Introduction to AV Math for Design Online

The job of the AV designer is an interesting blend of art and science. The art aspect of AV design hinges
on the AV designer's ability to recognize through experience the total impact of a decision and adjust
accordingly to meet or exceed the project specifications. This unique ability typically comes with years of
experience in the industry.

The science aspect of AV design allows AV designers to base their decisions upon valid and trusted
results from formulas, standards and best practices. Basing decisions on instincts or the known
performance of familiar equipment may lead to costly project delays and poor client relationships.

Course Audience
This course has been developed to introduce you to math formulas that are typically used in the design of
an AV system. Through the use of examples and practice problems, you will increase your confidence
when using math formulas in AV system design. It is especially designed for those preparing for the
AVIXA Certified Technology Specialist—Design (CTS-D) exam. You may also benefit from this course if
you have been in the industry for several years and need a refresher in these math principles.

This course is a companion course to AVIXA's AV Math Online, which outlines math that applies to the
general CTS exam content outline. Visit AVIXA's website for a complete listing of course content.
Math and the CTS-D Exam
The CTS-D exam content outline is divided into major topics called "domains" and subsets of "tasks." The
number of exam questions for each subject and task on the test is provided to help you focus your
attention and time as you prepare. As you can see from the outline below, much of the work an
audiovisual professional does requires a foundational understanding of many math principles. This course
will help you learn and review these principles specifically as they apply to AV.

CTS-D Exam Content Outline

Number
Percent of
Domains/Tasks of
Exam
Items
Domain A: Conducting a Needs Assessment 15.2 percent 19
Task 1: Identify stakeholders/decision-makers 1.6 percent 2
Task 2: Identify skill level of end users 1.6 percent 2
Task 3: Educate the AV client 0.8 percent 1
Task 4: Review client technology master plan 1.6 percent 2
Task 5: Identify clients' procurement processes 0.8 percent 1
Task 6: Research clients' business process 0.8 percent 1
Task 7: Research clients' business environment 0.8 percent 1
Task 8: Define AV needs (absolutes) 2.4 percent 3
 Task 9: Identify scope of work 2.4 percent 3
Task 10: Identify regulatory requirements and project certification goals 2.4 percent 3
Domain B: Collaborating With Other Professionals 25.6 percent 32
Task 1: Review A/E (architectural and engineering) drawings 4 percent 5
Task 2: Coordinate architectural/interior design criteria 3.2 percent 4
Task 3: Coordinate structural/mechanical criteria 3.2 percent 4
Task 4: Coordinate electrical criteria 3.2 percent 4
Task 5: Coordinate lighting criteria 3.2 percent 4
Task 6: Coordinate IT and network security criteria 4 percent 5
Task 7: Recommend acoustical criteria 2.4 percent 3
Task 8: Coordinate life safety and security criteria 2.4 percent 3
Domain C: Developing AV Designs 49.6 percent 62
Task 1: Create draft AV design 10.4 percent 13
Task 2: Confirm site conditions 8 percent 10
Task 3: Produce infrastructure drawings 10.4 percent 13
Task 4: Produce AV system documents
11.2 percent 14

Task 5: Produce AV build documentation 9.6 percent 12

Domain D: Conducting Project Implementation Activities 9.6 percent 12
Task 1: Participate in project implementation communication 2.4 percent 3
Task 2: Perform system verifications 4 percent 5
Task 3: Conduct system close out activities 3.2 percent 4
Total 100 percent 125

Course Syllabus
This course is divided into the following major sections:

Math Refresher

Scientific Calculators

Order of Operations

Viewing Environment

Farthest Viewer Image Height

Farthest Viewer Image Distance

Farthest Viewer Viewing Task

Projection and Video

Video Camera Image Size

Lumens Output using a Defined Contrast Ratio

Computer Video Signal Bandwidth

Computer Video System Bandwidth

Audio and Loudspeakers

Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Coverage Pattern

Explaining a Loudspeaker Polar PlotCeiling Mounted Loudspeaker Spacing

Wattage at the Loudspeaker

Loudspeaker Circuit Impedance

Power Amplifier Wattage

Potential Acoustic Gain(PAG)

Needed Acoustic Gain(NAG)

PAG NAG including FSM and NOM

Infrastructure

Conduit Capacity and Jam Ratio

Heat Load

Amperage Draw

Course Conclusion

How to Take this Course

Throughout this course, you will calculate formulas with the use of a scientific calculator. In addition, you
will encounter streaming presentations that demonstrate the mechanics of the formulas, sample
problems, practice problems and test questions. By thinking through each step of the problem:

 You will gain insight into the mechanics of the formula - the knowledge of using numbers in the
correct sequence.
 You will build confidence and can share your knowledge with others.

To get the most out of this course, you will need:

 A scientific calculator, pencil and paper.

Math Refresher Introduction

Upon completion of this section, you should be able to:

 Perform a calculation using a scientific calculator.

 Perform a calculation using a scientific calculator; correctly read the conventions for the course;
use appropriate units in course problems

 Perform mathematical operations in the correct order for a multistep math problem

Scientific Calculator Image

A scientific calculator is different than a traditional calculator. Scientific calculators are designed to
perform complex operations that are not common to everyday math use (i.e. add, multiply, divide and
subtract). In your daily life, when was the last time you needed to calculate the reciprocal of a sum of
numbers? In this course you will need a scientific calculator to be able to do this operation.

Unfortunately, every scientific calculator is operated differently. The locations of the buttons vary, as does
the readout formatting of the screen. Please watch this brief video for an orientation to three different
models of scientific calculators.

One of these models may match the calculator you have. Take the time to familiarize yourself with the
locations of these function buttons on your calculator:

 Log - log button

 Reciprocal - 1/x button
 Exponent - xy button
 Square root - √ button or x2 and inv button
 Antilog - antilog button or log button and inv button

Course Conventions
The following list contains the math symbols and formatting within this course:

 A period ( . ) is used to separate whole numbers from decimal values: 1.47

 Numbers are written in US Customary and are followed by metric in parenthesis: 5 feet (1.5 m)
 Exponents or powers are indicated by a smaller, superscript number: 52

Symbology List:

+ indicates when items are to be added

- indicates when items are to be subtracted

* indicates when items are to be multiplied

/ indicates when items are to be divided

√ indicates square root operation

Use Consistent Units of Measure

When using the formulas, you cannot interchange U.S. Customary units (feet or inches) with metric units
(meters or millimeters). Select one system and follow through with it throughout the calculations. Avoid
mixing different units of measure when performing calculations, as this will give you the wrong answer
every time. For example, if a screen's dimensions are measured in millimeters, you must continue to use
only metric units in the formula. When the calculation is complete, you can convert to the desired unit.

All math problems have been processed initially using US Customary units. Answers in metric units reflect
the correct answer when the equation is worked through in metric units. For this reason, the final
answers given in US Customary and the final answers given in metric are not direct conversions of one
another.

Order of Operations Introduction

Upon completion of this section, you should be able to:

 Perform a calculation using a scientific calculator.

 Perform a calculation using a scientific calculator; correctly read the conventions for the course;
use appropriate units in course problems

 Perform mathematical operations in the correct order for a multistep math problem

Using the Proper Order of Operations

Given a math formula, apply the proper order of operations.

Most AV math formulas use only the four common operators: add, subtract, multiply and divide. However,
some formulas require a solid foundation in the order of operations. The order of operations helps you
correctly solve formulas by prioritizing which part of the formula to solve first. It is a way to rank the order
in which you work your way through a formula. This section of the course will review and test your
knowledge of applying the order of operations.

This is the order:

Any numbers within a pair of parenthesis or brackets

2. Any exponents (or orders)

3. Any multiplication or division

4. Any addition or subtraction

If there are multiple operations with the same priority, then proceed from left to right:

Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction

The order of operations can be remembered by using this acronym: PEMDAS. The phrase,
"Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally" is often used to remember PEMDAS.

Remember: If the priority of operations is the same, begin solving from left to right.

Sample Order of Operations Calculation

102 (90 / 30) + 15

Step one:
Anything inside brackets is processed first. Inside the brackets, perform the division operation first.

102 (90 / 30) + 15

102 (3) + 15
Step two:

Calculate the exponent.

102 (3) + 15

100 (3) + 15

This step is typically where people might make a mistake. If the formula is at a stage where the operations appear to
be the same priority, consider the proper order of operations. Multiply first, then continue solving from left to right. If this
step is not completed, you will arrive at the wrong answer.

Examine the incorrect processing below:

100 (3) + 15

100 + 18 = 118

In this example of incorrect processing, addition was performed first. The incorrect processing of right to left means that
the final answer will be wrong.
Step three:

Complete the formula. Now the only remaining operations are multiplication and addition from left to right.

100 (3) + 15

300 + 15 = 315
Sample Order of Operations Calculation
62 + 8 / (3 * 2) − 8

Step one:

Anything inside brackets is processed first. Inside the brackets, multiply first.

62 + 8 / (6) − 8
Step two:

There are no more operations in brackets. Calculate the exponent next.

36 + 8 / 6 − 8
Step three:

The next operation is divide. Calculate the division.

36 + 1.33 - 8
Step four:

The only two operations remaining are addition and subtraction. Both addition and subtraction are the same priority.
Solve the formula from left to right. Remember to process from left to right.
36 + 1.33 - 8 = 29.33

Introduction to Image Height by Viewing Category

When people view content on a screen or display, they are performing a viewing task. The viewer expects
to see the displayed content comfortably. To view the content comfortably, the content must be large
enough to be discernable, and discernibility depends upon both the size of the image and how far one is
away from it, the image height and the farthest viewer.

To determine the image height or farthest viewer, one must first know what viewing category should be
applied. There are two viewing categories for display image size, Analytical and Basic Decision Making.
Analytical Decision Making (ADM) is for applications where pixel-level detail is required as for medical
imagery, technical drawings, etc. Basic Decision Making (BDM) is more for general use where fine details
are not as important as for word processing documents or spreadsheets.

One way to determine a comfortable viewing experience is to base the height of the image upon two
criteria:
1. What is the content to be viewed? Are these details or characters?
2. How far away is the farthest viewer going to be seated?

In addition to these two factors, you must know other information depending on which viewing category
you need.

 To determine the image height for ADM, you must also know the vertical image resolution.
 To determine the image height for BDM, you must also know the percent element height. The
percent element height is the size of the element, the smallest collection of pixels that a viewer
needs to be able to discern, expressed as a percentage of the overall image height.

These factors are important because the viewers will need to interpret or discern the content and the
screen will need to be large enough to display all the content required. Consideration can also be given to
whether the audience is likely to be able to move closer to the display to comfortably view material. If so,
it may be possible to attract initial attention with larger content, and then provide additional information
with smaller content.

ADM and BDM Image Height Formulas

Introduction to Farthest Viewer by Viewing Category
In the previous lesson, Image Height and Viewing Category, you learned that there is a relationship
between distance and image height. This relationship affects the height of the image. If the maximum
distance of the farthest viewer is known, you can determine the required image height that best suits the
viewer's task.

In this lesson, you are going to determine the farthest viewer based upon image height and viewing
category. Determining the distance requires us to first know the viewing category, whether it is ADM or
BDM.

Determining the farthest viewer for ADM requires us to know:

 Image height
 Vertical image resolution

Determining the farthest viewer for BDM requires us to know:

 Image height
 Percent element height

These factors are important because they allow us to determine the viewer's distance from the displayed
image. You do not want the viewer to be located too far away or too close.
Introduction to Closest Viewer
You have already learned about the farthest viewer for both viewing categories, ADM and BDM, but now
let's talk about the closest viewer.

Since ADM depends upon being able to resolve small details, ADM does not have a closest viewer
restriction.

BDM does, however, have a restriction for closest viewer.

Determining the closest viewer for BDM requires us to know:

 Image height
 Image offset (if any)

The image offset is how high or low the bottom of the display is from standard eye level. Standard
eye level for a seated viewer is 48 inches or 1200 mm, and 62 inches or 1500 mm for standing viewers.
The image offset is how far above or below the bottom of the display is from those standard eye levels.

Knowing those two factors can allow you to determine the vertical viewing factor, which will enable you to
calculate how close one can sit to a display.
Farthest Viewer and Text Height Introduction
An important factor in a person's ability to comfortably read text on a displayed image is the height of the
characters. If the farthest viewer cannot easily read the text, then the presenter may have difficulty
communicating information.

You have already used percent element height in your Basic Decision Making calculations for image
height and farthest viewer. Percent element height is the height of the element expressed as a
percentage of the overall image height. Here, however, you will learn to derive a farthest viewer distance
from the physical element height of the text itself. The element height is the physical text height of a
lowercase character on a display.

The formula for this depends on the science of visual acuity. Acuity refers to clarity of vision and your
ability to properly discern elements such as alphanumeric characters, reading in other words. For persons
with normal vision, the Acuity Factor for BDM uses 200 as a multiplier. This is sometimes referred to as
the ‘200 Rule’. Note that the 200 Rule or Acuity Factor needs to be applied to lowercase characters.

There is a direct relationship between the height of the text and the distance of the viewer. As element
height increases, so does the distance. As element height decreases, so does the distance.
Video Camera Image Size Introduction

Upon completion of this section, you should be able to:

 Calculate the camera image size given the distance from the camera lens and angle of view

 Calculate the required lumens for a projector based on the contrast ratio of the projection system

 Identify what information is required to calculate bandwidth of a video signal

 Calculate the bandwidth of a video system given the signal frequency

Video Camera Image Size

Video cameras are very common in training and boardroom environments. With the growth of
videoconferencing technologies, the role of the video camera is critical to communicating the client's
message. Many times, the performance specifications of the video cameras are not considered. How do
you know if the camera you have purchased can correctly capture the intended subject?

The formula in this lesson allows you to calculate the captured image size (height, width, diagonal) of the
intended subject instead of simply hoping that the camera that came with the equipment will properly
frame the subject. Capturing a teacher walking back and forth in the front of the classroom requires a very
different camera lens than a professor lecturing at a lectern in an auditorium.
Calculate Video Camera Image Size
Given the distance from the lens to the subject and an angle of view, calculate video camera image size.

Calculating image size requires these values:

 Distance from camera lens to intended subject, D

 Camera lens angle of view, A
 Image Size, IS

The image size dimension referenced in a camera specification sheet may vary. The value stated could
be a height, width, or diagonal dimension. The following examples in the next lesson all calculate the
horizontal dimension only. In practice, however, you should always check the manufacturer specifications
to be sure you are calculating the right dimension.

Sample Video Camera Image Size Calculations

Sample Video Camera Image Size Problem
What is the width of the captured image, using a camera lens field of vision of 72 degrees at minimum zoom from 240
inches (6,096 mm) away?

Step one:

Substitute for the known values in the formula.

  Substitute 72 degrees for the field of vision, A
 Substitute 240 inches (6,096 mm) for the distance of the subject, D
IS = 2 * D * tan(A / 2)

IS = 2 * 240 * tan(72 / 2)
Step two:

Calculate the tangent. Look for the "tan" button on your scientific calculator.

IS = 2 * 240 * tan(72 / 2)

IS = 2 * 240 * tan(36)

IS = 2 * 240 * 0.727
Step three:

Complete the formula.

IS = 2 * 240 * 0.727

IS = 480 * 0.727

IS = 349 inches (8,865 mm)

The width of the image at the subject is 349 inches (8,865 mm).

Sample Video Camera Image Size Problem

What is the minimum and maximum limit of captured image sizes, using a camera lens field of vision specification of 8
degrees and 70 degrees from 540 inches (13,716 mm) away?

Step one:

Substitute for the known values in the formula for the minimum range.

 Substitute 8 degrees for the minimum field of vision (telephoto), A

 Substitute 540 inches (13,716 mm) for the distance of the subject, D

IS = 2 * D * tan(A / 2)

IS = 2 * 540 * tan(8 / 2)
Step two:

Calculate the tangent and complete the formula.

IS = 2 * 540 * tan(8 / 2)

IS = 2 * 540 * 0.069

IS = 75.5 inches (1,917 mm) wide

The smallest width of the image at the subject is 75.5 inches (1,917 mm).
Step three:

Substitute for the known values in the formula for the maximum range.

 Substitute 70 degrees for the maximum field of vision (wide), A

 Substitute 540 inches (13,716 mm) for the distance of the subject, D

IS = 2 * D * tan(A / 2)

IS = 2 * 540 * tan(70 / 2)
Step four:

Calculate the tangent and complete the formula.

IS = 2 * 540 * tan(70 / 2)

IS = 2 * 540 * 0.70

IS = 756 inches (19202 mm) wide

The limit of the image's width is between 75.5 inches (1,917 mm) wide and 756 inches (19,202 mm) wide.
Lumens Output using a Defined Contrast Ratio

Light is required to produce an image. When a flat panel display is used, the display itself produces light
directly and the light output and contrast isn't really considered beyond what is documented in the
brochure. However, when a projection system is designed, a projector needs to be specified that is bright
enough to meet a minimum contrast ratio so an acceptable image is created. A black and white
checkerboard pattern is used to measure a system's contrast ratio. The brightnesses of the black and
white sections are measured and compared. This comparison is expressed as a ratio.

When a location for a projection screen is selected, the amount of ambient light is measured at the
proposed screen location. Ambient light is any light other than the light from the projector. This could be
from windows, lights, or reflected light from a surface in the room. It is known that the image on the
screen should be brighter than the ambient light in the room. How much brighter? It depends.

The necessary contrast ratio of a screen depends on the viewer task. Passive viewing of the screen
requires a minimum contrast ratio of 7:1. If the viewer must make decisions based on the content on the
screen (e.g. classroom or boardroom presentations) a minimum 15:1 contrast ratio is needed. If the
viewer must do critical analysis of the content on the screen (e.g. medical or structural image analysis) a
minimum 50:1 contrast ratio is necessary to see all the detail. For the extreme detail of full motion video,
design for a minimum 80:1 contrast ratio.

In the training room pictured above the students would need at least a 15:1 contrast ratio. That means the
projector must provide at least 15 times more light at the screen location than the ambient light found at
the screen location. For example, if 4.6 fc (50 lux) of ambient light is measured at the screen location, the
projector must provide 69 fc (750 lux) at that same location to achieve a 15:1 difference.

So now that it is known how much light is needed, a projector needs to be specified that will output at
least that much light over the entire screen surface area. The needed value of 69 fc(750 lux) will be
multiplied by the area of the screen to determine the output in lumens required from a projector.

There are also other factors that should be considered when determining projector brightness:

 As light goes through the projector lens, the amount of light is diminished.
 As projector lamps age, they produce less light.
 Actual projector outputs will vary due to engineering and manufacturing tolerances.
When these factors are considered, it is typically found that debating a projector's specification by at
least 25% is required.

Calculate Lumens Output

Given an ambient light measurement and screen dimensions, calculate for lumens output

Calculating lumens output requires these values:

 Ambient light at screen location in units of lux or footcandles, L

 Desired contrast ratio, C. For a contrast ratio of 15:1 you would substitute in 15.
 Area of screen in square meters or square feet, A
 Projector performance debating value of 25%, 0.75

It is important to remember that it is possible to solve this formula using US Customary units of
square feet and footcandles, or using metric units of square meters and lux. You cannot mix US
Customary units and metric units in the same formula. In either case, the final answer will be in lumens.

The final answer in the formula should always be rounded up. In the examples in this lesson, answers
are rounded up. If the answer is rounded down, the minimum contrast ratio requirement may not be met
due to insufficient projector brightness.

Sample Lumens Output Calculations

Example using US Customary units:

What is the required projector lumens output for a 16x10 projection screen that is 92 inches (2,337 mm)
wide by 57.5 inches (1,461 mm) high with 5.1 footcandles (55 lux) of measured ambient light at the
screen location? The viewers are sales professionals watching PowerPoint presentations for professional
development.
Calculating in US Customary:

Step one:

Calculate area of the screen in square feet.

92 inches * 57.5 inches = 5,290 sq. in. To convert sq. in. into sq. ft., multiply by 0.00694

5,290 sq. in. *0.00694= 36.7126 sq. ft

Step two:

Substitute for the known values in the formula.

 Substitute 36.7 for the screen area, A

 Substitute 5.1 for the ambient light in footcandles, L
 Substitute 15 for C since this is a basic decision making task
ANSI Lumens = [( L * C ) * A ] / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = [(5.1 * 15 * 36.7)] / 0.75

Step three:

Perform the calculation.

ANSI Lumens = [ (5.1 * 15)* 36.7126 ] / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = (76.5 * 36.7126) / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = 2,808.5139 / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = 3,744.6852

Rounded, it is found that a projector is needed with at least 3,800 ANSI lumens output to meet a 15:1 contrast ratio
with 5.1 footcandles of ambient light at the screen location.

Calculating in Metric:

Ambient light: 55 lux

Contrast ratio: 15:1

16:10 screen

Screen gain: 1 (matte white)

Step one:

Calculate area of the screen in square meters.

2.337 m x 1.461 m = 3.414357 sq. m

Step two:
Substitute for the known values in the formula.

 Substitute 3.414357 for the screen area, A

 Substitute 55 for the ambient light in Lux, L
 Substitute 15 for C since this is a basic decision making task

ANSI Lumens = (55 * 15 * 3.414357) / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = (825 * 3.414357) / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = 2,816.844525 / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = 3,755.792

Example using metric units:

What is the required projector lumens output for a 16x9 projection screen that is 3,531 mm wide by 1,981
mm high with 62 lux of measured ambient light at the screen location? The viewers are sales
professionals watching a PowerPoint presentations for professional development.

Step one:

Calculate the area of the screen in square meters and round to the nearest whole number.

3,531 * 1,981 = 6,994,991 mm2 or 6.99 m2 = 7 m2

Step two:

 Substitute for the known values in the formula.

 Substitute 7 m2 for the screen area, A
 Substitute 62 for the ambient light in lux, L
 Substitute 15 for C since this is a basic decision making task
ANSI Lumens = [( L * C ) * A ] / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = [( 62 * 15 ) * 7 ] / 0.75

Step three:

Perform the calculation.

ANSI Lumens = [( 62 * 15 ) * 7 ] / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = [930 * 7 ] / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = [ 6,510 ] / 0.75

ANSI Lumens = 8,680

Rounded, it is found that a projector is needed with at least 8,700 ANSI lumen output to meet a 15:1
contrast ratio with 62 lux of ambient light at the screen location.

Computer Video Signal Bandwidth

As a system design is being created, one of the things to consider is the frequency range of a computer
video signal. One way to think about this type of bandwidth, is describing what happens when you
observe a rainbow after a rainstorm. When you look up and view a rainbow, you see all the colors that are
possible from natural sunlight. However, you don't see any gamma rays or x-rays or infrared light
because human vision is limited to the visible light spectrum. The visible light spectrum is our total
available visual bandwidth. To reproduce the beautiful rainbow that we see would require a video system
capable of reproducing all the colors in the visible light spectrum.

Since computer resolutions vary widely, it is necessary to determine the highest frequency of the
computer video signal in order to properly design a system to reproduce the original intended signal.

Determining the computer video signal will be based upon the following criteria:

 Total number of pixels

 Refresh rate (number of frames per second) in Hertz
 Using an on / off signal pattern for highest frequency
 Harmonic content required to replicate the intended signal

Calculate Computer Video Signal Bandwidth

Given screen resolution and refresh rate, calculate video signal bandwidth.
In the formula above, notice the number two. Dividing by two represents an alternating pixel pattern. In
other words, it has a pixel on, pixel off pattern. Having adjacent pixels in opposite states represents the
highest frequency that would be required to be replicated.

Multiplying by three allows the original intended signal to include information out to the third harmonic
frequency. As the computer video signal resembles a square wave, and as a square wave is composed
of a fundamental frequency and an infinite number of odd-harmonic frequencies, we must include the
signal's harmonic components within our frequency calculation. Including the harmonic information is
required in order for the signal to pass undistorted.

Sample Computer Video Signal Bandwidth Calculations

Computer Video Signal Bandwidth Sample Problem

A display has a WXGA native resolution which is 1280 x 800. The refresh rate is 60 Hz. What is the signal
frequency?

Step one:

Substitute for the known values in the formula.

 Substitute 1280 for the horizontal pixels, Hpix

 Substitute 800 for the vertical pixels, Vpix
  Substitute 60 for the refresh rate, fv
Step two:

Calculate the screen resolution.

HF = ((Hpix * Vpix * fv) / 2) * 3

HF = ((1280 * 800 * 60) / 2) * 3

HF = ((1,024,000 * 60) / 2) * 3
Step three:

Divide by two.

HF = (61,440,000 / 2) * 3

HF = 30,720,000 * 3
Step four:

Multiply by three.

HF = 30,720,000 * 3

HF = 92,160,000 Hz
The highest video signal frequency for a signal of 1280 x 60 at a 60 Hz refresh rate is 92,160,000 Hz.
This is more commonly expressed as 92 MHz.

Computer Video System Bandwidth

When working with video systems, the issues of signal loss and the components through which a video
signal will pass are important.

One standard method of measuring bandwidth in electronic equipment is to measure the width of the
response curve between the half power points. A one half power loss is the equivalent of a -3 dB loss.
Ideally, the signal should pass through a device with as little loss as possible. Additionally, the cable used
to connect devices attenuates, or reduces, the signal. The attenuation is greater at higher frequencies.

Losses in the signal path are cumulative. In other words, the losses accumulate through the signal chain.
Additionally, any signal frequencies outside of a device's bandwidth is lost information that cannot be
recovered. Ideally, equipment should be selected that allows the signal to pass through an electronic
device without the signal being altered. That means that the highest frequency of the signal needs to pass
before the device's response curve begins leading to the -3 dB frequency specification. In other words,
the signal bandwidth should fall in "flat" range of the frequency response curve.

Things that will affect the signal include:

 Cable attenuation - losses will be greater at higher frequencies

 Component bandwidth - signal needs to pass within the flat portion of frequency response curve
Signal losses are cumulative.

Calculate Computer Video System Bandwidth

Given the bandwidth of a computer signal, calculate the system bandwidth.

The signal frequency calculation results from the previous lesson are used to determine the system
frequency. You use two formulas that will give you a range of frequencies. One formula calculates the
system bandwidth and the other calculates the higher end of the range.
Computer Video System Bandwidth Sample Problem
What is the system frequency range of a computer video signal that is 92.16 MHz (1280x800)?

Step one:

Multiply the signal frequency by two.

SF = 92.16 * 2

SF = 184.32 MHz
Step two:

Multiply the signal frequency by three.

SF = 92.16 * 3

SF = 276.48 MHz
As the number of electronic devices that our signal will pass through is considered , equipment should be selected with
a minimum bandwidth somewhere between 200 to 300 MHz.

Computer Video System Bandwidth Sample Problem

What is the system frequency range of a computer video signal that is 186 MHz (1920x1080)?

Step one:

Multiply the signal frequency by two.

SF = 186 * 2

SF = 372 MHz
Step two:

Multiply the signal frequency by three.

SF = 186 * 3

SF = 558 MHz
As the number of electronic devices that our signal will pass through is considered, equipment should be selected with
a minimum bandwidth somewhere between 400 to 560 MHz.

Loudspeaker Coverage Patterns Introduction

Upon completion of this section, you should be able to:

 Determine what affects a loudspeaker coverage pattern for a ceiling loudspeaker and calculate the
diameter of a coverage area

 Given a coverage pattern calculate the spacing distance between ceiling mounted loudspeakers
  Calculate the number of watts required at the loudspeaker to produce a given SPL

 Given the impedance of one loudspeaker and the number of speakers in the system calculate the total
impedance of the system

 Given the available watt tap values for each loudspeaker and the number of loudspeakers, calculate power
amplifier wattage and select amplifier

 Given distance values for source to listener, loudspeaker to mic, loudspeaker to listener and source to mic,
calculate potential acoustic gain in decibels

 Given distance values for source to listener and EAD, calculate needed acoustic gain in decibels

 Calculate PAG and NAG for a sound reinforcement system taking into account FSM and NOM; based on
your results state if the system is stable or not

Audio and Loudspeakers Introduction

In designing an audiovisual system, the viewers are located based upon viewing task, sightlines and farthest
viewer. This is helpful in placing the viewers in optimum positions to see the content on a display. Once the viewer
locations are known, the sound system design can begin so that the viewers can hear the presentation.

Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Coverage Pattern

In most cases, designing a sound system will require some sort of computer modeling. However, in some
situations, basic calculations can be performed in order to determine coverage. The examples below will
describe a ceiling mounted loudspeaker application.

Determining ceiling mounted loudspeaker spacing requires defining the following variables:

 Coverage pattern of the loudspeaker

 Overlap of coverage patterns to achieve acceptable SPL variation
 Ear height of the listeners
  You are probably familiar with loudspeakers that specify coverage patterns of 90 degrees
horizontal by 40 degrees vertical or 110 degrees conical. Due to the different audio wavelengths,
these patterns do not hold true over the entire frequency range of the loudspeaker.

 This being the case, you will need to know the coverage pattern at a frequency appropriate for
the application. For speech reinforcement, a frequency often used is 2,000 Hz (2 kHz).
Determining the coverage angle at a specific frequency will require looking at the loudspeaker's
polar plot.

Calculate Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Coverage Pattern

Given a loudspeaker coverage angle and ceiling height, calculate the diameter of coverage.

Loudspeaker Polar Plots

While you may be familiar with loudspeakers that specify coverage patterns of 90 degrees horizontal by 40 degrees
vertical or 110 degrees conical, due to the different audio wavelengths, these patterns do not hold true over the entire
frequency range of the loudspeaker.

That being the case, you will need to know the coverage pattern at a frequency appropriate for the application. For
speech reinforcement, a frequency often used is 2,000 Hz (2 kHz). Determining the coverage angle at a specific
frequency will require looking at the loudspeaker's polar plot for a particular frequency.

A typical polar plot is comprised of several concentric circles. Each concentric circle represents a change of 3 dB SPL.
A balloon-shaped pattern is overlayed on the plot to show how far off-axis a loudspeaker's coverage pattern extends at
a given frequency. The on-axis or zero degree mark at the top indicates that the listener is directly in front of, or
underneath, the loudspeaker.

A polar plot chart indicates two things:

1. The radiated energy of a loudspeaker at a given frequency in either the vertical or horizontal plane. Energy
radiates outward - but not equally - in all directions from the loudspeaker, and polar plots are used to show the
pattern of the energy.
2. The degree off-axis where the radiated energy decreases by 6 dB as compared to the on axis level. These
locations are referred to as the, "6 dB down points." Most often, the coverage pattern in equipment
specifications is typically stated at the 6 dB down points.

In the interactive graphic below, you can view three individual polar plots in the horizontal plane at three different
frequencies (125 Hz, 2 kHz, 16 kHz). You can also see where the 6 dB down points are and the resulting coverage
pattern on the left side of the graphic.

 At 125 Hz, the energy is dispersed much differently than the other two plots. This is because a
physically larger device is required to control the dispersion pattern.
 At 2 kHz, the loudspeaker's energy is about 6 dB down at about 50 degrees off-axis on one side.
The same point on the other side is at about 310 degrees. Together, the total coverage angle would
then be about 100 degrees.
 At 16 kHz, this loudspeaker's energy drops off steeply as you move off-axis.

Sample Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Coverage Pattern Problem

What is the diameter of coverage using a loudspeaker with a coverage angle of 90 degrees, a ceiling height of 118
inches (2,997 mm), and an ear height of 48 inches (1,200 mm)?

Step one:

Calculate the tangent. Look for the "tan" button on your scientific calculator.

 Substitute 90 for the angle of coverage, C

 Substitute 118 for the ceiling height of the loudspeaker, H
 Substitute 48 for the height of the listener's ear, h
D = 2 * (H-h) * tan (C / 2)

D = 2 * (118 - 48) * tan (90 / 2)

D = 2 * (118 - 48) * tan (45)

D = 2 * (118 - 48) * 1
Step two:

Calculate the difference between ceiling height and ear height.

D = 2 * (118 - 48) * 1

D = 2 * (70) * 1
Step three:

Complete the formula.

D = 2 * (70) * 1

D = 140 * 1

D = 140 inches (3,594 mm)

Sample Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Coverage Pattern Problem
What is the diameter of coverage using a loudspeaker with a coverage angle of 80 degrees, a ceiling height of 96
inches (2,438 mm), and an ear height of 48 inches (1,200 mm)?

Step one:

Calculate the tangent.

 Substitute 80 for the angle of coverage, C

 Substitute 96 for the ceiling height of the loudspeaker, H
 Substitute 48 for the height of the listener's ear, h
D = 2 * (H - h) * tan (C 2)

D = 2 * (96 - 48) * tan (80 / 2)

D = 2 * (96 - 48) * tan (40)

D = 2 * (96 - 48) * 0.84

Step two:

Calculate the difference between ceiling height and listener height.

D = 2 * (96 - 48) * 0.84

D = 2 * (48) * 0.84
Step three:
Complete the formula.

D = 2 * (48) * 0.84

D = 96 * 0.84

D = 80.5 inches (2,078 mm)

Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Spacing

If the same signal is sent to two loudspeakers and the two loudspeakers are placed near each other, the
coverage patterns will overlap and there will be some interaction and interference in the area of coverage
overlap. While generous overlap will provide even SPL levels to all the listeners, it also allows for
maximum interference. The overlap chosen will be a compromise between acceptable SPL variations and
interference.

Calculate Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Spacing

Given the radius of a loudspeaker coverage pattern, calculate the spacing between each loudspeaker.

In a ceiling mounted loudspeaker system, the loudspeakers need to be arranged in the ceiling a specific
distance apart to ensure even sound coverage. While ceiling loudspeaker spacing can be either square or
hexagonal patterns, the overlap spacing below refer to a square pattern:

 Edge-to-Edge: where only the edges of each coverage circle touch.

  Minimum Overlap (also called Partial Overlap): where the edges overlap slightly. *
 Center-to-Center (also called 50% Overlap): where the edges touch the centers of coverage
circles.

*In many instances, the minimum overlap spacing provides a good "middle-of-the-road" compromise.
Each square layout pattern requires a different formula.
Sample Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Spacing Problem
Using the spacing for minimum overlap, how far apart should the loudspeakers be placed with a loudspeaker coverage
angle of 90 degrees and a coverage diameter of 140 inches (3,556 mm) at the seated listener ear height.

Step one:

Calculate the radius of the loudspeaker coverage circle.

Radius = diameter /2

Radius = 140/2

Radius = 70 inches (1778 mm)

Step two:

Calculate the spacing distance.

Substitute 70 for the radius of the coverage circle, r

D=r*√2

D = 70 (1778 mm) * 1.414213562

D = 98.99 inches (2,514 mm)

For all practical purposes, this can be rounded to 99 inches.

Result: Using the minimum overlap pattern, a ceiling mounted loudspeaker with a coverage diameter of 140 inches
(3,556 m) should be spaced 99 inches (2,514 mm) apart.

Sample Ceiling Mounted Loudspeaker Spacing Problem

Using the spacing for edge-to-edge overlap, how far apart should the loudspeakers be placed with a loudspeaker
coverage angle of 80 degrees and a coverage diameter of 120 inches (3048 mm) at the seated listener ear height?

Step one:

Calculate the radius of the loudspeaker coverage circle.

Radius = diameter /2

Radius = 120/2

Radius = 60 inches (1,524 mm)

Step two:

Calculate the spacing distance.

Substitute 60 for the radius of the coverage circle, r

D=r*2
D = 60 * 2

D = 120 inches (3,048 mm)

Result: Using the edge-to-edge pattern, a ceiling mounted loudspeaker with a coverage diameter of 120 inches (3,048
mm) should be spaced 120 inches (3,048 mm) apart.

Wattage at the Loudspeaker

Once the loudspeaker locations have been determined, the next step is to calculate how much power is needed at the
loudspeaker in order to provide an adequate SPL level at the listener location. This calculation would also include the
necessary headroom appropriate to the application.

To determine the power required at the loudspeaker, you need to know the following:

 The sound pressure level required from the sound system at the listener position. For speech applications, this
is typically 70 dB SPL.
 The headroom required. For speech applications 10 dB is considered adequate. For music applications, 20 dB
or more may be required.
 The loudspeaker sensitivity. Typically this will be stated as SPL in decibels expected at a distance of 1 meter
away from the loudspeaker with 1 watt applied.
 The distance to the farthest listener from the loudspeaker.

Once this information is known, the formula can be solved.

Calculate Wattage at the Loudspeaker

Given a target SPL value, a headroom value, a loudspeaker sensitivity specification, and farthest listener
distance, you can calculate wattage at the loudspeaker with the electrical power required, or EPR,
formula.
NOTE: Loudspeaker sensitivities are usually given using 1 meter as a reference distance. If using US
customary, you will need to convert 1 meter to 3.28 feet

Sample Wattage at the Loudspeaker Calculations

Step one:

Calculate the exponent part of the equation.

 Substitute 70 for the target sound pressure level value, Lp

 Substitute 10 for the headroom, H
 Substitute 88 for the loudspeaker sensitivity, LS
 Substitute 14 for the farthest listener's distance, D2
 Substitute 3.28 feet for the reference distance, Dr
 Substitute 1 for the reference value, Wref
Lp+ H - LS + 20 log (D2 / Dr)

70 + 10 - 88 + 20 log (14 / 3.28)

(80 - 88) + 12.6

(-8 + 12.26)

Total = 4.6
Step two:

Divide by 10 as shown in the exponent part of the equation.

Total = 4.6/10
Total = 0.46
Step three:

Complete the exponent calculation.

EPR = 10 0.46

EPR = 2.88 watts

Then, multiply that by the reference value, which is 1 in this example.

EPR = 2.88 * 1

EPR = 2.88

Practically speaking, 2.88 watts can be rounded to 3 watts.

3 watts is required for the loudspeaker to produce 70 dB SPL with an additional 10 dB for headroom at
the farthest listener position of 14 feet (4,267 mm) from the loudspeaker. Remember, a 10 dB
increase requires ten times the power, so this would be 30 watts.

Step one:

Calculate the exponent part of the equation.

 Substitute 72 for the target sound pressure level value, Lp

 Substitute 20 for the additional headroom, H
 Substitute 92 for the loudspeaker sensitivity, LS
 Substitute 20 for the farthest listener's distance, D2
 Substitute 3.28 for the reference distance, Dr
 Substitute 1 for the reference distance, Wref
Lp+ 20 - LS + 20 log (D2 / Dr)

72 + 20 - 92 + 20 log (20 / 3.28)

(92 - 92) + 15.70312304

(0 + 15.70312304)

Total = 15.70312304
Step two:

Divide by 10 as shown in the exponent part of the equation.

Total = 15.70312304/10
Total = 1.570312304
Step three:

Complete the exponent calculation.

EPR = 101.570312304

EPR = 37.18024986

Then, multiply that by the reference value, which is 1 in this example.

EPR = 37.18024986 * 1

EPR = 37.18024986 watts

Practically speaking, 37.18024986 watts can be rounded up to 40 watts.

Result: 40 watts is required for the loudspeaker to produce 72 dB SPL with an additional 20 dB for
headroom at the farthest listener position of 20 ft (6,096 mm) from the loudspeaker. Remember, a 10 dB
increase is ten times the power, so this would be 400 watts. Remember, a 20 dB increase requires 100
times the power.

Loudspeaker Circuit Impedance

When loudspeakers are wired together on a 70V or 100V line, the wiring needs to be verified before a
signal is applied. This is accomplished by prediction and verification through measurement.
Where:

 Z = Expected impedance
 V = Voltage (70.7V or 100V)
 P = Power (Total of all wattage taps)

The omission is that impedance is dependent upon frequency and a loudspeaker of a stated impedance
is rarely, if ever, that same stated impedance at a typical test frequency. To apply the Ohm's Law formula
properly, the impedance of the loudspeaker at the test frequency needs to be known. You may be able to
obtain this information from a published impedance sweep specification of a loudspeaker, but more often
than not, you'll need to perform a measurement using a sample loudspeaker.

To perform the measurement, an impedance meter is applied to a sample loudspeaker that is set for the
necessary tap wattage. Using that measurement, the parallel circuit formula will be used to predict the
measurement to be taken on the final wired loudspeaker line.

Given the measured impedance at a single loudspeaker and the number of loudspeakers in a parallel
circuit, calculate circuit impedance.
Calculating loudspeaker circuit impedance requires these values:

 Total impedance, Zt
 Measured impedance of a sample loudspeaker, Z
 Number of loudspeakers wired in parallel, N

Loudspeaker Circuit Impedance Sample Problem

A loudspeaker with the 4 watt tap selected has the following specifications:

 Sensitivity 88 dB 1w / 1m
 Frequency response 75 Hz - 20 kHz +/- 7 dB
 Nominal impedance 8 ohms

If 10 of these loudspeakers are wired in parallel on a 70V line and tapped each at 4 watts, what impedance would
you expect to measure?

First, sample an individual loudspeaker. With the loudspeaker set for the 70V 4w tap and using an impedance
meter with a 1 kHz test signal, an impedance measurement is taken with the result being about 1380 ohms of
impedance.

What is the total impedance of a 10 loudspeaker circuit wired in parallel, using a sample loudspeaker with a
measured impedance of 1380 ohms (1kHz test signal), and a setting of 4 watts?

Step one:

Calculate the impedance.

 Substitute 1380 for the impedance measurement from the sample loudspeaker, Z
 Substitute 10 for the total number of loudspeakers in the circuit, N
Zt = Z / N

Zt = 1380 / 10

Zt = 138 ohms
Using an impedance meter and a test frequency of 1 kHz, a measurement of 138 ohms of impedance +/- about
10% is expected.

Loudspeaker Circuit impedance Sample Problem

What is the total impedance of a 14 loudspeaker circuit wired in parallel, using a sample loudspeaker with a measured
impedance of 1,250 ohms (1kHz test signal), and a setting of 2 watts?
Step one:

Calculate the impedance.

 Substitute 1,250 for the impedance measurement from the sample loudspeaker, Z
 Substitute 14 for the total number of loudspeakers in the circuit, N
Zt = Z / N

Zt = 1,250 / 14

Zt = 89 ohms
Result: Using an impedance meter and a test frequency of 1 kHz, a measurement of 89 ohms of impedance +/- about
10% is expected.

Power Amplifier Wattage

Amplifier selection should be based on several criteria, one of which is the available wattage settings on
the loudspeakers in the circuit. For example, if previous power (EPR) calculations indicated that 4 watts
was required at the loudspeaker, yet the smallest tap available is 7.5 watts, the 7.5 watt tap setting should
be used. The formula in this lesson is used to help you select an amplifier based on available
loudspeaker wattage settings.

Besides the power requirements for the loudspeakers, there are other details that you must take into
consideration as a power amplifier is selected. In a distributed or constant voltage system such as a 70V
or 100V system, all of the wattage taps could be simply added up. It could be assumed that this is the
total amount of power that is needed. However, a distributed system uses transformers and there will be
some loss experienced through the transformers. Depending upon the quality of transformers used, some
of those losses could be significant. The formula presented in this lesson includes upsizing the power
amplifier by 50 percent to account for these losses.

Given the available watt tap values for each loudspeaker and the number of loudspeakers, calculate
power amplifier wattage.
Power Amplifier Wattage Calculations Sample Problem
What size 70V amplifier should be used for a system comprised of 20 loudspeakers with available wattage taps of 2, 4,
and 8 watts wired together in parallel, and 3 watts required at each loudspeaker?

Step one:

Select the correct tap value.

The EPR calculation of 3 watts was based on the sound pressure requirements. Although the EPR is 3 watts, a 3 watt
tap is not available on this loudspeaker. The next largest tap is 4 watts, so the 4 watt tap will need to be used.
Step two:

Calculate the wattage.

 Substitute 4 for the wattage tap used at the individual loudspeaker, W

 Substitute 20 for the total number of loudspeakers in the circuit, N

Wt = W * N * 1.5

Wt = 4 * 20 * 1.5

Wt = 80 * 1.5

Wt = 120 watts
Result: A 70V power amplifier with a minimum 120 w should be used.

Power Amplifier Wattage Calculations Sample Problem

What size 70V amplifier should be used for a system comprised of 16 loudspeakers with available wattage taps of 4, 6,
and 8 watts wired together in parallel, and 5 watts required at each loudspeaker?

Step one:

Select the correct tap value.

The EPR calculation of 5 watts was based on the sound pressure requirements. Although the EPR is 5 watts, a 5 watt
tap is not available on this loudspeaker. The next largest tap in 6 watts, so the 6 watt tap will need to be used.
Step two:

Calculate the wattage.

 Substitute 6 for the wattage tap used at the individual loudspeaker, W

 Substitute 16 for the total number of loudspeakers in the circuit, N
Wt = W * N * 1.5

Wt = 6 * 16 * 1.5

Wt = 96 * 1.5

Wt = 144 watts
Result: A 70V power amplifier with a minimum 144W should be used.
Audio System Stability: Potential Acoustic Gain

Any time microphones are used for in-room sound reinforcement, the possibility of feedback will
exist. Feedback can occur when:

 A microphone gets too close to a loudspeaker.

 The loudspeaker is too loud.
 A microphone's gain is increased too much.

In these cases, the distance relationships between the loudspeakers, microphones and the listeners
are the major factors in determining the stability of the sound system.

A sound reinforcement system is said to be stable when these distance relationships provide the
system with enough gain before feedback. Calculating the sound system's Potential Acoustic Gain
(PAG) allows you to know how much potential gain a system can deliver.

Potential Acoustic Gain is just one the calculations needed to arrive at a more complete picture of an
audio system's gain capabilities. The other two calculations, Needed Acoustic Gain (NAG) and the
Number of Open Microphones (NOM) in addition to the Frequency Stability Margin (FSM) are
addressed in the following lessons.

Given distance values for source to listener, loudspeaker to mic, loudspeaker to listener and source to
mic, calculate potential acoustic gain in decibels.
Potential Acoustic Gain Calculations Sample Problem
What is the Potential Acoustic Gain in decibels of an audio system with the following dimensions? The listener
is 35 feet (10,668 mm) away from the presenter, the gooseneck microphone is located 10 feet (3,048 mm) from the
nearest loudspeaker, the listener is located 6 feet (1,829 mm) away from the loudspeaker, and a single gooseneck
microphone is 2 feet (610 mm) away from the presenter.

Step one:

 Substitute 35 for the distance from source to listener, D0

 Substitute 10 for the distance from loudspeaker to mic, D1
 Substitute 6 for the distance from loudspeaker to listener, D2
 Substitute 2 for the distance from source to mic, Ds

PAG = 20 log [(D0 * D1 ) / (D2 * DS )]

PAG = 20 log [(35 * 10) / (6 * 2)]

Step two:

Multiply D0 and D1 then multiply D2 and Ds

PAG = 20 log [(35 * 10) / (6 * 2)]

PAG = 20 log (350 / 12)
Step three:

Divide and calculate the logarithm.

PAG = 20 log (350 / 12)

PAG = 20 log (29.16)

PAG = 20 (1.464886798)
Step four:

Multiply by 20.

PAG = 20 (1.464886798)

PAG = 29.297734966 dB
The potential acoustic gain for this system is 29.30 dB.

Potential Acoustic Gain Calculations Sample Problem

What is the Potential Acoustic Gain in decibels of an audio system with the following dimensions? The listener
is 45 feet (13,716 mm) away from the presenter, the gooseneck microphone is located 9 feet (2,743 mm) from the
nearest loudspeaker, the listener is located 13 feet (3,962 mm) away from the loudspeaker, and a single gooseneck
microphone is 1 foot (305 mm) away from the presenter.

Step one:

 Substitute 45 for the distance from source to listener, D0

 Substitute 9 for the distance from loudspeaker to mic, D1
 Substitute 13 for the distance from loudspeaker to listener, D2
 Substitute 1 for the distance from source to mic, Ds

PAG = 20 log [(D0 * D1) / (D2 * DS)]

PAG = 20 log [(45 * 9) / (13 * 1)]

Step two:

Multiply D0 and D1 then multiply D2 and Ds

PAG = 20 log [(45 * 9) / (13 * 11)]

PAG = 20 log (405 / 13)

Step three:

Divide and calculate the logarithm.

PAG = 20 log (405 / 13)

PAG = 20 log (31.15384615)

PAG = 20 (1.493511671)
Step four:

Multiply by 20.

PAG = 20 (1.493511671)

PAG = 29.87023342 dB
Result: The potential acoustic gain for this system is 29.87 dB.

Audio System Stability: Needed Acoustic Gain

The purpose of the NAG calculation is to determine how much gain is needed to deliver the same level of sound
to all the listeners in the space. The reference for the level of sound to deliver to everyone is determined by the
Equivalent Acoustic Distance, or EAD.

EAD is the distance from the sound source that provides an adequate listening level when unamplified. For
example, if the source is a presenter, EAD is the distance between the presenter and the listener that provides an
adequate, intelligible sound level naturally. It is this sound pressure level at this unamplified distance that you
need to replicate to all the listeners.

If the presenter speaks softly, the listener will move closer, decreasing the EAD. The opposite happens as well; if
the presenter speaks loudly, the EAD will increase. For a presenter, the EAD will be a normal conversational
sound pressure level at a distance of 2 feet (607 mm).

Normal conversational speech levels are dependent upon reasonably low background noise levels. Excessive
background noise level will cause the EAD to decrease.
Given distance values for source to listener and EAD, calculate needed acoustic gain in decibels.

Sample Needed Acoustic Gain Problem

What is the Needed Acoustic Gain of an audio system with the following dimensions? The listener is 35 feet (10,688
mm) away from the source and the EAD is 4 feet (1,219 mm).

Step one:

 Substitute 35 for the distance from source to listener, D0

 Substitute 4 for the equivalent acoustic distance, EAD
NAG = 20 log (D0 / EAD)

NAG = 20 log (35 / 4)

Step two:

Divide D0 and EAD.

NAG = 20 log (35 / 4)

NAG = 20 log (8.75)

Step three:

calculate the logarithm and multiply by 20.

NAG = 20 log (8.75)

NAG = 20 (0.942008053)

NAG = 18.84016106 dB
Result: The needed acoustic gain for this system is 18.8 dB

Sample Needed Acoustic Gain Problem

What is the Needed Acoustic Gain of an audio system with the following dimensions? The listener is 30 feet (9,144
mm) away from the source and the EAD is 4.5 feet (1,372 mm).

Step one:

 Substitute 30 for the distance from source to listener, D0

 Substitute 4.5 for the equivalent acoustic distance, EAD
NAG = 20 log (D0 / EAD)

NAG = 20 log (30 / 4.5)

Step two:

Divide D0 and EAD.

NAG = 20 log (30 / 4.5)

NAG = 20 log (6.66)

Step three:

Calculate the logarithm and multiply by 20.

NAG = 20 log (6.66)

NAG = 20 (0.82390874)

NAG = 16.47817482 dB
Result: The needed acoustic gain for this system is 16.48 dB.
Audio System Stability: FSM and NOM

As a quick review, PAG and NAG are used to translate the ratio of distance values into decibel values.
Because PAG and NAG are in decibel values, they can be easily compared to one another for
determining system stability.

Two other factors that need to be considered are:

 Number of Open Microphones (NOM)

 Feedback Stability Margin (FSM

NOM - The more open microphones that are present, the more system gain increases. Open
microphones will add together, which increases acoustic power. Each time the number of open
microphones is doubled (1 to 2, 2 to 4, etc), acoustic power is doubled. However, each time the number
of open microphones is doubled, there is a 3 dB loss before feedback.

In speech applications, microphones assigned to an auto mix bus in an automatic microphone mixer will
have an equivalent open microphone of 1. In a conferencing application, the level increases with each
open microphone. This could introduce signal distortion.

FSM - FSM refers to how close the system is to actual feedback. Any system on the edge of feedback will
produce a ringing behavior prior to actual feedback. The FSM in a carefully equalized system is typically 6
dB. According to Sound System Engineering, 2nd ed, "when a sound system is unequalized, at least 12
dB of feedback stability margin (FSM) is required. When carefully equalized, 6 dB of FSM is adequate to
ensure a stable system free of spurious regenerative sounds."

Putting NOM and FSM on the PAG side of the formula makes sense, since microphones and equalizers
are pieces of equipment, and PAG is relevant to equipment too. This leaves the NAG, or no equipment,
side of the formula to determine what is required before adding equipment. The NOM and FSM can be
added to the NAG side of the formula, simply by moving some of the formula elements with algebra.

Finally, the PAG and NAG are compared to one another to determine if the system will be stable and
whether or not it can be built as designed. The PAG must either be greater than, or equal to, the NAG.

Given the values for PAG, NAG, FSM and NOM, calculate the stability of an audio system.
Sample Audio System Stability including FSM and NOM Problem
What is the stability of an audio system with a PAG of 30 dB, a NAG of 19 dB, an FSM of 6 dB and 1 open
microphone?

Step one:

 Substitute 30 for the Potential Acoustic Gain, PAG

 Substitue 6 for the Feedback Stability Margin, FSM
 Substitue 1 for the Number of Open Microphones, NOM

PAG = PAG - 10 log (NOM) - FSM

PAG = 30 - 10 log (1) - 6

Step two:

Calculate NOM

PAG = 30 - 10 log (1) - 6

PAG = 30 - 10 (0) - 6

PAG = 30 - 0 - 6
Step three:

Complete the formula.

PAG = 30 - 0 - 6

PAG = 24 dB
Step four:

Compare the final PAG result to NAG.

If PAG > NAG, the system is stable.

24 dB is greater than 19 dB. Yes, the system is stable.

Sample Audio System Stability including FSM and NOM Problem

What is the stability of an audio system with a PAG of 30 dB, a NAG of 19 dB, an FSM of 6 dB and 1 open
microphone?

Step one:

 Substitute 19 for the Needed Acoustic Gain, NAG

 Substitute 1 for the Number of Open Microphones, NOM
 Substitute 6 for the Frequency Stability Margin, FSM

NAG = NAG + 10 log (NOM) + FSM

NAG = 19 + 10 log(1) + 6
Step two:

Calculate NOM

NAG = 19 + 10 log (1) + 6

NAG = 19 + 10(0) - 6

NAG = 19 + 0 + 6
Step three:

Complete the formula.

NAG = 19 + 0 + 6

NAG = 25 dB
Step four:

Compare the PAG to the final NAG result.

If PAG > NAG, the system is stable.

30 dB is greater than 25 dB. Yes, the system is stable.

Conduit Capacity and Jam Ratio Introduction

Upon completion of this section, you should be able to:

 Calculate the minimum size conduit required based on the number and size of cables it will contain

 Given the value for total watts in an AV rack, calculate heat load

 Given the values for voltage and total watts, calculate the amperage draw

Conduit Capacity and Jam Ratio

When cable is installed in a conduit, there are restrictions as to the percentage of area within that conduit that the
cabling can occupy. These restrictions are in place for two main reasons; to prevent cable insulation damage
during installation and to reduce the potential for heat build up within the conduit.

The allowable fill percentages are based upon the number of conductors being pulled through the conduit.

Some electrical codes, such as the National Electrical Code (NEC), list the following fill percentages:

 Single conductor or cable - allowable fill is 53%

 Two conductors or cables - allowable fill is 31%
 Three or more conductors or cables - allowable fill is 40%
At first glance, seeing that the two conductor percentage is less than a three or more conductor percentage may
seem in error. The fill percentage varies by the number of cables due to the way the cables rest inside the conduit.

If you are unsure as to the fill percentages required at the installation site, consult with the local Authority Having
Jurisdiction (AHJ) before performing calculations.

In addition to conduit fill percentage calculations, when three cables are installed in a conduit, a condition may exist
where the cables get stuck, or jam, inside the conduit.

When three cables are installed in a conduit, one of the cables may slip in between the other two, especially at a
bend where the conduit may be slightly oval due to the bending process. If the third cable slips between the other
two, the three cables may line up and jam at the exit of a conduit bend.

Calculate Conduit Capacity and Jam Ratio

Conduit Capacity Sample Problem (single conductor or cable)
What size EMT (electrical metallic tubing) conduit is required when using a single RGBHV cable with an
outer diameter of 0.792 inches (20.12 mm), a 53% fill percentage?

Step one:

Substitute 0.792 for the outer cable diameter, d

d2 / 0.53

0.7922 / 0.53
Step two:

Calculate the exponent and divide by 0.53

0.7922 / 0.53

0.627 / 0.53

1.184 (30 mm)

Step three:

Calculate the square root to solve for the inner conduit diameter.

D > √1.184

D > 1.09 inches (27.6 mm)

Step four:

Compare the result of 1.09 inches (27.6 mm) with available conduit trade sizes below.

Trade size 1 (Metric designator 27) I.D. = 1.049 inches (26.6 mm)

Trade size 1 1/4 (Metric designator 35) I.D. = 1.38 inches (35.1 mm)

Trade size 1 1/2 (Metric designator 41) I.D. = 1.61 inches (40.9 mm)
1.09 inches (27.7 mm) is larger than Trade size 1, 1.049 inches (26.6 mm), but smaller than Trade size 1
1/4, 1.38 inches (35.1 mm). The Trade size 1 1/4 conduit is required.

Conduit Capacity Sample Problem (more than 3 cables)

What size of EMT (electrical metallic tubing) conduit will be required when installing 2 miniature RGBHV
cables with an outer diameter of 0.315 inches (8 mm) and 3 composite video cables with an outer
diameter of 0.152 inches (3.86 mm). The fill percentage is 40 percent.

Step one:
Substitute 0.315 and 0.152 for the outer cable diameters, d

d2 + d2 + d2 + d2 + d2

0.3152 + 0.3152 + 0.1522 + 0.1522 + 0.1522

Step two:

Calculate the exponents for each cable, add them together and divide by 0.40

(0.3152 + 0.3152 + 0.1522 + 0.1522 + 0.1522) / 0.40

(0.099225 + 0.099225 + 0.023104 + 0.023104 + 0.023104) / 0.4

0.267 / 0.40

0.669 (17 mm)

Step three:

Calculate the square root to solve for the inner conduit diameter.

D > √0.669

D > 0.818 inches (20.7 mm)

Step four:

Compare the result of 0.818 inches with available conduit trade sizes below.

Trade size 1/2 (Metric designator 16) I.D. = 0.622 in (15.8 mm)

Trade size 3/4 (Metric designator 21) I.D. = 0.824 in (20.9 mm)

Trade size 1 (Metric designator 27) I.D. = 1.049 in (26.6 mm)

0.818 inches (20.7 mm) is bigger than Trade size 1/2, 0.622 inches (15.8 mm) but smaller than
Trade size 3/4, 0.824 inches (20.9 mm). A Trade size 3/4 conduit will be required.
In addition to conduit fill percentage calculations, when three cables are installed in a conduit, a condition may exist
where the cables get stuck inside the conduit.

When three cables are installed in a conduit, one of the cables may slip in between the other two, especially at a
bend where the conduit may be slightly oval due to the bending process. If the third cable slips between the other
two, the three cables may line up and jam at the exit of a conduit bend.

Conduit Capacity Sample Problem

Three cables with an outer diameter of 0.474 inches (11.79 mm) are being installed in a conduit. Using electrical metallic
tubing (EMT), what size conduit will be required and does a potential cable jam exist?

Step one:

Substitute 0.474 for the outer cable diameter, d

d2

0.4742
Step two:

Calculate the exponent for the cable, multiply by the cable quantity and divide by 0.40

(0.4742 * 3)

0.674 / 0.40

1.685 (42.7 mm)

Step three:

Calculate the square root to solve for the inner conduit diameter.

D > √1.685

D > 1.3 inches (33 mm)

Step four:

Compare the result of 1.3 inches (33 mm) with available conduit trade sizes below.

Trade size 3/4 (Metric designator 21) I.D. = 0.824 inch (20.9 mm)

Trade size 1 (Metric designator 27) I.D. = 1.049 inch (26.6 mm)

Trade size 1 1/4 (Metric designator 35) I.D. = 1.38 inch (35.1 mm)

Result: 1.3 is larger than 1.049 inch (Trade size 1) but smaller than 1.38 inch (Trade size 1 1/4). A Trade size 1 1/4
conduit will be required.
Jam ratio = Conduit inner diameter / Average outer diameter of three cables only

A ratio of average cable outer diameter to inner conduit diameter is calculated and a range of 2.8 to 3.2
should be avoided. If the calculation falls within that range, the next larger size conduit should be
specified to avoid any potential jam.

A jam ratio of 3.0 would mean that the combined diameters of the three lined up cables equals the inner
diameter of the conduit.

The inner diameter of the proposed 1 1/4 conduit is 1.38 inches (35.1 mm)

2.91 = 1.38 / 0.474

Result: Since 2.91 falls between 2.8 and 3.2, a potential jam exists and the next larger conduit of Trade
size 1 1/2 will need to be specified.

Conduit Capacity and Jam Ratio Practice Problem 1-2

Calculate the minimum conduit size needed to hold the cables in inches or millimeters. If calculating in
inches round your answer to the thousandths place. If calculating in millimeters round your answer to the
tenths place.
Heat Load

Electronic equipment generates heat. The amount of heat expected from the audiovisual equipment
needs to be calculated in British thermal units so that equipment rack cooling needs can be determined.
This heat information is also forwarded to mechanical engineers and others involved in the building
project so that they can account for this heat as they design the heating and cooling systems.

Given the value for total watts in an AV rack, calculate heat load.

1 watt of power generates 3.41 Btu of heat per hour

* This value is the total watts of all AV equipment in the rack except the audio amplifier.

Heat Load Calculation Sample Problem

How much heat is expected to be generated by the equipment in an AV rack with the following
specifications?

 Control system - 75 w
 Matrix switch - 30 w
 DVD player - 18 w
 Audio conferencing mixer - 30 w
 Videoconferencing codec - 60 w
 Power amplifier rated at 280 w per channel at 4 ohms
Step one:

Add together all the wattages except for the power amplifier and multiply by 3.41

WE = 75 + 30 + 18 + 30 + 60

213 = 75 + 30 + 18 + 30 + 60

Total Btu = 213 * 3.41

726 Btu = 213 * 3.41

Step two:

Refer to the owner's manual for the total Btu of the power amplifier.

In this example, the total Btu is 926.

Step three:
Add the total Btu from step one to the power amplifier Btu

1652 total Btu = 726 + 926

Amperage Draw
Electronic equipment consumes electrical power. The amount of current required to power audiovisual
equipment needs to be calculated in order to determine the number of electrical circuits required.
Calculating current is an application of Ohm's law. This information is forwarded to electrical engineers
and others involved in the building project so that they can include these requirements in their electrical
systems.

Given the values for voltage and total watts, calculate the amperage draw.

Amperage Draw Sample Calculation Problem

How much current is expected to be drawn by the equipment in a rack that is powered by a 120 volt
circuit and contain the following AV equipment?

 Control system - 75W

 Matrix switch - 30W
 DVD player - 18W
 Audio conferencing mixer - 30W
 Videoconferencing codec - 60W
 Power amplifier rated at 280W per channel at 4 ohms
Step one:

Add together all the wattages together except the power amplifier.

75 + 30 + 18 + 30 + 60 = 213 Watts
Step two:

 Substitute 213 for the total watts from step one, P

 Substitute 120 for the circuit voltage, V
I=P/V

I = 213 / 120

I = 1.8 amps
Step three:

Calculate the total amperage draw.

Consult the manufacturer's information regarding the current draw of the power amplifier.

In this example the manufacturer stated the current draw as 4.5 amps. Now add this value to the total
amps from step two.

6.275 amps = 1.775 + 4.5

The expected maximum current draw of the power amplifier, 4.5 amperes, is now added to the previous
figure of 1.775 for a total of 6.275 amperes of current to be drawn by the equipment in the rack.
Practically, this can be rounded to 6.3 amperes.