This version of ECA Everyday Learning Series title is for use by Goodstart employees only [Reference No.

#1484]

Everyday Learning Series

Volume 14 Number 1 2016

Supporting brain development

An Everyday Learning Series title
Martin Westwell
 This version of ECA Everyday Learning Series title is for use by Goodstart employees only [Reference No. #1484]

Supporting brain development About Early Childhood Australia

An Everyday Learning Series title Early Childhood Australia Inc., formerly known as the
Australian Early Childhood Association, was established in
About the author 1938. Early Childhood Australia works with Government, early
childhood professionals, parents, other carers of young children,
Martin Westwell
and various lobby groups to secure the best range of options and
Martin Westwell is a strategic professor in the Science of Learning at Flinders University in
outcomes for children as they grow and develop.
South Australia. He is a chief investigator in the national ARC Science of Learning Research
Centre and on the steering committee of UNESCO’s Education Research Institutes Acknowledgement of Country
Network in the Asia-Pacific helping provide evidence to support education policy and
practice in the region. Before coming to Australia in 2007, Martin was the Deputy
Early Childhood Australia acknowledges the traditional owners
Director of the Institute for the Future of the Mind at Oxford University looking at how of Country throughout Australia and their continuing connection
modern lifestyles have an impact on the brain and the thinking of the very young and to land and community.
the very old. Martin has collaborated extensively with educators and carers to develop
evidence-informed innovative practices in early years environments. We pay our respects to them and their cultures, and to the
Elders both past and present.

Edition Editor Pam Linke Contact details

Series Editor Jessica Deotto Publishing and Marketing Section
Early Childhood Australia Inc.
Production Supervisor Christopher Jones PO Box 86 Deakin West ACT 2600
Graphic Design Clair McDonald Tel: 02 6242 1800 Fax: 02 6242 1818
Email: publishing@[Link]
Photographer Andrew Sikorski
© Copyright 2016
All rights reserved by Early Childhood Australia Inc.
Material herein must not be reproduced in any form
without the permission of Early Childhood Australia Inc.
ISBN10 1-921162-90-2
ISBN13 978-1-921162-90-9
ISSN 1448-045X
Printed by Lindsay Yates Group, Sydney

Everyday Learning has been printed on environmentally friendly paper

(60% recycled and 40% FSC® sustainable sources).
 This
This version
version of
of ECA
ECA Everyday
Everyday Learning
Learning Series title is for use by Goodstart employees only [Reference No. #1484]

Supporting brain development

An Everyday Learning Series title

Contents
Key terms 3
Introduction5
What the brain needs to be healthy 6
What experience and the environment contribute to brain development 7
Experience and genes—epigenetics 9
Sensitive periods 11
Healthy stress vs toxic stress 13
What we can do to support brain development 14
The need for challenge 19
Neuromyths21
Play24
Conclusion29
Links to the National Quality Standard 30
Links to children’s services competencies 30
References31

1
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About the Everyday Learning Series

The most important early learning happens through day-to-day life experiences, and the Adults provide:
Everyday Learning books are about how parents and educators can make the most of ›› responsive and sensitive care
these experiences.
›› a safe and interesting place to be.
What an exciting responsibility it is to be helping build the foundations for the future of young
Adults follow children’s lead by supporting
children!
their exploration and the things they like
to do.
Babies and young children are learning all What do babies and young children need, to
get the best start for living and learning? There is no set list of things to teach babies
the time.
and young children.
›› The first years of life are the foundation for To learn best they need parents and educators Living is learning and children learn through
all later growth, development and learning. (their first teachers) who: living. All children and babies have their own
›› Every experience counts! Babies and young ›› are warm and caring abilities and interests. Follow the child’s lead.
children are learning all the time, with most ›› know each baby or child very well and Watch and listen; provide opportunities;
learning taking place in relationships. appreciate what is special about them give support; build on each child’s strengths.
›› Research shows that what happens in these ›› take time to understand the child’s Babies and children also come from family
years is the key to: and cultural backgrounds that are part of the
messages (cues) and to respond to them
way they are and these contexts need to be
■■ being able to relate confidently with encouragement, praise, comfort,
included in their experiences.
and effectively with others independence and rest as needed
The Everyday Learning Series is developed
mental and emotional health ›› are able to see, share and celebrate the
■■
for students of early childhood education,
big and small joys and achievements of the
■■ educational success. beginning practitioners and parents. These
children in their care.
books will help you provide the best start
for children in your care.

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Key terms
Brain architecture is the way the brain is constructed through the genetic blueprint and
the effects of experiences. For example, brain cells and the way they work come from the
genetic blueprint, but the way they are connected together comes from how they are used.
Cognition is about thinking. It includes interpreting the world through our senses, producing
language and making decisions. It is how we learn, understand and use our brains to work
out what to do in any situation.
Content focused education puts the main emphasis on what children learn rather than
how they learn, and how they learn to solve problems.
Environment means anything external to the child. This includes the ways in which
adults and other children interact with them, the food they eat, and cigarette smoke. The
environment may also include people and objects that may trigger positive or negative
stressful responses.
Epigenetics is the study of how life experiences and other environmental factors affect how
genes express themselves. An example is how identical twins with the same genes do not
grow up exactly the same.
Genes are the packages of DNA we receive from our parents containing the instructions, or
plan, for how to build and maintain a body and brain.
Genetic blueprint is the arrangement of the particular set of genes that we each have.
Each person’s genetic plan or blueprint provides a personal set of instructions for how to
build and maintain their body and brain. This blueprint also influences behaviour and thinking.
Identical twins are born with identical genetic blueprints.
Hard-wired is a term that people use to suggest an innate ability of a child.

Challenge and stimulation in the environment can help the brain

to develop.

Supporting brain development 3

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Hypothesising is wondering about something; putting

forward an idea. For example, you might hypothesise that
children being disruptive would respond to an activity that
they enjoyed. You would then try this idea and see if it makes
a difference.
Lock-step program is a program that is planned and
delivered the same way for all children, rather than according
to individual strengths and challenges.
Neural processing is how the brain takes in information and
experiences and works with them to make sense of our world.
Neuromyths are beliefs and statements about the brain, and
how it works, that are not correct. They often have a basis in
true science but have been expanded into something that is
not true.
Neuroscience is the study of the brain and the
nervous system.
Representation is when children learn that some things can
represent something else, for example, marks on a paper can
represent words or numbers, words can represent actions and
so on.
Sensory—we have five easily identifiable sensory organs:
skin, eyes, ears, tongue and nose that are associated with the
familiar senses of touch, sight, sound, taste and smell, but we
have many more senses than that, e.g. balance, heat etc.
Stimulus/stimuli are things that provoke a response.
They may be things that are interesting, exciting or
encouraging, or unpleasant or annoying. Interactions with other people are crucial to brain development.

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Introduction
Over the last 20 years or so, cognitive scientists, child development
researchers and adults who work with children have expanded their
understanding of the development of children’s brains and their
minds. Some key ideas have emerged over this period; some that
build on existing research and experiences of parents/carers and
educators, and some that challenge old ideas that now seem to be
built on shaky foundations.

This Everyday Learning Series title gives a brief overview of some of

the major developments in knowledge about the brain. In particular
it looks at the most recent advances and how parents/carers and
educators can make the most of them in supporting young children.

Parents/carers and educators can sometimes be bombarded with

marketing of products that claim to offer brain-based learning or
provide a brain development boost for young children. There is
seldom ever any evidence to back up these claims.

The richest environments to support brain development are those

that contain other people with positive relationships and interactions.
The principles and ideas in this book will likely be most useful when
parents/carers and educators bear them in mind and, in doing so, use
the research evidence to slightly shift the ways in which we interact
with children and create an environment with challenge and support.
Of course, it may well be that nothing changes, but even if this is
the case, the neuroscience evidence might still give us a new way of
The richest environments to support brain development are those that contain positive relationships understanding why what we do works.
and interactions.

Supporting brain development 5

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What the brain needs to be healthy

It may seem obvious but findings from neuroscience consistently The innate ability of almost all mammals to play has an important
reinforce the idea that appropriate sleep, nutrition, hydration and role in brain development. It brings in the interaction with others and
exercise are crucially important for brain development and learning. creates opportunities for challenge and stimulation. Play provides a
That’s not to say that more sleep, nutrients or water will make low-risk environment in which to try out and develop behaviours
children smarter, unless they are lacking in these essentials in the and thinking.
first place. Exercise has long been recognised as an important factor,
but brain research over the last decade or so shows that exercise is
more important than was perhaps understood in the past.

Humans are social animals and have been shaped by evolution to

develop in a social environment. Interactions with other humans
are crucial for brain development, and the ways of connecting with
others may be many and varied. Cuddling, holding, making eye
contact, feeding and oral communication with feeding babies and
children are all ways in which we touch and support their brains
to develop.

Challenge and stimulation also help the brain to develop. What

constitutes healthy challenge will change as a child develops and
will vary from child to child. Constant over-challenge can turn useful
stress into more toxic stress, and under-challenge can contribute to
passivity and low resilience. Similarly, there is evidence that ‘hot-
housing’ (pushing children to learn something through intensive
and repeated activity) and trying to accelerate development with
products and techniques that provide extra stimulation do not work
and may in fact be detrimental to development.
Adequate sleep, nutrition and water help to keep the brain healthy.

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What experience and the environment contribute to brain development

A child’s experiences in the early years combine with their genetic
blueprint to shape the development of their brain.
From birth, each experience has the potential to change the way
in which brain cells are connected together, influencing the thinking,
behaviour and emotional responses of a child. The impact of
future experiences will now depend upon the nature of the new
experience itself and the existing architecture of the child’s brain.
Through this complex interaction between brain development and
a child’s ongoing experiences, every moment of their life contributes
to building their brains. As a result, almost any interaction between
an adult and a child (or a child and a child) could be said to be
brain-based learning.
Babies are born with almost all of the brain cells they will ever have,
except for a few specific regions where new cells are created after
birth. The connections between these brain cells have already been
influenced by the in utero environment including factors such as
nutrition, sounds and exposure to natural and unnatural chemicals
passed from the mother’s bloodstream—many that are beneficial
(e.g. nutrients and prescribed drugs) and some that are potentially
harmful (e.g. alcohol and nicotine).

... almost any interaction between

an adult and a child (or a child
and a child) could be said to be
brain-based learning. From birth, every experience can influence the thinking, behaviour and emotional responses of
a child.

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Soon after birth, there is an explosion in the number of connections

between brain cells. Researchers have estimated that in the first
two years of life, 40 000 new connections are formed per second
(Sandman, Davis, Buss & Glynn, 2011). This mammoth process is so
productive that the number of connections in a young child’s brain
far outnumbers those in an adult’s. Many of their connections will be
cut away later, particularly during adolescence, as the brain becomes
more efficient and keeps the connections that it is using in later life,
while removing the connections from childhood that are no longer
used. This process of ‘pruning’ is as important for development as
forming connections in the first place.

The formation of connections does not occur in a completely

haphazard manner but does so in response to genetic programing
and the nature of the environment and experiences of a child. This
means the brain becomes efficient for the context in which it is living.
This is why the first years are very important because they set up
the foundations for future development. That said, all stages of brain
development are important and this continues into early adulthood.

Researchers have estimated

that in the first two years of life,
40 000 new connections are
formed per second

Connections occur in response to genetic programing and the nature of the environment and
experiences of the child.

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Experience and genes—epigenetics

The development of a child’s brain is influenced by a range of
factors, sometimes categorised as nature (e.g. their individual genetic
makeup) and nurture (e.g. the experiences they have, their nutrition,
etc.). These categories are not independent from one another.
The genes a child has may influence their responses to a particular
experience, or shape their nutritional requirements. As nature may
influence nurture, so the opposite is also true. A child’s environment
can change the way that their genes work. For example, children
who are subject to ongoing stress as part of their environment will
activate a particular set of genes that changes the biochemistry of
their brains. These changes in turn can make children less resilient to
stressful situations, setting up a self-reinforcing loop between nature
and nurture, adding to the child’s stress and making them more
easily stressed. The impact on the way that genes are activated (or
suppressed) by environmental factors is an area of scientific research
called epigenetics.

Many factors in the environment can change the way in which genes
are activated in children including nutrients such as vitamins, fats and
carbohydrates. It is a natural process in the body. It is also one of the
ways in which alcohol, cigarette smoke and other drugs can have an
effect on a child’s body and brain.

Everything that a child experiences has the potential to influence not just their actions and behaviour,
but also their development.

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Epigenetic changes to a child’s genes can occur during pregnancy

and throughout life. These changes can influence, for example,
brain development, the ability of a child to connect with the
mother, susceptibility to disease and the immune system. While
some epigenetic changes can be difficult to change, and some
may even be passed on from one generation to the next, they are
potentially reversible.

In child development, findings from epigenetics serve to emphasise

the need to provide children with a high-quality environment in
which to learn and develop. It reinforces the point that everything
that a child experiences has the potential to influence not just their
actions and behaviours, but also their development and the way in
which they use their genetic blueprint.

On the whole, quality environments with appropriate nutrition,

appropriate interactions between children and adults, and protection
from harmful factors such as (cigarette) smoke and other drugs
will support the activation of genes that lead to healthy outcomes.
For those children for whom the environment has made epigenetic
changes that may have a negative impact on their development, the
reversibility of these changes provides parents/carers and educators
with the opportunity to make a difference with the environments
and experiences they create.

There is a need to provide children with high-quality environments in which to learn and develop.

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Sensitive periods
The genetic plan means that children’s brains develop at roughly the same pace, within a
range of individual differences. The capacities that are created by this brain development
such as vision, language and memory also generally follow a predictable order and
timescale. While there can be a wide range of individual differences in how the genetic plan
unfolds, there remains an underlying plan. What if this plan gets disrupted though?

In the 1960s, Nobel-Prize winning research was undertaken at Harvard University to ask
what would occur in animals if their plan to develop the ability to see at a particular time
was thwarted.

For example, newborn cats had one eye covered over and when it was uncovered three
months later this eye was almost completely blind. The brain had received little information
from this eye and had formed very few connections between nerve cells. The un-deprived
eye had developed normally with many connections to the brain. For the covered eye,
even after months of being uncovered, it remained blind. Importantly, this effect was found
to be only in newborn cats. Fully grown cats visually deprived in the same way showed no
such effects.

Research like this has been used to argue that such profound impacts, unique to early
years experiences, mean that certain experiences must occur by a certain age or the brain
will not develop properly. This is not the case. Even in the cats, having the eye covered for
shorter periods made more recovery possible, and with a targeted intervention (training
the deprived eye) some vision could be developed.

Early years experiences are important building blocks for future

learning and development.

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There are steps in the development plan that should take place at certain ‘sensitive periods’,
Early years experiences are genuinely and
but they are not rigid and inflexible, nor can they be pinned down to an individual’s specific
undoubtedly the most important building
age in terms of weeks and months.
blocks for later learning and development,
Sensitive periods used to be thought of as windows that close. That is, if a certain aspect of but current research is uncovering even
development and learning did not occur by a certain age then it becomes ‘unlearnable’. This more ways to help children who have had
idea led to the ‘myth of three’ (Howard-Jones, 2014) which suggests that the time from birth a tough start. Children who do not have a
to three years of age is a critical period in which most brain development takes place and rich early years experience can still benefit
will, in turn, fix the direction and extent of future development. enormously from educational investment.
They may need more effort and support but
it is usually worth it because of the dynamic
nature of the developing brain.

The early years lay solid foundations, but it is

not all-or-nothing. Human brains can, and do,
change and learn throughout life.

[Developmental]
‘sensitive periods’
... are not rigid
and inflexible,
nor can they be
pinned down to
an individual's
specific age ...
Play provides opportunities for rich early years experiences.

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Healthy stress vs toxic stress

When a child experiences something thrilling or challenging, their Toxic stress can disrupt brain development, impair cognition and
stress response results in an increase in heart rate and natural stress make children more susceptible to the effects of some diseases
hormones to be released into their body. This is a healthy response including heart disease, substance abuse and depression later on in
to an immediate and short-term challenge, ‘such as the first day life. Appropriate relationships and support from adults can prevent,
with a new caregiver or receiving an immunization injection’ reduce or even reverse some of the effects of toxic stress.
(Harvard University Center on the Developing Child, 2015b).

When difficulties persist over a longer period of time, ‘such as the

loss of a loved one, natural disaster or a frightening injury’ (Harvard
University Center on the Developing Child, 2015b), stress may
influence children’s behaviour. The body’s stress response is active
over a longer period of time and has an influence on the brain and
systems throughout the body. This stress is tolerable if it’s time-
limited and can be ameliorated by the relationships and actions of
adults who can support the children and help them to learn to deal
with the stress.

Toxic stress is a response to very strong, frequent or ongoing

challenge ‘such as physical or emotional abuse, chronic neglect,
caregiver substance abuse or mental illness, exposure to violence,
or the accumulated burdens of family economic hardship—without
adequate adult support’ (Harvard University Center on the
Developing Child, 2015b).

Support from caring adults helps children deal with stress.

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What we can do to support brain development

So how can parents/carers and educators best use the enormous
amount of research on brain development to make decisions
concerning children’s development and learning?

A word of caution
There are many products, methods and approaches that say they
are brain-based and claim to be consistent with neuroscience
research. At one level this must be true of all of them; any
experience has the potential to influence the brain. At another
level, very few products or pre-packed methods and approaches
have been developed from an understanding of children’s
brain development.

What children need is a normal environment. Everyday

stimulation from sounds, sights, objects to touch and manipulate,
and personal interactions are sufficient. No special, intensive
stimuli are required at a particular developmental stage.

What is particularly important in the case of human infants is

interaction with other human beings, including language and
communication (Blakemore & Frith, 2005).

For brain development, children need everyday stimulation from sounds, sights, objects to touch and
manipulate, and personal interactions.

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What is important to support children’s brain

development?
Research findings suggest that children’s learning and wellbeing
require attention to be paid to the specific needs and characteristics
of the children, the type of intervention and the timing (Howard-
Jones, 2014). Children do best with the intentional creation of
environments and experiences that are based on knowledge and
understanding of each child. Experiences that appropriately stimulate,
challenge and stretch are more important than any lock-step
program.

In neuroscience research, it is common to observe that a greater

number of brain regions are required at younger ages than older
ages to successfully complete the same task (Brown & Jernigan,
2012). This suggests that young children bring all (or at least more)
of their cognitive faculties to bear to every task or experience
compared to the more streamlined, controlled approach that they
will adopt later in life. As children grow older their brains become
more efficient and adapted to the environment. Children in their
early years do not think about things in simple ways, they bring
an enormous range of beginning skills to everything they do (e.g.
Rinaldi, 2013). Working intentionally and responsively with the
opportunities created by everyday interactions helps children to
build on competences.

More important than any lock-step program are experiences that appropriately stimulate, challenge
and stretch.

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The importance of relationships

The adult’s relationship and understanding
of the child, along with their view of how
the genetic plan will generally unfold (e.g.
through the outcomes expressed in the Early
Years Learning Framework [EYLF]) (DEEWR,
2009), will give them an insight into the way
in which each sensitive period unfolds for
each child.

Researchers who look at the impact of

maternal sensitivity analyse the extent
to which the mother recognises and
appropriately responds to their child’s signals
and behaviours. Longitudinal studies that
have followed babies through childhood
to adulthood have shown that the level
of maternal sensitivity a baby experiences
correlates with adult behaviours in situations
as complex as conflict resolution with Secure relationships are crucial to children's ability to develop confidence, resilience and to want to explore.
romantic partners (Raby et al., 2015).

Secure attachments with one or more Longitudinal studies ... have shown that the
primary caregivers are crucial to
children’s ability to make the most of their level of maternal sensitivity a baby experiences
opportunities to develop confidence, correlates with adult behaviours in situations
resilience and the disposition to want to take
risks, learn and explore. as complex as conflict resolution with
romantic partners.
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Serve and return The idea of ‘serve and return’ can be a useful shorthand way of saying how caregivers can
intentionally and strategically create environments for children through their interactions.
After reviewing the neuroscience research
and the practice of adults who work with
young children, the Harvard University
Center on the Developing Child (http://
[Link]) has placed a
focus on the idea of ‘serve and return’. This
is a critical part of developing responsive,
encouraging relationships.

The interactive influence of genes and

experience shape the developing brain.
Scientists now know a major ingredient in
this developmental process is the ‘serve
and return’ relationship between children
and their parents or other caregivers in
the family or community. Young children
naturally reach out through interaction
through babbling, facial expressions, and
gestures, and adults respond with the same
kind of vocalizing and gesturing back to
them. In the absence of such responses—
or if the responses are unreliable or
inappropriate—the brain’s architecture
does not form as expected, which can lead
to [difficulties] in learning and behaviour
(Harvard University Center on the
Developing Child, 2015a).
Young children naturally reach out through interaction including babbling, facial expressions and gestures.

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In the first year or so of life, the ‘serve’ might

be the child’s babbling, facial expressions
and gestures. The ‘return’ is the encouraging
response from the adult. The child might
respond again, setting up the ‘rally’ of
action and response—a truly interactive
experience.

As development continues, the ‘serve and

return’ remains important, but in different
ways. A child will hear new words and try
out their extended vocabulary on adults (the
serve); we might respond to say how well
they have used that word and provide a bit
of guidance (the return, e.g. if a child serves
the word ‘mouses’, an adult might return the
word ‘mice’ while still recognising that they
have appropriately generalised and applied a
Children hear new words and will try out their extended vocabulary on adults.
rule of grammar).
As cognition further develops, the serve might be testing some of the boundaries of
acceptable behaviour in a particular situation and, in providing the return, the adult recognises
When the children that the child’s behaviour is expressing a developmental need, and should not be regarded as
bad behaviour.
provide the serve,
The idea of the ‘serve and return’ has future implications for parents/caregivers and
the nature of the educators. Ensuring that children have the opportunity—and the encouragement to take the
return shapes the opportunity—to try out a new word, a new skill or a new way of thinking may become part
of the adult’s intention when working with children.
child’s experience
When the children provide the serve, the nature of the return shapes the child’s experience
of the interaction. of the interaction.

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The need for challenge

Challenge is an important part of a child’s For some children they might create the challenge for themselves and readily step into it. For
development. It helps them to develop others, they might need support to do so. The opportunity to collaborate has been shown
emotional regulation and can assist with the to increase the motivation of children in the early years to take on challenging tasks (Butler
management of healthy stress. Challenge & Walton, 2013). Again, the judgement of the adult in creating activities with different types
creates opportunities for active thinking of challenge and different levels of collaboration with peers helps to achieve the intentional
engagement rather than a passive ‘going with development of the child.
the flow’ and sticking with familiar activities
and familiar children. Challenges require
children to take control of their thinking and
actions to some extent, which will start to
make demands of areas of the brain used
in reasoned decision making such as the
prefrontal cortex.

Cognitive skills often develop best when

there is a combination of wellbeing and
challenge. That does not mean pushing
them into academic learning (such as formal
literacy and numeracy skills) too early.
Such ‘hot-housing’ is likely to have no or
little benefit and may even be detrimental
(Blakemore & Frith, 2005).

For children to develop a range of skills and

processes such as problem solving, inquiry
experimentation, hypothesising, researching
and investigating, they must be challenged
to do so. The opportunity to collaborate has been shown to increase motivation.

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Most gains in the development of cognitive skills such as holding

onto impulses, bearing an idea or instruction in mind, thinking of an
alternative behaviour etc., are made when children are frequently
given the opportunity to practise using the skills. It is also important
that they experience continually increasing challenge. Without
challenge, the intent to help the child to develop can be lost as they
go through familiar and favourite activities over and over without
growing their cognitive skills. However, with too much challenge, the
tasks become too difficult and children will disengage.

The experience and expertise of the caregiver and their

understanding of the children with whom they are working with is
crucially important here. A child with many of the solid foundations
of wellbeing in place is more likely to respond to increasing challenge.

However, a child with shakier foundations will likely have a lower

threshold where appropriate challenge starts to become threatening
or overwhelming. This will be different from one child to another, and
from day to day, and it is likely that those adults closest to the child
will be best able to respond and adjust the appropriately high level of
challenge needed.

It is also important to note that children with the lowest level of

cognitive skills often have the most to gain from the opportunities to
practise and be challenged by the caregiver. This is particularly true
for the skills in problem solving, planning and managing feelings.

Young children need support to manage feelings.

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Neuromyths
As our understanding of the brain and its development has improved, some old ideas are Children should be taught
seen to need changing and some new misinterpretations of the research evidence emerge.
according to their learning
styles
When school teachers in the United
Kingdom and the Netherlands were
surveyed (Dekker, Lee, Howard-Jones &
Jolles, 2012) they were found to hold a
number of neuromyths, most commonly:

1. Individuals learn better when they receive

information in their preferred learning
style (e.g. auditory, visual, kinesthetic) with
93 per cent of UK educators and 96 per
cent of Dutch educators agreeing with
this statement (ibid., Table 1).

2. Differences in hemisphere dominance

(left brain, right brain) can help explain
individual difference among learners (91
per cent UK; 86 per cent Netherlands)
(ibid., Table 1).

Each of these statements is contrary to the

evidence from the brain sciences.

It is important to give children opportunities to try new things.

Supporting brain development 21

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Everyone has preferences and it would be natural for a child to say

they ‘prefer to build with blocks’ (kinesthetic activity) rather than
‘listen to a story’ (auditory activity). The danger with the idea of
preferred learning styles is that it suggests a response that we should
accept that the child is a so-called kinesthetic learner and leave them
with the blocks or find other ways to respond to this preference.
An educator who is looking at the overall development of the child
might one day leave the child with the blocks, but if this same activity
continues over a number of days the educator would consider other
ways to engage and challenge the child’s thinking to develop their
skills, as say, an active listener.

Similarly, the idea that there are creative right-brain thinkers and
analytical left-brain thinkers is quite persuasive and used widely in
education, advertising and business. Evidence from neuroscience
shows us that each person uses almost all of their brain, all the time.
It is true that when undertaking particular tasks, one part of the
brain (maybe located either on the left or right side of the brain)
becomes more active, but many different parts of the brain will be
active during the task as well.

These two neuromyths are similar in that they each inappropriately

simplify our knowledge about children’s thinking. Putting them in a
box of ‘this kind of thinker’ or ‘that kind of thinker’ promotes simplistic
responses and the adoption of narrow programs.

Responsive interpersonal interaction, the formation of strong

relationships and parents/carers and educators’ intentional provision
of careful and responsive challenges is much more in line with the
research evidence than these ‘neuromyths’.
Each person uses almost all of their brain all the time, whatever they are doing.

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Stimulating environments
improve young children’s brains
In the survey of teachers, 95 per cent of
UK educators thought that the following
statement was true (compared to 56 per
cent in the Netherlands): ‘Environments that
are rich in stimulus improve the brains of
pre-school children’ (Dekker et al., 2012).

This is another simplification that does not

stand up to scrutiny; having many stimulus
items (whether it be wall displays, toys or
activities) available for children does not
in itself improve the brains of children. If
these stimuli are provided without purpose An educator who wants to encourage dramatic play may provide interesting costumes and props.

they may constitute over-stimulation. For

example, if a caregiver wants to help a child It is the purposeful and intentional use of the
to get better at directing and sustaining
their attention, then having many alternative environment by caregivers that is most likely to
stimuli in the room that draws their attention support the brain development of children.
away may be too challenging. Indeed, the
level of decoration in a room can negatively Appropriate stimuli in an environment will depend on the intent of the caregiver. For
affect children’s performance on a task example, sometimes they may want to work with children in a comfortable area with
(Fisher, Godwin & Seltman, 2014). That is few stimuli, sometimes they will want to ensure more sensory input, and sometimes they
not to say that all wall decorations should will want to support the child to think about how they themselves would choose an
be torn down; that would be a swing of the environment in which to play.
pendulum to an over-simplification in the
It is the purposeful and intentional use of the environment by caregivers that is most likely to
opposite direction.
support the brain development of children.

Supporting brain development 23

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Play
Neuroscientists who work with lab animals
have noted that the brains of laboratory rats
kept in cages with or without toys show a
marked difference. The brain cells of those
animals kept in a cage with just bedding, food
and water show fewer connections made
to other brain cells than the rats kept in an
‘enriched’ environment with numerous toys
that are changed frequently.

Here we see the direct impact of both a

stimulating environment and play in the
brains of the animals. However, the ‘enriched’
environment described in these experiments
is actually much more like the normal
environment that a rat would experience in
the wild with lots to explore and discover.
On the other hand the ‘normal’ laboratory
environment actually looks like a deprived
environment with a low level of stimulation.

Human play is an activity within which skills can be practised and developed.

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Of course, children’s brains are not exactly

the same as rat brains, but without stimulation
they are likely to suffer from the same poorly
interconnected brain cells. In all highly social
mammals the ‘normal’ environment for brain
development is dominated by interpersonal
interactions (including language development
for humans) and play.

There is an enormous body of literature and

research findings about play and its importance.
Play-based learning and ‘playful learning’ have
become common and are often regarded as
good practice (Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Berk &
Singer, 2009). In such a complex area as child
development and education it is unlikely that
such a thing as ‘best practice’ can exist. Good
practice is likely to be a more accurate term.

It seems obvious that ‘When we watch children

play it seems like a very important activity’
(Lillard et al., 2013, p. 1), but how is play good
practice from a brain development perspective?

Human play is an activity within which skills can

be practised and developed, social connections
can be formed, and behaviours tested
and developed.

The 'normal' environment for brain development is dominated by interpersonal interactions and play.

Supporting brain development 25

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Advantages of play
There are many evolutionary advantages of play that exist across a
number of animal species.
™™ At one level, play helps to burn off excess energy.

™™ At a second level, play helps maintain physical fitness, perceptual

and motor coordination, neural processing and behavioural
flexibility (outside of the everyday routines).
™™ At a third level, play has a role in neural and behavioural
development, provides resources for creativity, social development
and the reorganisation of patterns of behaviour.
™™ Play also helps in the development of ways of interacting with the
world including thinking and making links with other experiences,
in addition to the initial physical interactions of moving the body
and manipulating objects in the environment (Burghardt, 2005).

This list of advantages and purposes for play aligns well with the
findings from research in neuroscience on development and learning.
For example, the definition of animal play highlighted the importance
of a low stress setting. The undermining effect of anxiety on children’s
learning is well known (particularly with anxiety about mathematics).

The content of the curriculum is

a vehicle for developing the skills
involved in play, for example, trying
out new things. Play can help children to make links with other experiences.

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The actions of the educator, and the behaviours and dispositions that
are modelled to children, can help to reduce anxiety and improve the
quality of play and learning.

However, researchers have noted that in some parts of the world

when early years curricula (and testing) have been introduced,
the activities and experiences that educators plan start to focus
on content rather than developing strong processes of play. Going
further they note that ‘an unfortunate recent trend is the growing
prevalence of preschool curricula and testing materials that are
oriented solely toward content-focused education, particularly in
reading and math’ (Miller & Almon, 2009; Weisberg, Hirsh-Pasek &
Golinkoff, 2013).

In Australia, the EYLF provides an antidote to such approaches.

That is not to say that the development of literacy and numeracy
is ignored but that it is incorporated in a much more sophisticated
and strategic way. For example, the EYLF highlights evidence of
development when a child ‘creates and uses representation to
organise, record and communicate mathematical ideas and concepts’
(DEEWR, 2009, p. 35).

Importantly, providing opportunities for children to express their

mathematical thinking in this way is not driven by content but as part
of the strategic intent. The content is valuable in its own right but is
even more valuable as a vehicle to develop children’s skills to create
and use forms of representation in their communication. The content
of the curriculum is a vehicle for developing the skills involved in play,
for example, trying out new things.
Through drawing, a child can create and use representation in play.

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The EYLF protects against the extremes Increasingly it is being recognised that the characteristics of play have an important role in
of content-instruction and play just for adults’ development of, for example, scientific thinking.
play’s sake, with the actions of adults and
children framed in terms of strategic The hands-on, child driven educational methods sometimes referred to as ‘playful learning’ are
objectives and outcomes. Some of the the most positive means yet known to help young people’s development (Hirsh-Pasek et al.,
principles of development and learning 2009; Lillard et al., 2013).
from neuroscience and related cognitive
sciences are better reflected in ‘guided play’,
‘playful pedagogies’ or ‘playful being’. These
phrases reflect play-based learning in that
they prompt adults to use the power of
play to challenge and purposefully meet the
development needs of children. For example,
educators might challenge children to think
about how they might play in a different way
or develop an idea further.

Intentional teaching involves knowing when

children are finding their own challenges in
play, when they will benefit from educators’
challenges and when they need support or
encouragement to respond to a challenge.

Perhaps ask the children about what they are planning to do next.

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Conclusion
The brain development of a child and the
growth in their cognitive skills occurs to a
large part in response to their experiences
and environments. Research findings from
neuroscience are adding to our existing
understanding of how this takes place
and are challenging some of the older
conceptions of development.

By recognising the competence of children

in the early years—seeing children’s words
and actions as opportunities for ‘serve and
return’ responsiveness—parents/carers and
educators can provide rich experiences
and environments that promote brain
development. Intentionally challenging
children to go beyond the familiar and
preferred activities helps to transform
play into playful learning and create the
stretch in thinking that will further support
brain development.

By recognising the competence of children in the early years you can provide rich experiences and environments that promote
brain development.

Supporting brain development 29

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Links to the National Quality Links to children’s services

Standard competencies
Quality Area 1: Educational program and practice CHC20399 Certificate II in Community Services
1.1.1: Curriculum decision making contributes to each child’s learning (Children’s Services)
and development outcomes in relation to their identity, connection
CHCICAA: Communicate with children
with community, wellbeing, confidence as learners and effectiveness
CHCFC1A: Support the development of children in the service
as communicators.
CHCIC1A: Interact positively with children
1.1.6: Each child’s agency is promoted, enabling them to make choices
CHC30399 Certificate III in Community Services
and decisions and influence events and their world.
(Children’s Services)
1.2.2: Educators respond to children’s ideas and play and use
CHCPR1A: Facilitate play and leisure
intentional teaching to scaffold and extend each child’s learning.
CHCPR2A: Organise experiences for children
1.2.3: Critical reflection on children’s learning and development, CHCFC4A: Foster the emotional and psychological development
both as individuals and in groups, is regularly used to implement of children
the program.
CHC40399 Certificate IV in Community Services
Quality Area 5: Relationships with children (Children’s Services)
5.1.1: Interactions with each child are warm, responsive and build
CHCFC5A: Foster children’s cognitive development
trusting relationships.
CHCPR5A: Enhance children’s play and leisure
5.1.2: Every child is able to engage with educators in meaningful,
open interactions that support the acquisition of skills for life
and learning.

30 Everyday Learning Series Volume 14, Number 1, 2016

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References
Blakemore, S. J., & Frith, U. (2005). The learning brain: Lessons for Harvard University Center on the Developing Child. (2015a). Core
education. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. concepts in the science of early childhood development. Retrieved 12
October, 2015, from [Link]
Brown, T. T., & Jernigan, T. L. (2012). Brain development during the
uploads/2015/06/Core-Concepts-in-the-Science-of-Early-Childhood-
preschool years. Neuropsychology Review, 22(4), 313–333.
[Link].
Burghardt, G. M. (2005). The genesis of animal play: Testing the limits.
Harvard University Center on the Developing Child. (2015b). Toxic
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
stress. Retrieved 12 October, 2015, from [Link]
Butler, L. P., & Walton, G. M. (2013). The opportunity to collaborate [Link]/science/key-concepts/toxic-stress/.
increases preschoolers’ motivation for challenging tasks. Journal of
Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R., Berk, L., & Singer, D. (2009). A mandate
Experimental Child Psychology, 116(4), 953–961.
for playful learning in preschool: Presenting the evidence. New York:
Dekker, S., Lee, N. C., Howard-Jones, P., & Jolles, J. (2012). Neuromyths Oxford University Press.
in education: Prevalence and predictors of misconceptions among
Howard-Jones, P. (2014). Neuroscience and education: A review of
teachers. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 429.
educational interventions and approaches informed by neuroscience.
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations Bristol, UK: Education Endowment Foundation. Retrieved 22 April,
(DEEWR). (2009). Belonging, Being & Becoming: The Early Years 2015, from [Link]
Learning Framework for Australia. Canberra: Commonwealth of pdf/NSED_LitReview_Final.pdf.
Australia. Retrieved 22 April, 2015, from [Link]
Lillard, A. S., Lerner, M. D., Hopkins, E. J., Dore, R. A., Smith, E. D., &
early-years-learning-framework.
Palmquist, C. M. (2013). The impact of pretend play on children’s
Fisher, A. V., Godwin, K. E., & Seltman, H. (2014). Visual environment, development: A review of the evidence. Psychological Bulletin,
attention allocation, and learning in young children: When too much 139(1), 1–34.
of a good thing may be bad. Psychological Science, 25(7), 1362–1370.
Miller, E., & Almon, J. (2009). Crisis in the kindergarten: Why children
need to play in school. College Park, MD: Alliance for Childhood.

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Raby, K. L., Lawler, J. L., Shlafer, R. J., Hesemeyer,

P. S., Collins, W. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (2015). The
interpersonal antecedents of supportive
parenting: A prospective, longitudinal study
from infancy to adulthood. Developmental
Psychology, 51, 115–123.

Rinaldi, C. (2013). Re-imagining childhood: The

inspiration of Reggio Emilia education principles
in South Australia. Adelaide: Government of
South Australia.

Sandman, C. A., Davis, E. P., Buss, C., & Glynn,

L. M. (2011). Prenatal programming of human
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Weisberg, D. S., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff,

R. M. (2013). Guided play: Where curricular
goals meet a playful pedagogy. Mind, Brain
and Education, 7(2), 104–112.

Purposeful and intentional use of the environment by caregivers can support the brain development of children.

32 Everyday Learning Series Volume 14, Number 1, 2016

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Expert-approved early childhood resources

Australasian Journal Every Child magazine Research in Practice Series Everyday Learning Series
of Early Childhood Ideas, inspiration and innovation … Practical, on-the-ground support … Creative ways to enliven children’s
All the latest research and debate … A vast range of topics and perspectives Experts provide easy-to-read guides everyday experiences …
Australasia’s foremost scholarly on a current theme which varies from on a unique approach or topical issue. For everyone involved in the care of
journal within the early childhood issue to issue. Provides service-based Offers new ideas and advice for all children in the home environment.
field. Research-based articles analysing activities, snapshots and profiles written service-based early childhood carers Each issue explores one topic, providing
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Supporting brain development

Decades of research in the brain sciences have provided evidence that, to a large extent,
reinforce what carers have known for generations, such as the importance of exercise, nutrition,
sleep and a close, loving connection. Neuroscience has also helped provide some insights into
other aspects of child brain development, revealing how environments and experiences can
shape the way children think, behave and develop.
Supporting brain development takes some of these ideas further by investigating ‘neuromyths’ and
the differences between toxic and healthy stress; some of the reasons why caring relationships are
so important for the development of children’s brains; and the ways in which play can be turned
into intentional play-based learning.
This book will help parents/carers and educators to add some of the research findings provided by
the brain sciences to their own ways of knowing children. Together, these understandings may be
useful in informing how we create the experiences, relationships and challenges for our children
that will foster their brain development.

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