditionally) into three groups:
1. natural aging of equipment elements, primarily insulating materials and struc-
tures, due to the influence of a number of predictable (expected) factors
(4.1–4.6),
2. violation of the normal operation of the equipment or its complete failure under
the influence of force majeure (unpredictable or difficult to predict) factors (4.7),
3. violation of technological standards by the manufacturer, causing the release of
products with defects that were not detected in the process of acceptance tests
(see Chapter 5).
It will not be a big exaggeration to say that insulating materials and media play
a crucial role in ensuring the reliability of high-voltage equipment and determine
its technical and economic performance. Ensuring the requirements for insulation
predetermines the concept of its implementation, the design and shape of a particular
insulating device, as well as the substance used. When performing (implementing)
technical isolation, it is rarely possible to find an optimal solution from all points
of view. Therefore, it is often necessary to make trade-offs that ensure the correct
operation and the required lifetime of the equipment with the most economical
solution.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 117
V. Y. Ushakov et al., High-Voltage Equipment of Power Systems, Power Systems,
[Link]
118 4 Effects on Equipment Causing Insulation Aging and Failure
Electrical insulation is a medium or a material which, when placed between
conductors at different potentials, permits only a small or negligible current in phase
with the applied voltage to flow through it. The term dielectric is almost synonymous
with electrical insulation, which can be considered the applied dielectric. A perfect
dielectric passes no conduction current but only capacitive charging current between
conductors. Only a vacuum at low stresses between uncontaminated metal surfaces
satisfies this condition.
The range of resistivity of substances which can be considered insulators is from
greater than 1020 Ω*cm downward to the vicinity of 106 Ω*cm, depending on the
application and voltage stress. There is no sharp boundary defined between low-
resistance insulators and semiconductors. If the voltage stress is low and there is
little concern about the level of current flow (other than that which would heat and
destroy the insulation), relatively low-resistance insulation can be tolerated.
The ability of fluid insulating materials (liquids and gases) to remove heat from
current-carrying parts to the environment is very important for the normal operation
of many types of high-voltage equipment [1].
In applying an insulating material, it is necessary to consider not only the electrical
requirements but also the mechanical and environmental conditions of the applica-
tion. Mechanical failure often leads to electrical failure, and mechanical failure is
frequently the primary cause for failure of an aged insulation.
The initial properties of insulation are frequently more than adequate for the appli-
cation, but the effects of aging and environment may degrade the insulation rapidly to
the point of failure. Thus, the thermal and environmental stability should be consid-
ered of equal importance. The effects of moisture and surface dirt contamination
should be particularly considered, if these are likely to occur.
While describing the dielectric and other properties of various insulating mate-
rials, the following paragraphs also mention their use in various electrical devices.
However, the reverse process is also desirable, that is, which insulating materials
are used for a particular apparatus, depending on its nominal characteristics and the
environmental conditions in which the apparatus must operate. In this aspect, the
problem of isolation was briefly discussed in Chapter 3.
The operating conditions of electrical insulation are determined primarily by the
acting voltages, characterized by amplitude, duration, shape. There are three groups
of acting voltages: (1) operating voltage, (2) internal (switching) surges, (3) atmo-
spheric (lightning) surges. (Characteristics of internal and atmospheric surges will
be brief discussed in Sect. 12.2).
The operating voltage acts on the insulation for the entire lifetime of the high
voltage structure (typically 20–30 years). The value of this voltage is set by regulatory
documents (in the USSR and Russia—by the corresponding GOSTs) in the form of
a rated voltage of the electrical network and may differ from the latter, depending
on the transmission mode, up or down. This deviation decreases as the voltage class
increases and is 20% for the equipment class 3–10 kV, 15% for 15–220 kV, 10% for
330 kV, 5% for 500–750 kV.
At the same time, processes that worsen its electrical and mechanical character-
istics should not be observed in the insulation of new (not working) equipment.
4.4 Atmospheric Influences 119
In case of violation of the normal mode of operation of power transmission lines
(a sharp increase in voltage), as well as a deterioration in the properties of insulation,
due to changes in environmental conditions (especially important for the insulation of
overhead transmission lines and open substations), undesirable phenomena such as
corona, sliding (surface) discharges, partial discharges, trees (in polymer insulation),
reducing the reliability and durability of high-voltage installations.
4.2 Mechanical Effects
Mechanical forces in the elements of high-voltage equipment occur both during
normal operation (forces during scheduled switching, electrodynamic forces between
conductors of different phases, wind and ice loads, etc.), and in emergency
modes (increased electrodynamic forces between current-carrying parts during short
circuits). The significantly lower mechanical strength of insulating parts and struc-
tures compared to metal ones causes a greater danger of mechanical impacts on
them.
4.3 Thermal Effects
Thermal loads in the insulation arise due to the heat released in the current-carrying
parts during the long-term flow of the rated current, as well as due to dielectric losses
in the insulation when exposed to an electric field.
When short-circuit currents flow in emergency mode, the insulation experiences
a short-term overheating, the so-called “thermal shock”.
For example, when a transformer becomes hot, the insulation on the windings
slowly breaks down and becomes brittle over time. The rate of thermal breakdown
approximately doubles for every 10 °C. 10 °C is referred to as the Montsinger Factor
and is a rule describing the Arrhenius theory of electrolytic dissociation (V. M.
Montsinger [1930] formulated the main relationships between winding temperature,
load and service life of power transformers).
4.4 Atmospheric Influences
When used outdoors, the insulation is exposed to rain, fog, dew, snow, ice, natural
and man-made pollution, fluctuations in temperature and pressure, etc. As a rule, all
these effects lead to a decrease in the dielectric strength of the insulation, and the
appearance of additional mechanical loads.
120 4 Effects on Equipment Causing Insulation Aging and Failure
4.5 Time Factor
Over time, even under normal operating conditions, the dielectric and mechanical
properties of the insulation gradually deteriorate, and the “aging” of the insulation
occurs. At the same time, a combination of various unfavorable factors has a great
influence on the rate of “aging”.
4.6 Exposure to Aggressive Media
During the operation of high-voltage equipment, aggressive gases and liquids can
affect its insulation, leading to deterioration of its properties and premature failure.
When choosing insulation for this equipment, it must be taken into account that
the negative factors listed above can act in various combinations and further worsen
the electrical, mechanical and thermal properties of the insulation.
In some cases, when choosing dielectric materials and designing insulation, it is
necessary to take into account the specific conditions of its operation. For example,
when operating equipment in the tropics, insulation is affected by high humidity,
temperature, solar radiation, as well as microorganisms and animals.
4.7 Force Majeure Factors Causing Equipment Failure
To get a clearer picture of the reliability problems of the power system, it is necessary
to know the causes of faults and failures its main elements, which manifest themselves
in force majeure circumstances. Let us briefly consider the impact of such factors on
(a) underground cable lines, (b) transformers and (c) overhead transmission lines.
These factors usually include the following:
1. Earthworks
2. Lightning
3. Tree Contact
4. Birds
5. Squirrels
6. Snakes
7. Insects
8. Bears, Bison, and Cattle
9. Mice, Rats, and Gophers
10. Vandalism
The influence of these factors is different for the three main elements of the
energy system named above. Most of them are especially dangerous for overhead
transmission lines. The first one applies only to cable lines.
4.7 Force Majeure Factors Causing Equipment Failure 121
1. Earthworks
a. Underground cable lines
The major reliability concern for underground cable are earthworks/diging-in
(factor 1). This is when earthmoving equipment cuts one or more cables. To prevent
excavation, utilities should encourage contractors to identify cable routes before
excavation begins. In extreme cases where high reliability is required, utilities can
place cable in concrete-encased duct banks.
Treeing in insulation and defects by joints and terminations are important reasons
for reducing the reliability of underground cable lines. They can hardly be attributed
to force majeure circumstances.
A major reliability concern pertaining to underground cables is electrochem-
ical treeing. Treeing occurs when moisture penetration in the presence of an electric
field reduces the dielectric strength of cable insulation. When the dielectric strength is
degraded sufficiently, transients caused by lightning or switching can result in dielec-
tric breakdown. Electrochemical treeing usually affects extruded dielectric cable
such as cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR),
and is largely attributed to insulation impurities and bad manufacturing. Typical
underground cable fault is shown on Fig. 4.1.
Not all underground cable system failures are due to cable insulation. A significant
percentage is accounted for by joints and terminations. The main reasons are related
to water ingress and poor workmanship. Heat-shrinkable coatings can be used to
waterproof these joints and improve reliability.
b. Transformers
Short circuits cause extreme physical stress on transformer windings and are a
major cause of transformer failure. Overloads rarely result in transformer failures,
but do cause thermal aging of winding insulation. When a transformer becomes
Fig. 4.1 Underground cable fault
122 4 Effects on Equipment Causing Insulation Aging and Failure
hot, the insulation on the windings slowly breaks down and becomes brittle over
time. The rate of thermal breakdown approximately doubles for every 10 °C. Every
10 °C is referred to as the “Montsinger Factor” and is a rule of thumb describing the
Arrhenius theory of electrolytic dissociation [2].
Because of this exponential relationship, transformer overloads can result in rapid
transformer aging. When thermal aging has caused insulation to become sufficiently
brittle, the next fault current that passes through the transformer will mechanically
shake the windings, a crack will form in the insulation, and an internal transformer
fault will result.
Extreme hot-spot temperatures in liquid-filled transformers can also result in
failure. This is because the hot spot can cause free bubbles that reduce the dielectric
strength of the liquid. Even if free bubbles are not formed, high temperatures will
increase internal tank pressure and may result in overflow or tank rupture.
Many transformers are fitted with load tap changers (LTCs) for voltage regulation.
These mechanically moving devices have historically been prone to failure and can
substantially reduce the reliability of a transformer. Manufacturers have addressed
this problem and new LTC models using vacuum technology have succeeded in
reducing failure rates.
c. Overhead Transmission Lines
Overhead transmission lines (OTL) are the most vulnerable element of the power
system to unpredictable external influences. This is due to their location in open
space and huge size (length, height above the earth’s surface). The vast majority of
the factors listed above that affect the reliability of the power system relate specifically
to overhead lines.
2. Lightning
A lightning strike occurs when the voltage generated between a cloud and the
ground exceeds the dielectric strength of the air. This results in a massive current
stroke that usually exceeds 30,000 amps. To make matters worse most strokes consist
of multiple discharges within a fraction of a second. Lightning is a major reliability
issue for utilities located in areas with high thunderstorm activity. An global map of
thunderstorm activity is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Lightning can affect power systems through direct strikes (the stroke contacts the
power system) or through indirect strikes (the stroke contacts something in close
proximity and induces a traveling voltage wave on the power system). Lightning can
be protected against by:
1. Having a high system basic insulation level,
2. Using shield wires,
3. Using surge arrestors to clamp voltages across equipment,
4. Having a low impedance ground.
Direct strikes are virtually impossible to protect against on a distribution system
(see Sect. 7.2 for more information).
4.7 Force Majeure Factors Causing Equipment Failure 123
Fig. 4.2 Number of thunderstorm days per year
3. Tree Contact
Trees continuously grow, can fall onto conductors, can drop branches onto conduc-
tors, can push conductors together, and can serve as gateway for animals. This is why
many utilities spend more on tree trimming than on any other preventative mainte-
nance activity. When a tree branch bridges two conductors, a fault does not occur
immediately. This is because a moist tree branch has a substantial resistance. A small
current begins to flow and starts to dry out the wood fibers. After several minutes, the
cellulose will carbonize, resistance will be greatly reduced, and a short circuit will
occur. Branches brushing against a single-phase conductor typically do not result in
system faults. Tree distances from overhead lines is shown on Fig. 4.3.
Faults due to tree contact can be reduced by using wire with an insulated jacket
similar to cable. Thise wire can be effective, but faults tend to result in conductor
burndown since they will not motor (move themselves along the conductor) like
faults on bare conductor.
4. Birds
Birds are the most common cause of animal faults on both transmission systems
and air insulated substations. Different types of birds cause different types of prob-
lems, but they can generally be classified as nesting birds, roosting birds, raptors,
and woodpeckers.
Nesting birds commonly build their homes on transmission towers and in substa-
tions. Nesting materials can cause faults, and bird excrement can contaminate insu-
lators. Nesting birds also attract predators such as raccoons, snakes, and cats. These
predators can be a worse reliability problem than the birds themselves. Process of
Seattle City Light workers remove an osprey bird nest near the Duwamish river that
caused a short circuit is shown on Fig. 4.4.
124 4 Effects on Equipment Causing Insulation Aging and Failure
Fig. 4.3 Tree distances from overhead lines
Fig. 4.4 Seattle City Light
workers remove an osprey
bird nest near the Duwamish
River that caused a short
circuit
Roosting birds use electrical equipment to rest on or to search for prey. They
can be electrocuted by bridging conductors with their wings, and their excrement
can contaminate insulators. To prevent birds from roosting, anti-roosting devices can
4.7 Force Majeure Factors Causing Equipment Failure 125
be placed on attractive sites. For locations that cater to thousands of roosting birds,
more extreme deterrent methods such as pyrotechnics can be used.
Raptors are birds of prey such as eagles, hawks, ospreys, owls, and vultures.
Reliability problems are similar to other roosting and nesting birds, but special
consideration may be required since most raptors are protected by the federal
government.
Woodpeckers peck holes in wood with their beaks as they search for insects.
This does not harm trees (the bark regenerates), but can cause devastating damage
to utility poles This can be prevented by using steel poles, by using repellent, or
by tricking a woodpecker into believing that there is already a resident woodpecker
(woodpeckers are quite territorial).
5. Squirrels
Squirrels are a reliability concern for all overhead distribution systems near
wooded areas. Squirrels will not typically climb utility poles, but will leap onto them
from nearby trees. Problem which could cause by a squirrel is shown on Fig. 4.5.
They cause faults by bridging grounded equipment with phase conductors.
Squirrel problems can be mitigated by cutting down nearby access trees or by
installing animal guards on insulators.
6. Snakes
Snakes are major reliability concerns in both substations and underground
systems. They can squeeze through very small openings, can climb almost anything,
and have the length to easily span phase conductors. Snakes are usually searching
for food (birds in substations and mice in underground systems), and removing the
food supply can often remove the snake problem. Special “snake fences” are also
available.
Fig. 4.5 A squirrel chewed
into a power line in
Trumbull, Connecticut,
where the Nasdaq’s
computer center is located,
shutting down trading for
34 min
126 4 Effects on Equipment Causing Insulation Aging and Failure
Fig. 4.6 Fire ants nesting inside transformer
7. Insects
It is becoming more common for fire ants to build nests in pad mounted equipment.
Fire ants nesting inside transformer are shown on Fig. 4.6.
Their nesting materials can cause short circuits, the ants can eat away at conductor
insulation, and they make equipment maintenance a challenge.
8. Bears, Bison, and Cattle
These large animals do not typically cause short circuits, but degrade the structural
integrity of poles by rubbing on guy wires. Bears can also destroy wooden poles by
using them as scratching posts, and black bears can climb.
9. Mice, Rats, and Gophers
These rodents cause faults by gnawing through the insulation of underground
cable. They are the most common cause of animal-related outages on underground
equipment. To make matters worse, they will attract snakes (also a reliability
problem). Equipment cabinets should be tightly sealed to prevent these small animals
from entering. Ultrasonic devices can also be used to keep rodents away (ultrasonic
devices will not keep snakes away).
10. Vandalism
Vandalism can take many different forms, from people shooting insulators with
rifles to professional thieves stealing conductor wire for scrap metal. Addressing
these reliability problems will vary greatly from situation to situation [3].
Question and Tasks
1. What are the three main groups of causes of premature failure of high-voltage
equipment?
References 127
2. List the factors that affect the equipment and cause it to age and fail.
3. Which kinds of circumstances could cause equipment failure?
4. Formulate the requirements for the electrical strength of high-voltage insulation.
5. Which are the important influences to stable electric energy system work?
6. Which are the main requirements of the insulating materials used for power
apparatus?
7. How snakes and bears could cause electric energy system damage?
8. How squirrels and woodpeckers could cause electric energy system damage?
9. Which result could take place due to fire ants nesting inside transformer?
10. List examples of vandalism in electric power system work.
References
1. Khalyasmaa AI, et al (2015) Diagnostics of electrical equipment of power stations and
substations: textbook. Ural Publishing House, Ekaterinburg, p 64 (in Russian)
2. Hickey RB (2003) Electrical engineer’s portable handbook, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, Publich, p
575
3. Electric systems issues at the turn of the 21st century. CIGRE ELECTRA (Special issue), 2000
Chapter 5
Defects in High Voltage Equipment:
Types and Content of Tests
Abstract The word defect refers to each individual non-compliance of equipment
with regulatory requirements. Defects in equipment can occur at different points in its
life cycle: (1) during manufacture, installation, configuration (identified as a result
of testing), (2) during operation (identified as a result of monitoring), (3) during
testing and repair (identified as a result of diagnosing). They are varied and their
consequences can also be different. This chapter briefly discusses the various stages
of development of these defects and in sufficient detail—the types and methods of
testing for their diagnosis.
5.1 Classification of Defects
It is customary to distinguish the following four main degrees of defect development:
1. There are no defects (the normal condition of the equipment).
2. Defect in the initial stage of development. The presence of such a defect does
not significantly affect the operation of the equipment.
3. Strongly developed defect. The presence of such a defect limits serviceability of
the equipment or shorten its service life.
4. Defect in the emergency stage of development. The presence of such a defect
makes the operation of the equipment unacceptable.
Depending on the degree of development of defects, it is necessary to implement
the following measures to eliminate them:
– replace the equipment, its part or element;
– to repair the equipment or its element, after which conduct an additional survey
to assess the quality of the repair;
– leave the equipment in operation, but strengthen control over its condition;
– carry out other additional tests.
If defects are found and decisions are made regarding the further operation of
the equipment, it is necessary to ensure reliability of information about its condition
obtained by non-destructive testing (NDT). Measurement results may contain errors,
so there is always the possibility of obtaining a false control result:
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 129
V. Y. Ushakov et al., High-Voltage Equipment of Power Systems, Power Systems,
[Link]