INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Chapter one

1.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of research.
2. Explain the benefits of research.
3. Discuss the different types of research.
4. Come up with a suitable research topic.
5. Describe the components of as proposal
6. Come up with a suitable proposal.
7. Carry out the research process.

1.2 Defination
Research is defined as:
-A systematic method of inquiry for generating new knowledge, asking
questions, highlighting new experiences, solving problems and understanding
current situations (Dewey, 1933).
-A scientific investigation to produce new knowledge
-A scientific investigation carried out to solve problems.
- Research is an organized and systematic way of find answers to questions.

Scientific research therefore relies on the application of the scientific methods for the
purpose of satisfying curiosity or to correct previous knowledge as well as to come up
with a solution concerning a particular problem within a topic of interest. Scientific
research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private
groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different
classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.
Research methods refer to a process of creating a random sequence of steps to solve
a particular problem. Example the use of questionnaires, interviews as methods of data
collection. Research methodology refers to a process of acquiring solutions by means of
a proven method in which selected cases are considered. In short, it refers to the
process of carrying out the research methods. Examples include asking open and
closed ended questions while conducting an interview, film taking, asking questions in
focus group discussions e.t.c.

1.3 Characteristics of research.

 It is purposive
 It is systematic.
 It involves formulation and testing of hypotheses.
 It involves recording data and reporting of the findings.
 It is critical, logical and objectives

1.4 Aims of research

-For thorough testing of theories.
- To test hypotheses and lay solid foundations for future research and study.
- To establish the underlying causes and relationship between different occurrences.

1.5 Benefits of research

-Helps to identify research problems needing solutions.
-Helps to create new methods tools, ideas, practices.
-Discovering cures of a disease.
-Improve the quality of services offered.
-One obtains funding from donors to carry out the research.
-Research knowledge is transferred to the public.
1.6.0 Types of research

1.6.1 Quantitative research

This is research that involves numerical data. Mostly involves the study of relationship
between different populations. Data is usually in form of numbers and statistics. This
research involves hypotheses testing. A study on the prevalence or incidence of a
particular disease is a practical example of qualitative research. Qualitative research
involves analysis of data that is in form of numbers. Other example of qualitative
research include the study of the number of people attending a certain hospital, number
of people using a certain service in the work place e.t.c.

1.6.2 Qualitative research

This type of research is aimed to get a deeper understanding of the behavior of the
subjects which may be animal or human. Qualitative research aims at answering the
questions of how and why, hence research questions are suitable rather than
hypotheses. For example, if a certain organization needs to amend the policies within
the organization, it may first carry out qualitative research to understand how the people
feel about the current policies.

1.6.3 Basic research

This is research carried for the purpose of better understanding of a particular theory,
law or subject. Basic research does not aim at practical application of the findings to
solve a problem in the area of research. Many times the end results have no direct or
immediate commercial benefits. For example, one may want to study the Big Bang
Theory so as to understand what happened at the beginning of the [Link],
this kind of research may give rise to a research idea to solve practical problems within
the society. Basic research is mainly carried out by learning institutions. This type of
research is not easily funded by donors.

1.6.4 Applied research or Action research

This is research undertaken to solve practical problem rather than for knowledge sake.
Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, find treatment for
illnesses, to come up with new technology e.t.c .This kind of research is mostly in social
sciences and health sciences. Applied research is easily funded as it aims at providing
a solution to a problem within an institution .Applied research can also be used as an
evaluation method. The action research process works through three basic phases:
Look - building a picture and gathering information. When evaluating we define and
describe the problem to be investigated and the context in which it is set. We also
describe what all the participants (educators, group members, managers etc.) have
been doing.
Think – interpreting and explaining. When evaluating we analyze and interpret the
situation. We reflect on what participants have been doing. We look at areas of success
and any deficiencies, issues or problems.
Action – resolving issues and problems. In evaluation we judge the worth,
effectiveness, appropriateness, and outcomes of those activities. We act to formulate
solutions to any problems.

[Link] Types of Action or Applied research.

Impact Assessment Research:

The purpose of impact assessment research is to estimate the expected consequences

after a change has been implemented. It is used to plan and make choices from
different policies. E.g. it can be used to assess the change in environment by
establishing a new sewerage or to find the change in housing after building a new
highway.
Participatory action research (PAR):

This research aims at creating a positive change within a social group. This research is
mostly applied in social and educational research so as to solve real problems. There is
dual commitment of both the researcher and the subjects. The process involves first
identifying the problem and collection of data so as to understand the magnitude of the
problem in detail. This is followed by collective (involving both the researcher and the
study group) stipulation of the possible solutions. From this step, a single plan of action
emerges and is implemented. .Data based on the results is collected so as to see the
effect of the plan. This will help to see how effective the plan was. If the action was not
very effective, the problem is reassessed and a new implementation plan is enacted.
Participatory action research aims at making policies for the people with the people and
not making policies for the people without the people.

Evaluative research:

Evaluation research seeks to evaluate the implementation and consequences of social

programs. Evaluation has become a widespread activity, internationally, notably in the
social sciences. Evaluation is important as it keeps the program on track and if there is
need for amendments, this can be recognized in the process of evaluation.

Question that can be answered in improving evaluation include:

-What appears to be working so far?

-Do the benefits justify the cost?

-How much does it cost to implement the programme?

-Is the programme or intervention in place?

Formative evaluation:

Formative evaluation is used to judge if a certain program is worth and how valid and
reliable it is. It is conducted in small groups to see if the implemented policies are in line
with the organizational goals and objectives. It is also known as developmental
evaluation or implementation evaluation.
Formative evaluations strengthen or improve the object being evaluated -- they help
form it by examining the delivery of the program or technology, the quality of its
implementation, and the assessment of the organizational context, personnel,
procedures, inputs, and so on. Summative evaluations, in contrast, examine the effects
or outcomes of some object -- they summarize it by describing what happens
subsequent to delivery of the program or technology; assessing whether the object can
be said to have caused the outcome; determining the overall impact of the causal factor
beyond only the immediate target outcomes; and, estimating the relative costs
associated with the object. A key distinction between formative and summative
evaluation is that the former is designed to improve the current product/process while
the latter is intended for future improvements.

Formative evaluation includes several evaluation types:

 Needs assessment determines who needs the program, how great the need is,
and what might work to meet the need.
 evaluability assessment determines whether an evaluation is feasible and how
stakeholders can help shape its usefulness
 Structured conceptualization helps stakeholders define the program or
technology, the target population, and the possible outcomes.
 Implementation evaluation monitors the fidelity of the program or technology
delivery.
  Process evaluation investigates the process of delivering the program or
technology, including alternative delivery procedures.

Summarative evaluation:

Summative evaluation provides information on the product's efficacy (its ability to do

what it was designed to do). Summative evaluation is typically quantitative, using
numeric scores or letter grades to assess learner achievement. Some advantages of
summative evaluations include:

 They can, if designed correctly, provide evidence for a cause-and-effect

relationship.
 They assess long-term effects.
 They provide data on impacts.
 They can provide data on change across time.

Revision questions

1. Describe the meaning of research.

2. Discuss the difference between formularize and summarative applied research.

3. Describe the benefits of research to the researcher and the society.

4. Describe the difference between qualitative and quantitative research.

5. State the differences between applied and basic research.

6. Give an example of a participatory action research and formative research.

7. State the difference between research methods and research methodology.

Chapter two

Research ideas/Research topic

2.0 Objectives
After reading this topic, you should be able to:
1. Come up with a suitable research topic.
2. Know suitable sources of research topics.
3. Identify the steps in selecting a research topic.
4. Differentiate between scholarly and non scholarly articles.

2.1 Introduction:
Finding a research topic is the first step before beginning any research.
The identified research topic is converted to research questions or a
problem statement. For the research to be relevant, you have to make
sure that the research topic has benefits (or solutions) to a particular
problem within the society country or organization. This is especially
important if the researcher intends to seek funds from donors.

2.1.1 Selecting a research topic.

To select a research topic, you need to have ideas on what you intend to
study. A gap in the understanding of phenomenon may lead to the
development of a hypothesis.
1. A topic may be developed by a researcher so as to satisfy their
curiosity. This curiosity may lead them to solving a particular practical
or theoretical [Link]; researchers in the world are still in the
process of carrying out research so as to come up with a HIV/AIDS
vaccine.
2. A topic in research may also be developed due to the unsolved
problems in the nation, country or in a particular organization.E.g the
effect of water pollution on the workers in a certain industry. The main
aim of such is to find an immediate solution to that particular problem.
3. A research topic can also be developed as a result of an experience
one had encountered before.E.g the effect of stress during
pregnancy. This may provoke the researcher to want to study on such
an area so as to raise awareness and to provide possible solutions.
4. Trying out new methods: One may develop a research topic so as to
enable them to try out a new method to see how reliable it could be
as compared to the previous method.E.g the use of an alternative
method of drug administration. Such type of a research topic may be
developed if the researcher has found shortcomings in the previous
method used and want to provide a solution
5. Social issues may also lead the researcher to come up with a
research topic.E.g one may want to study the role of village elders
within a society, why the youth are so rebellious to the
authority,illetracy within a country e.t.c
 Sources of research ideas include literature. This further includes
historical records, books, journals, scientific papers, magazines,
government reports e.t.c
As you read literature, you identify missing information that may lead
you to identifying the gap of knowledge that you will desire to fill, hence
you come up with a research topic.
The community, nation states and society are also sources of research
ideas as they have some practical problems that may require solutions
e.g. unemployment, global recession education e.t.c

2.2 Steps in identifying a suitable research topic.

Step [Link] a suitable topic:

State your topic idea as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding
out about use of alcoholic beverages by college students, you might pose the
question, "What effect does use of alcoholic beverages have on the health of
college students?”. Identify the main concepts or keywords in your question. In
this case they are alcoholic beverages, health, and college students.

Step 2: Test your topic

Test the main concepts or keywords in your topic by looking them up in the appropriate
background sources .If you are finding too much information and too many sources,
narrow your topic by using the and operator: beer and health and college students, for
example. Finding too little information may indicate that you need to broaden your topic.
For example, look for information on students, rather than college students. Link
synonymous search terms with or: alcoholic beverages or beer or wine or liquor. Using
truncation with search terms also broadens the search and increases the number of
items you find.
Step 3: Finding the background information

Once you have identified the main topic and keywords for your research, find one or
more sources of background information to read. These sources will help you
understand the broader context of your research and tell you in general terms what is
known about your topic. The most common background sources are encyclopedias and
dictionaries from the print and online reference collection. Class textbooks also provide
background information.

Step 4: Use indexes to find periodical articles

Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and
abstracts may be in print or computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and
format best suited to your particular topic; ask at the reference desk if you need help
figuring out which index and format will be best. You can find periodical articles by the
article author, title, or keyword by using the periodical indexes in the Library home page.

STEP 6: Evaluate what you find.

If you have found too many or too few sources, you may need to narrow or broaden
your topic. Check with a reference librarian or your instructor. Ensure you critically
analyze information sources by asking yourself the following question;

 What are the author's credentials--institutional affiliation (where he or she works),

educational background, past writings, or experience? Is the book or article
written on a topic in the author's area of expertise?
 Has your instructor mentioned this author? Have you seen the author's name
cited in other sources or bibliographies? Respected authors are cited frequently
by other scholars. For this reason, always note those names that appear in many
different sources.
 Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organization? What are the
basic values or goals of the organization or institution?
  When was the source published? This date is often located on the face of the title
page below the name of the publisher. If it is not there, look for the copyright date
on the reverse of the title page.
 Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? Topic areas of continuing and
rapid development, such as the sciences, demand more current information. On
the other hand, topics in the humanities often require material that was written
many years ago. At the other extreme, some news sources on the Web now note
the hour and minute that articles are posted on the information covered fact,
opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate fact from opinion.
Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be based on factual
information, evolve from the interpretation of facts.
 Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented? Do
you find the text easy to read, or is it stilted or choppy? Is the author's argument
repetitive?

Scholarly journals are also called academic, peer-reviewed, or refereed journals.

They are often required or strongly recommended by supervisors at the college level for
use in writing research papers and projects
Scholarly journal articles often have an abstract, a descriptive summary of the article
contents, before the main text of the article. As a researcher, one must know the
difference between scholarly and non scholarly work. The following points will guide you
to identifying a scholarly article:
 Usually longer articles, providing in-depth analysis of topics.
 The author is usually an expert in the field and their name and credentials are
almost always provided.
 Written in the jargon of the field for scholarly readers (professors, researchers or
students).
 Articles may include these specific sections: abstract, literature review,
methodology, results, conclusion, and bibliography
  Articles usually reviewed and critically evaluated by a board of experts in the field
(refereed).
 A bibliography (works cited) and/or footnotes are always provided to document
research thoroughly.

Revision questions
1. Briefly discuss four sources of research topics.
2. Outline the steps in identifying a suitable research topic.
3. Describe factors that will help you to differentiate between a scholarly and a
non scholarly article.

Activity 1
Follow the steps of identifying a suitable research topic and come up with
research topic.
 Chapter 3
Problem statement
Objectives:
1. Define a problem statement in reference to research.
2. Understand the purpose of problem statement in research.
3. Learn the common sources of research problems.
4. State the elements of a problem statement.
5. Differentiate between specific and general objectives.

3.1 Introduction
A problem statement is the description of an issue currently existing which needs to be
addressed. It provides the context for the research study and generates the questions
which the research aims to answer. This is the central point of any research and it
generates the questions that the researcher aims to answer. A well articulated problem
statement establishes the foundation for everything to follow in the proposal. As a
researcher you need to be clear and precise on the statement of the problem and be
ready to clearly elaborate on what the problem is.

Clearly indicate why your problem is an important one by answering questions such as
these:

 Is the problem of current interest? Is it topical?

  Is the problem likely to continue into the future?
 Will more information about the problem have practical application?
 Will more information about the problem have theoretical importance?
 How large is the population affected by the problem?
 How important, influential, or popular is this population?
 Would this study substantially revise or extend existing knowledge?
 Would this study create or improve an instrument of some utility?
 Would research findings lead to some useful change in best practice?
 Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from others to support the need for this
research?

The problem statement should persuasively indicate that major variables can be
measured in some meaningful way. If you can identify likely objections to the study,
identify and respond to them here. A good problem statement should not exceed one
page on the proposal.

Elements of the statement of the problem include:

 The problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to establish
why it is important.
 The purpose, statement of objective and scope of the project being proposed.

 The method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or working thesis

Common sources of research problems include:

1. Various theories in the discipline of the researcher.

2. A reproduction of past research studies.

3. Personal experience.

3.2 Objectives
The objectives summarize what is to be [Link] should be closely related to the
problem statement. In research, there are two types of objectives.

3.2.1 General objective:

States what researchers expect to achieve by the study in general terms. The general
objective is directly derived from the research topic. For example if your topic is
Prevalence of malaria among children 0-5 years in Mwea division, the general objective
will therefore be; to study the prevalence of malaria among children 0-5 years in Mwea
division.

3.2.2 Specific objectives:

Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as
defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key factors that are assumed to
influence or cause the problem. They should specify what you will do in your study,
where and for what purpose. Example:
1. To determine the main species of malaria parasite in Mwea division.
2. To determine the effect of malaria infection on hemoglobin levels in children 0-5
years in Mwea division.

NB: The objectives should be clearly stated and should be achievable within the period
the researcher will be conducting their study. Hence for beginners they should limit
themselves to a maximum of four objectives.

Revision questions
1. State the elements of a problem statement
2. Outline the factors to consider for a problem statement to be considered of
importance.
3. State the differences between specific and general objectives.

Activity 2
From your research topic in activity one, write down your problem statement.
State the general and three specific objectives.

Chapter 4

Hypothesis/ research questions

Objectives:
1. Define the term hypothesis.
2. Understand the characteristics of a good hypothesis.
3. Learn the differences between null and alternative hypotheses.
4. Learn the statistical methods of hypotheses testing.

4.1 Introduction:
A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what
you expect will be the outcomes of your study. Not all studies have hypotheses.
Sometimes a study may be designed to be exploratory. There is no formal hypothesis,
and perhaps the purpose of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in order
to develop some specific hypothesis or prediction that can be tested in future research.
A single study may have one or more hypotheses.
4.2Characteristics of a good hypothesis
1. It should be narrow.
2. It should be capable of being tested.
3. It should state the relationship between variables if it happens to be a relational
hypothesis.
4. It should be clear and precise.
5. Hypotheses should be amendable to testing within a reasonable time.
6. It should correspond with existing knowledge.
7. It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon.

4.3Types of hypothesis
4.3.1 Null hypothesis:
This is often the reverse of what the experimenter actually believes. For example if the
experimenter believes that there is a relationship between school drop outs and
alcoholism, then the null hypothesis will be: There is no relationship between alcoholism
and absenteeism in school. In research the null hypothesis is usually denoted as H0

4.3.2 Alternative hypothesis:

This is a statement that has been put forward so as to agree with what one is set to
establish. In summary, the alternative hypothesis is usually the contradiction of the null
hypothesis. It is usually denoted as H1 or Ha. Example: There is a relationship between
alcoholism and absenteeism in school.
It is important to note that both the null and the alternative hypothesis cannot be true,
hence one must accept one and reject the other.
Hypotheses are usually derived from the research topic
4.4 Hypothesis testing
Statistical tests must be carried out so as to determine if to accept or reject a
hypothesis.
Examples of statistical tests include:

4.4.1 Chi-square test:

Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data we
would expect to obtain according to a specific hypothesis. It is always used for testing
the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the
expected and observed result. The formula for calculating chi-square (X 2) is:

X2= (o-e) 2/e

O=Observed

E=Expected.

4.4.2 Z-test.

A Z-test is any statistical test for which the distribution of the test statistic under the null
hypothesis can be approximated by a normal distribution (A theoretical frequency
distribution for a set of variable data, usually represented by a bell-shaped curve
symmetrical about the mean. Also called Gaussian distribution).

4.4.3 F-test:

The F-test is designed to test if two population variances are equal.

4.5 Computer applications:

4.5.1 Ms-Excel
Excel is an electronic spreadsheet program that can be used for storing, organizing and
manipulating data. When you look at the Excel screen (refer to the example on this
page) you see a rectangular table or grid of rows and columns. The horizontal rows are
identified by numbers (1, 2, 3) and the vertical columns with letters of the alphabet (A,
B, C). For columns beyond 26, columns are identified by two or more letters such as
AA, AB, and AC.

The intersection point between a column and a row is a small rectangular box known as
a cell. A cell is the basic unit for storing data in the spreadsheet. Because an Excel
spreadsheet contains thousands of these cells, each is given a cell reference or
address to identify it. The types of data that a cell can hold include numbers, text or
formulas. Just as in math class, formulas are used for calculations usually involving data
contained in other cells. Excel and other electronic spreadsheets include a number of
built in formulas used for common tasks known as functions.

4.5.6 Statistical packages of social scientists (SPSS).

SPSS is a computer program used for statistical analysis. It is among the most widely
used programs for statistical analysis in social science.

4.6 Decision Errors

Two types of errors can result from a hypothesis test.

 Type I error. A Type I error occurs when the researcher rejects a null hypothesis
when it is true. The probability of committing a Type I error is called the
significance level. This probability is also called alpha, and is often denoted by
α.
  Type II error. A Type II error occurs when the researcher fails to reject a null
hypothesis that is false. The probability of committing a Type II error is called
Beta, and is often denoted by β. The probability of not committing a Type II error
is called the Power of the test.

4.7 One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests

A test of a statistical hypothesis, where the region of rejection is on only one side of the
sampling distribution is called a one-tailed test. For example, suppose the null
hypothesis states that the mean is less than or equal to 15. The alternative hypothesis
would be that the mean is greater than 15. The region of rejection would consist of a
range of numbers located on the right side of sampling distribution; that is, a set of
numbers greater than 15.

A test of a statistical hypothesis, where the region of rejection is on both sides of the
sampling distribution, is called a two-tailed test. For example, suppose the null
hypothesis states that the mean is equal to 15. The alternative hypothesis would be that
the mean is less than 15 or greater than 15. The region of rejection would consist of a
range of numbers located on both sides of sampling distribution; that is, the region of
rejection would consist partly of numbers that were less than 15 and partly of numbers
that were greater than 15.

Revision questions

1. Define the term hypotheses.

2. State the differences between null and alternative hypotheses.

3. State and explain the two types of errors that can result from a hypotheses test.

4. State four ways of hypotheses testing.

Activity 3:

From your previously selected topic, formulate your null and alternative hypotheses.

Chapter five

Literature review
Objectives:
1. Understand the steps in conducting literature review.
2. Write the chapter on literature review.
3. Use deductive and inductive knowledge to argue the existence of a problem.

5.1 Introduction
A literature review is a summary of research that has been published about a particular
subject though it usually has an organizational pattern. It provides the reader with an
idea about the current situation in terms of what has been done, and what we know.
Sometimes it includes suggestions about what needs to be done to increase the
knowledge and understanding of a particular problem.
The literature review enables you to clarify your ideas about the topic. It also enables
you to find out what others have studied concerning your topic and what can still be
done. This chapter summarizes:

 Literature that shows how the problem was identified.

 Literature revealing how much the researcher knows about the problem.
 Theoretical and conceptual frame work.
  Benefits of solving the problem.
 Testable hypotheses, both new and old
 Importance of studying the topic.
 Literature to justify what gains or losses will occur if the problem is not solved.
 Current and previous studies of variables under study that shows ways in which
othr researchers have treated the problem.

Some questions you may think about as you develop your literature review:

 What is known about the subject you are interested in conducting research?
 Are there any gaps in the knowledge of the subject?
 Have areas of further study been identified by other researchers that you may
want to consider?
 Who are the significant research personalities in this area?
 Is there consensus about the topic?
 What aspects have generated significant debate on the topic?
 What methods or problems were identified by others studying in the field and
how might they impact your research?
 What is the most productive methodology for your research based on the
literature you have reviewed?
 What is the current status of research in this area?
 What sources of information or data were identified that might be useful to you?

5.2 Writing literature review.

The process entails:
1. Citing the author of the book or article, year of study and the page.
2. Making clear and logical presentation of the past research work published up to that
time
3. Description of variables using significant findings by past researcher.
4. Showing the foundation of the theory, theoretical and conceptual frame work and
hypotheses.
5. Convincing the reader that the researcher has knowledge concerning the subject

5.3 Steps in conducting literature review

Step 1: The first step of conducting literature review is selecting your topic. This will
enable you only obtain relevant material. A research topic is selected based on the
methods discussed in the previous chapter.

Step 2: Search the literature concerning your topic. Go to the library or do online search.
Use general descriptors to begin your search (e.g. malaria).Make your descriptors more
specific and in line to your topic as you find out what information is available. Always
focus on recent
Rely on scholarly sources. These are sources that contain a serious detailed study on a
particular topic. Examples include: The journal of the American Medical Association,
British journal of sociology e.t.c

Step 3: Evaluating content

This involves finding the most significant literature in your field of study. Focus on
sources that have been published by experts in that field. Start by reading the abstract
to see if you want to continue reading the entire article. Read the discussion part to try
and identify the strengths and weaknesses and a possible way forward.

Step 4: Synthesizing knowledge

This involves developing the argument, build your case and evaluate the various parts
Of your argument
Step 5: Critique the literature:
Look for logical interpretations of evidence to produce propositions that signal a specific
conclusion.

Step 6: Write your review.

Write it to understand, that is, to develop and understand your topic and to be
understood as well. If necessary, redraft the content; you want to make sure your work
accurately and adequately communicate the ideas to your readers.

5.4 Source of literature

5.4.1 Scientific journal
This is a publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting
new research. Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer-reviewed, in an
attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality, and scientific
validity. Examples include:
 Journal of Scientific Psychology.
 American Journal of hematology and oncology.
 European Journal of organic chemistry.
 Expert review of anticancer therapy

Other sources include books, magazines, historical records, newspaper e.t.c

Revision questions
1. State the role of literature review in research.
2. State four sources of literature.
3. Outline the process of conducting literature review.
4. Briefly give a summary of literature review in research.

Activity 4
Carry out an extensive literature review on your previously selected [Link] to
carefully note your source of information.

Chapter six
Methodology

Objectives:
1. To be able to select an appropriate research design, data collection methods, tools
and instrumentation to be used in research.
2. To be able to apply the research methods in your research project.
3. To be able to conduct data analysis.

4Describe various data collection techniques and state their uses and limitations.

5. Identify various sources of bias in data collection and ways of preventing bias.

6 Identify ethical issues involved in the implementation of research and ways of

ensuring that your research informants or subjects are not harmed by your study.

6.0 Introduction:
You need to identify an appropriate research design, understand the research methods,
tools and instruments so as to conduct a successful research. This section simply
describes the methods that you are going to use in order to carry out your research. It
should be clearly elaborated to enable another researcher to follow the same procedure
and be able to obtain similar finding and draw the same conclusions without any
difficulty. The methodology chapter should include the following sub sections

6.1 Area of study

This defines the limit where the research will be carried out. You need to know where
the population will be found so as to identify the study area. When describing the study
area, the following should be included
 Vegetation of the area.
 Transport structures/modes of transport.
 Economic and social activities within the area.
 Size of the area (in hectares)
 A map of the geographical coverage of the area.
 Towns within the area.

Study sites: This is a detailed description of places where you are going to conduct
your research. This includes a description of specific groups, and places such as towns
villages e.t.c

6.2 Study population

Population refers to the specific set of people, animals, elements, events
microorganisms or services that will be involved in the study. The population should be
well described in detail. The researcher should identify and describe the characteristics
of the population involved in the study. A sample (subjects) of the study will then be
drawn from the population.

6.3 Sample design and sample size

Sampling is the use of a subset of the entire population. It is usually done as it is not
possible to study the entire population as this would be tedious, expensive and time
consuming.
There are many types of sampling procedures which are determined by factors such as:
 The objectives of the study
  The nature of the research(qualitative or quantitative)
 Experience of the researcher
 The research questions
 Where detailed analysis of the sample is required
During the process of sampling there may be bias in sampling. These are the data
errors that may occur hence resulting to false finding. Bias in sampling can be due to

 Faulty research instruments(e.g. rulers, measuring tapes, weighing scales)

 Non responses
 Late return of questionnaires
 False information from the respondents
 Biasness of the interviewer concerning a certain culture or political differences

6.4Types of sampling methods

6.4.1 Simple random sampling

Each item in the population has the same probability of being selected as part of the
sample as any other item. This is usually achieved by the use of computers that will
generate the table of random numbers. The lottery method can also be used. In this
method, names of the subject or objects, in the population frame are written on
pieces of paper and put in a container .The pieces of paper are then thoroughly
mixed so as each item has an equal chance of being selected. Random sampling
can be done with or without replacement. If done without replacement, an item is not
returned in the population after being selected and thus can only occur once in the
sample.

6.4.2 Systematic sampling

 Every nth element from the list is selected as the sample is, starting with a sample
element n randomly selected from the first k elements. For example if a population
has 1000 elements and a sample size of 100 is needed, then k would be
1000/100=[Link] number 5 is randomly selected from the first ten elements on the list,
the sample would continue down the list selecting the 5 th element from each group of
ten elements

6.4.3 Cluster sampling

Also known as block sampling. In cluster sampling, the population that is being
selected is divided into groups known as clusters. Instead of these groups being
homogenous based on a certain criteria, a cluster is as heterogeneous as possible
to match the population. For example all the clusters in the population are listed (e.g.
Hospitals, markets, restraunts, and colleges).Subjects are then selected from each
cluster ensuring that the selected subjects are a representative of the entire
population.

6.4.4 Stratified sampling

The population is first divided into subgroups known as the strata based on mutually
exclusive criteria. Random or systematic samples are then taken from each of the
subgroup (stratum).The sampling fraction for each of the subgroup may be taken in
the same proportion as the subgroup has in the population. For example, if 40
students are to be selected,5%are first years,25%are second years,60%are third
years and 10% are fourth years, then 2 first years,10 second years 24 third years
and 4 fourth years will be selected randomly so as to be part of the sample
population of [Link] sampling can also sample an equal number of items from
each subgroup.
Advantages over other sampling methods include;
1. Improves the accuracy/efficiency of estimation
2. Permits greater balancing of statistical power of tests of differences between strata
by sampling equal numbers from strata varying widely in size.
3. Allows use of different sampling techniques for different subpopulations.
4. Focuses on important subpopulations and ignores irrelevant ones.

Disadvantages
1. Requires selection of relevant stratification variables which can be difficult.
2. Is not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups.
3. Can be expensive to implement.

6.4.5 Quota sampling

In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups,
just as in stratified sampling. Quota sampling is useful when time is limited, a sampling
frame is not available and the budget is very tight or when detailed accuracy is not
important. One can also choose how samples to be obtained from each category. The
problem with quota sampling is that you have to decide the characteristic on which you
will base your quota (e.g. age, sex tribe, occupation)

6.4.6 Multistage sampling

This is a complex form of cluster sampling. Two or more levels of the units are
imbedded one into the other. For example geographic areas(primary units),
factories(secondary units),employees(tertiary units).At each stage, a sample of the
corresponding unit is selected. At first, a sample of primary units is selected, then, in
each of those selected, a sample of secondary units is selected, and so on. All ultimate
units (individuals, for instance) selected at the last step of this procedure are then
surveyed. The reasons for adopting such a design may be reducing costs, for example,
when interviewers are assigned to persons located in a restricted area, or reducing the
sample error. Multi-stage sampling is sometimes used when no general sample frame
exists. In this case, a first step is to select, at random, a sample of areas, collective
units, or villages from a list where they are all registered (primary units). Then, for each
selected primary unit, a comprehensive enumeration of all units of lower rank is made,
thus obtaining a local sample frame among which a sample of secondary units will be
selected.

6.4.7 Purposive sampling

Subjects are selected because of some characteristic. Purposive sampling targets a

particular group of people. When the desired population for the study is rare or very
difficult to locate and recruit for a study, purposive sampling may be the only option. For
example, you are interested in studying cognitive processing speed of young adults who
have suffered closed head brain injuries in automobile accidents. This would be a
difficult population to find.

6.4.8 Snowball sampling

This sampling method is used if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a
very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique works like chain
referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the
subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest.

The process is much like asking your subjects to nominate another person with the
same trait as your next subject. The researcher then observes the nominated subjects
and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient number of subjects.

For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects.
It is also possible that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being
able to observe one of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to more
subjects for the study. The process is cheap and cost efficient and needs little planning.
The disadvantages of this method are that the researcher has little control over this
method and the representative of the sample is not guaranteed.
6.5 Data collection methods

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our

objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they
occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it

will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way.

Example:

Various data collection techniques can be used such as:

 Using available information

 Observing
 Interviewing (face-to-face)
 Administering written questionnaires
 Focus group discussions
 Projective techniques, mapping, scaling

6.5.1 Using available information

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others,
although it may not necessarily have been analyzed or published. Locating these
sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any data collection
effort.

For example, analysis of the information routinely collected by health facilities can be
very useful for identifying problems in certain interventions or in flows of drug supply, or
for identifying increases in the incidence of certain diseases.
Analysis of health information system data, census data, unpublished reports and
publications in archives and libraries or in offices at the various levels of health and
health-related services, may be a study in itself. Usually, however, it forms part of a
study in which other data collection techniques are also used.

6.5.2 Interviews

Types of interviews

Face to face interview

An interview is used to obtain information from one person about particular situations,
problems or topics. This kind of interview involves a direct meeting between interviewer
and interviewee. The interview can be structured or semi-structured.
The structured interview is designed to elicit specific responses to specific questions.
Responses to a structured interview will normally be easier to quantify and interpret
since uniform questions tend to yield a narrower range of responses. The semi-
structured interview uses open-ended questions to explore broad issues in a non-
directive, non-threatening manner.

Advantages

1. The main advantage of face-to-face or direct interviews is that the researcher can
adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubt and ensure that the responses are
properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the questions.

2. The researcher can also pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent. Any
discomfort, stress and problems that the respondent experiences can be detected
through frowns, nervous taping and other body language, unconsciously exhibited by
any person.
Disadvantages
1. The main disadvantages of face-to-face interviews are the geographically limitations
they may impose on the surveys and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to
be done nationally or internationally.

2. The costs of training interviewers to minimize interviewer's biases for example

differences in questioning methods, interpretation of response are also high.

3. Respondents might feel uneasy about the anonymity of their responses when they
interact during face to face interviews.

Telephone interviews

This is a prescheduled interview that takes place between the interviewer and the
interviewee. Unlike the face to face interview, there is no meeting with the parties
involved

Advantages

1. Telephone interview enable a researcher to gather information rapidly.

2. Wide geographical access. People from all over the globe can be accessed.

3. The people are likely to cooperate due to the confidentiality involved.

4. Access to dangerous or politically sensitive areas.

Disadvantages.

1. Some people may not have telephones

2. People often dislike the intrusion of a call to their home.

3. Telephone interviews need to be relatively short otherwise the people will feel
imposed upon.

4. Many people do not have publicly listed telephone numbers

5. The interviewer has no view on the situation in which the interviewee is situated.
Because of this the interviewer has lesser possibilities to create a good interview
ambience.

E-Mailed interviews.

Advantages

1. There is extended access to participants.

2. The questionnaire may be handed to the respondents or mailed to them, but in all
cases they are returned to the researcher via mail.

3. Cost is very low, since bulk postage is cheap in most countries.

4. Respondents can answer at their own convenience.

5. No interviewer bias introduced

6. Large amount of information can be obtained: some mail surveys are as long as 50
pages

Disadvantages

1. Long time delays, often several months, before the surveys are returned and
statistical analysis can begin

3. Not suitable for issues that may require clarification

6.5.3 Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other

prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.

Advantages

1. The responses are gathered in a standardized way, so questionnaires are more

objective unlike interviews.

2. Generally it is relatively quick to collect information a questionnaire. However in some

situations they can take a longtime not only to design but also to apply and analyze.

3. Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews

especially for studies involving large sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written
questionnaires become even more cost effective as the number of research questions
increases.

4. They are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be
easily done with many computer software packages.

5. Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has had some
experience completing questionnaires and they generally do not make people
apprehensive.

6. Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no middle-

man bias. The researcher's own opinions will not influence the respondent to answer
questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influence the
respondent.

7. Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys. When a

respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the
questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research methods, the respondent is
not interrupted by the research instrument.

Disadvantages

Questionnaires, like many evaluation methods occur after the event, so participants
may forget

Important issues.

Questionnaires are standardized so it is not possible to explain any points in the

questions that participants might misinterpret. This could be partially solved by piloting
the questions on a small group of students or at least friends and colleagues. It is
advisable to do this anyway.
Open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take a long time
to process and analyze. One way of limiting this would be to limit the space available to
students so their responses are concise or to sample the students and survey only a
portion of them.
Respondents may answer superficially especially if the questionnaire takes a long
time to complete. The common mistake of asking too many questions should be
avoided.
Students may not be willing to answer the questions. They might not wish to reveal
the information or they might think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps
even be penalized by giving their real opinion. Students should be told why the
information is being collected and how the results will be beneficial. They should be
asked to reply honestly and told that if their response is negative this is just as useful as
a more positive opinion. If possible the questionnaire should be anonymous

1. Open ended or unstructured (qualitative)

The interviewee is at liberty to answer the questions without any limitation. Examples

 Tell me about yourself.

 Why do you indulge in alcohol

 What is your opinion on traditional birth attendants?

2. Semi- structured

Semi-structured interviews are conducted with a fairly open framework which allow for
focused, conversational, two-way communication. They can be used both to give and
receive information. A semi-structured interview is flexible, allowing new questions to be
brought up during the interview as a result of what the interviewee says. The interviewer
in a semi-structured interview generally has a framework of themes to be explored.

3. Structured questionnaires.

The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the
same questions in the same order. This ensures that answers can be reliably
aggregated and that comparisons can be made with confidence between sample
subgroups or between different survey periods. The answers are answered in on way
(e.g. yes or no)

4. Focus group discussion

This is a form of qualitative research method where people from similar backgrounds or
experiences (e.g., mothers, HIV/AIDS patients, students) are brought together to
discuss a specific topic of interest to the investigator(s). Homogeneous samples are
preferred because mixing age/ gender groups may inhibit some people, especially
women, from expressing their views. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting
where participants are free to talk with other group members. The main characteristic of
a focus group is the interaction between the moderator and group, as well as the
interaction between members. The objective is to give the researcher an understanding
of the participants’ perspective on the topic in the discussion. Focus groups are rapidly
gaining popularity in health and medical research.

Advantages of focus groups include:

 Quick, cheap and relatively easy to assemble

 Good for getting rich data in participants' own words and developing deeper
insights
 People are able to build on one another's responses and come up with ideas
they might not have thought of in a 1-on-1 interview
 Good for obtaining data from children and/or people with low levels of literacy
 Provides an opportunity to involve people in data analysis (e.g. "Out of the issues
we have talked about, which ones are most important to you?")
 Participants can act as checks and balances on one another - identifying factual
errors or extreme views

Limitations of focus groups include:

 The responses of each participant are not independent

 A few dominant focus group members can skew the session
 Focus groups require a skilled and experienced moderator
 The data which results from a focus group requires skill and experience to
analyze

6.5.4 Observation

Observational research techniques solely involve the researcher or researchers making

observations.
To develop an observation tool, you want first to establish the indicators for the
observation. Indicators are based on what you expect to find in the environment,
product or process as a result of your program. The second thing you want to do is
consider each of the indicators and measure them for their presence or absence, and
then, their quality. The observed resorts may be recorded by methods such as video
taping, taking notes or counting occurrences

Advantages
1. In terms of validity, observation findings are considered strong as compared to other
methods because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a
particular behavior.
Disadvantages
1. There are problems with reliability. Reliability refers the extent that observations can
be replicated. Seeing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming
task.
2. There is a possibility of the researcher being bias. Often; it is assumed that the
researcher may see what they want to see.

6.6 Data presentation

6.6.1 Pie charts

A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart that is divided into sectors, illustrating
proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central
angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. Pie charts can be an
effective way of displaying information in some cases, in particular if the intent is to
compare the size of a slice with the whole pie, rather than comparing the slices among
them. Below is an example of a pie chart
6.6.2 Histograms

The histogram provides a graphical summary of the shape of the data's distribution. It
often is used in combination with other statistical summaries such as the boxplot, which
conveys the median, quartiles, and range of the data. Below is an example of a
histogram.
6.6.3 Scatter plots

Scatter plots show the relationship between two variables by displaying data points on a
two-dimensional graph. The variable that might be considered an explanatory variable is
plotted on the x axis, and the response variable is plotted on the y axis.

Scatter plots are especially useful when there is a large number of a data point. They
provide the following information about the relationship between two variables:

 Strength
 Shape - linear, curved, etc.
 Direction - positive or negative
  Presence of outliers

A correlation between the variables results in the clustering of data points along a line.
The following is an example of a scatter plot suggestive of a positive linear relationship.

6.7 Variables in research.

A variable is any measured characteristic or attribute that differs for different subjects.
For example, if height of 50 subjects was to be measured, then height would be a
variable.

Independent variable
The independent variable is the variable that is representing the value being
manipulated or changed. It is what the experimenter changes so as to carry out an
experiment.
This is what the experimenter changes or enacts in order to carry out the experiment
For instance: if you are measuring the growth rate of bacteria under aerobic conditions
for 12 hours a day versus bacteria that is only exposed to aerobic conditions for 6
hours, the amount of time per day that the bacteria is exposed to aerobic conditions per
day is the independent variable-the value that you control. The growth rate of the
bacteria would be a dependent variable.

Dependent variable
The dependent variable is what changes when the independent variable changes ( the
dependent variable depends on the outcome of the independent variable). Example:
You are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent
variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be the heart rate. You
can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those
stress levels change heart rate.

Extraneous and Confounding Variables

The independent and dependent variables are not the only variables present in many
experiments. In some cases, extraneous variables may also play a role. This type of
variable is one that may have an impact on the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables.

For example, in our previous description of an experiment on the effects of sleep

deprivation on test performance, other factors such as age, gender and academic
background may have an impact on the results. In such cases, the experimenter will
note the values of these extraneous variables so this impact on the results can be
controlled for.

There are two basic types of extraneous variables:

 Participant Variables: These extraneous variables are related to individual

characteristics of each participant that may impact how he or she responds.
These factors can include background differences, mood, anxiety, intelligence,
awareness and other characteristics that are unique to each person.

 Situational Variables: These extraneous variables are related to things in the

environment that may impact how each participant responds. For example, if a
participant is taking a test in a chilly room, the temperature would be considered
an extraneous variable. Some participants may not be affected by the cold, but
others might be distracted or annoyed by the temperature of the room.

In many cases, extraneous variables are controlled for by the experimenter. In the case
of participant variables, the experiment might select participants that are the same in
background and temperament to ensure that these factors do not interfere with the
results. If, however, a variable cannot be controlled for, it becomes what is known as a
confounding variable. This type of variable can have an impact on the dependent
variable, which can make it difficult to determine if the results are due to the influence of
the independent variable, the confounding variable or an interaction of the two.

Revision questions.
1. Define a variable in reference to research.
2. State the differences between an independent and a dependent variable.
3. State three ways of data presentation.
4. State three ways of data analysis.
5. Give a summary of conducting research methodology.
6. Discuss three types of questionnaires.
7. State the difference between random sampling and stratified sampling.

Activity 6.
1. Give a brief summary of how you are going to conduct your research.
2. Identify your variables and differentiate between the dependent and independent
variable.
3. Identify the methods that you will use for your data analysis and presentation.
 Chapter 8

Citing authors in research

Objective:
1. Learn the different formats of quoting references in research.

8.0. Introduction:
To avoid plagiarism in research projects, a researcher is required to acknowledge the
sources of words, facts or ideas borrowed from other scholars. Most academic
disciplines or professional bodies require special documentation formats or styles in
research projects [Link]; the style should be consistent with the
requirements of each discipline.

8.1 In-text citation

8.1.1 Work by two authors:

Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the
work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names.E.g (Gerald & Beatrice, 2010).

8.1.2 Work by Three to Five Authors:

All the authors in the signal phrase should be listed in the signal phrase or in the
parentheses the first time you site the .E.g (Osteen, Myles, Jakes, Benny, & Copeland,
1993)

In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in the
signal phrase or in parentheses.E.g (Osteen et al., 1993).
8.1.3 Six or More Authors:

Use the first author's name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.

David et al. (2001) argued that malaria is common .

(David et al., 2001).

8.1.4 Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses:

When your parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way
they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon.

(David , 2002; Faith, 1983)

8.1.5 Authors with the Same Last Name:

To avoid confusion, use first initials with the last names.

([Link], 2001; L. Robert, 1998).

8.2 American Psychological Association (APA) format.

This is the most commonly used to cite sources within the field of social sciences,
psychology and education.
8.2.1 in-Text Citations in APA Format

When citing references in the text of a paper, the author's name should be used
followed by the date of publication. E.g. (Eriksson, 2000)

8.2.3 Reference Page in APA Format

 All references should begin on a new page that will be titled "References" and
center the title text at the top of the page.

 All entries should be in alphabetical order

 The first line of a reference should be flush with the left margin. Each
additional line should be indented (usually accomplished by using the TAB
key.)

 Each reference should be single-spaced, though double spacing should be

used between the references.

 All sources cited should appear both in-text and on the reference page. Any
reference that appears in the text of your report or article must be cited on the
references page, and any item appearing on your reference page must be
also included somewhere in the body of your text.

 Titles of books, journals, magazines, and newspapers should appear in

 Italics. Below is an example of a reference page using the APA format:

REFERENCES
[1] Bremen, J. (2001). The ears of hippopotamus: manifestation, determinants, and
estimates of malaria burden. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 64 (1, 2) S, 1-11

[2] Charlwood, J. D. Kihonda, J. Sama, S. Billingsley, P.F., Hadji, H. Verhave, J.P.

Lyimo, E. Luttikhuizen, P.C. Smith, T. (1995). The rise and fall of Anopheles
arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae) in a Tanzanian village. Bulletin of
Entomological Research, 85:37-44.

[3] Detinova, T.S. (1962) Age-grouping methods in Diptera of medical importance with
special reference to some vectors of malaria. WHO monograph series 47,
Geneva?

[4] Frevert, U. (1993). Malaria circumsporozoites protein binds to heparin sulphate

proteoglycans associated with the surface membrane hepatocytes. J. Exp.
Med. 177: 1287-1298.

8.3 . MLA (Modern Language Association) format.

 MLA citation style refers to the rules that were established by the Modern
Language Association for acknowledging the sources used in a research paper.
MLA citation style uses a simple two-part parenthetical documentation system for
citing sources: In-text citations of a paper are used to point to an alphabetical
works cited list that appears at the end of the paper. Together, these references
identify and credit the sources used in the paper and allow others to access and
retrieve this material. The general rules of the MLA format include:

-Leave one inch margins all around the text of the paper (left side, right side, top
and bottom) except for page numbers.

-The research paper should be double spaced.

-The research paper does not need a title page. At the top of the first page, at the
left-hand margin, type your name, your instructor's name, the course name and
number, and the date all on separate, double-spaced lines.

- Number your pages consecutively throughout the manuscript (including the first
page) in the upper right-hand corner of each page, one-half inch from the top.
Type your last name before the page number.

- Tables should be labeled "Table," given an Arabic numeral, and captioned (with
those words flush to the left-hand margin). Other material such as photographs, images,
charts, and line-drawings should be labeled "Figure" and be properly numbered and
captioned.

Chapter 7
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
 Chapter objectives

1. Define the term ethics and other terms associated with ethics in research.

2. Describe how to go about proper publication in research.

3. Explain the importance of proper storage of data.

4. Understand the contents of the informed consent form.

5. Understand the consequences of plagiarism in research writing.

7. Understand the different areas of dishonesty in research.

8. Learn how to go about research involving human subjects.

Terms definition

Ethics: These are the moral principle governing research.

Informed consent: Participants have adequate information regarding the research,

are capable of comprehending the information and have the power of the free
choice, enabling them to consent or to decline participation voluntarily.

Seven areas of scientific dishonesty

1. Plagiarism.

Plagiarism is defined in dictionaries as "the wrongful appropriation, close imitation, or

purloining and publication, of another author's language, thoughts, ideas, or
expressions, and the representation of them as one's own original work. Understanding
plagiarism helps us to know how to go about sharing information and writing scientific
paper since knowledge is generated from knowledge. The problem of plagiarism is on
the increase especially in learning institutions. The consequences may vary depending
on the nature of the offence and the number of time one commits the offence. In
learning institute The problem of plagiarism is on the increase especially in learning
institutions. The consequences may include disqualification of the entire work, getting a
lower grade, loss of reputation, academic probation and even expulsion from the
learning institution. As a student is expelled from one institution, they may find it hard to
get admission into another institution. To avoid plagiarism the person making the
statement, presenting their view etc. in the book or publication must be referenced next
to the extract from the book, or in a footnote at the bottom of the page on which the
extract exists.

Paraphrasing: Involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A
paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is
usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the
source and condensing it slightly.
Quotations: Must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source.
They must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the
original author.
Summarizing: Involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the
main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original
source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview
of the source material.
2. Fabrication
This is the publication of intentional (deliberate) or misleading research for one purpose
or the other. It is subdivided into three:
Obfuscation: This refers to the use of jargon (difficult words or terms) so as to make
something difficult to understand. Doctors may use obfuscation to conceal some
information from patients. Obfuscation is also used to prevent work from being
duplicated (e.g. soft wares).
Base rate fallacy: Using weak evidence to make a probability judgment without taking
into account known empirical statistics about the probability.
Falsifications: This refers to the act of making a false statement concerning a
particular thing or mispresentation of results.

3. Poor data storage and retention

Data collected during the process of research need to be kept safely and with due
regards to issues of confidentiality and anonymity. Information on video tapes, auto
tapes, Cds, DVDs should be stored in fireproof lockable cabinets. Data kept
electronically should be password protected. It should also be protected from any
computer virus or Trojan.

4. Non publication of data.

This involves not including data in your research paper because it does not support your
hypothesis. Researchers may be tempted to do this especially if there is funding
involved. Non publication of data is also referred to as suppression. Examples include
failure to publish information if the information states that the disease being researched
is no longer a threat in the community or the drug the researcher intends to use is
harmful.

5. Faulty data gathering.

This can Faulty data gathering in research will automatically result to bias in the
research findings are as a result of collecting data from subjects (participants) who are
not meeting the objectives of the research. It can also result from the malfunctioning of
the instruments being used to collect data e.g. rulers, weighing scale, tape measure
[Link] include inappropriate treatment of the research subjects and recording data
incorrectly.

6. Misleading authorship.
Authorship credit is determined by the contributions of the researchers towards the
research paper. Meaning the person who comes up with the research idea
automatically becomes the first author. This has to be decided before the research is
started. Authorship should include only those who directly contributed to the research.
This means that technicians who may have helped in data collection or anyone else
should not be included as an author

Research involving human subjects

Ethical considerations have to be put in mind especially if the research is involving
human subjects. There are several ethical issues that must be considered when
designing research that will utilize participants who are human beings.
 The investigator should be primarily concerned with the safety of the subject
(participant).Meaning; the interest of the researcher should not outweigh the
wellbeing of the subject. This can be achieved by carefully considering the
risk/benefit ratio. The investigator must therefore do a through research
concerning what he intends to study.
 The investigator must obtain informed consent from each person participating in
the research. This should be obtained in writing but at times oral consents are
sometimes acceptable. After the participant has had the opportunity to carefully
consider the risks and benefits and to ask any questions. Informed consent
should be seen as an ongoing process. It is the duty of the investigator to first
inform the subject on what the research is all about before they (participants)
give the consent.
 The investigator must consider the privacy and confidentiality concerns will be
approached. Researchers must be sensitive to know only how information is
 protected from unauthorized observation, but also if and how participants are to
be notified of any unforeseen findings from the research that they may or may
not want to know.
 The investigator must consider how adverse events will be handled; they must
ensure that there is a qualified person who will provide care incase there are
adverse effects (e.g. injuries or reaction to the treatment) on the research
subjects. In addition, before enrolling participants in an experimental trial, the
investigator should be in a state of "equipoise," that is, if a new intervention is
being tested against the currently accepted treatment, the investigator should be
genuinely uncertain which approach is superior. In other words, a true null
hypothesis should exist at the onset regarding the outcome of the trial.

Principles of research in human subjects.

1. The principle of autonomy.

Autonomy refers to the ability of a person to self determine what they want. The
subject should be at free will to decide if they want to be part of the research or not.
They are also at free will to withdraw from the research if they so wish. A researcher
should therefore respect the principle of autonomy.

2. The principle of beneficence.

The principle of beneficence stands for the proposition that it is the physician's duty
to do good for his patient. This is certainly a foundational principle of medical
practice finding its roots in Hippocrates. For centuries, beneficence was actualized
through the process of the patient presenting himself to the physician for
examination and inquiry and then following the advice of the physician. In recent
decades, societal needs for self determination have sometimes brought this principle
into conflict with autonomy.
 3. The principle of non- maleficence.

Non-maleficence means to “do no harm.” Physicians must refrain from providing

ineffective treatments or acting with malice toward patients. This principle means
that harm to the patient should not be done in the first place, hence prevention is
better than cure.

4. The principle of justice.

Study participants have a right to fair and equal treatment before, during and after
their participation in the study.

A sample of a letter of consent for conducting research.

Protocol Title: Efficacy of tetracycline to treat syphilis in males 25-40 years.

Please read this consent document carefully before you decide to participate in
this study.

Purpose of the research study:

The purpose of this study is to examine if tetracycline is effective in the treatment of

syphilis.

What you will be asked to do in the study:

You will be required to give a blood sample or the cerebrospinal fluid so as to test for
the presence of antibodies against Treponema pallidum (the bacteria that causes
syphilis).The blood will be stored in a container containing an anticoagulant to prevent it
from clotting. You will also be required to fill a questionnaire. Incase you are found to
have syphilis, treatment will be administered inform of tablets. Two tablets (500gms) will
be administered daily for three months. Follow up will be done on monthly bases

Time required:

15 minutes

Risks and Benefits:

You may experience pain as the specimen is being collected. There may be overgrowth
of non susceptible organisms that may result to urinary tract infections or oral thrush.
Renal toxicity may also occur that can finally lead to death. Tetracycline may also
render oral contraceptives less effective. If you have any allergy, you will be excluded
from the study. Expectant mothers will also be excluded from the study. The benefits
include getting a free screening of syphilis as well as free treatment. You will also be at
liberty to consult with me any time you wish.

Compensation:

You will be paid Ksh500.00 compensation for participating in this research.

Confidentiality:

Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Your information will
be assigned a code number. The list connecting your name to this number will be kept
in a locked file in my faculty supervisor's office. When the study is completed and the
data have been analyzed, the list will be destroyed. Your name will not be used in any
report.

Voluntary participation:

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not
participating.
Right to withdraw from the study:

You have the right to withdraw from the study at anytime without consequence.

Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:

Iam a Community Health student at Thika school of Medical and Health Sciences.P.o
Box 429-01000, Thika.

Cel phone no ..

Whom to contact about your rights as a research participant in the study:

Agreement:

I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the
procedure and I have received a copy of this description.

Participant: ___________________________________________ Date:

_________________

Principal Investigator: ___________________________________ Date:

_________________

Revision questions
1. Define the following terms
 Plagiarism.
 Fabrication.
 Falsification.
 Consent letter.
2. Elaborate on data storage in research.
3. Discuss the principles of research involving human subjects.

Activity 7

Draft a letter of consent that you are going to use in conducting your research.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Theoretical frameworks provide a particular perspective, or lens, through which to examine a

topic. They come from many areas of academic research, resulting in psychological theories,
social theories, organizational theories and economic theories among others. Theoretical
frameworks are often used to define concepts and explain phenomena.
Using a model of this sort can be a way to structure a research paper or grant proposal.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by

focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint
[framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the
data to be gathered

What are the 3 basic features of theoretical framework?

Among key features of three theoretical frameworks: multicomponent model, attentional

control model and embedded process model. In recent years, research from cognitive science
has provided a solid theoretical framework to develop evidence-based interventions in education

The theoretical framework include (1) the research problem and (2) the rationale for conducting
an investigation of the problem. These two factors form the basis of a theoretical framework
section of the research proposal.

There are many different lenses, such as psychological theories, social theories, organizational
theories and economic theories, which may be used to define concepts and explain
phenomena. Sometimes these frameworks may come from an area outside of your
immediate academic discipline.
Applying existing theories to research, in the form of a theoretical framework, is necessary to
advance knowledge from what is already known toward the next steps to be taken

Developing a theoretical framework starts with identifying the intervention's essential

elements. Subsequent steps include the following: (a) identifying and defining the different
variables (independent, dependent, mediating/intervening, moderating, and control); (b)
postulating mechanisms how the independent variables will lead to the dependent variables;
(c) identifying existing theoretical models supporting the theoretical framework under
development; (d) scripting the theoretical framework into a figure or sets of statements as a
series of hypotheses, if then logic statements, or a visual model; (e) content and face
validation of the theoretical framework; and (f) revising the theoretical framework. In our
example, we combined the "diffusion of innovation theory" and the "health belief model" to
develop our framework

The Health Belief Model

The Health Belief Model is a theoretical model that can be used to guide
health promotion and disease prevention programs. It is used to explain and
predict individual changes in health behaviors. It is one of the most widely
used models for understanding health behaviors.
Key elements of the Health Belief Model focus on individual beliefs about
health conditions, which predict individual health-related behaviors. The
model defines the key factors that influence health behaviors as an
individual's perceived threat to sickness or disease (perceived susceptibility),
belief of consequence (perceived severity), potential positive benefits of
action (perceived benefits), perceived barriers to action, exposure to factors
that prompt action (cues to action), and confidence in ability to succeed
(self-efficacy).

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes the influence of individual
experiences, the actions of others, and environmental factors on individual
health behaviors. SCT provides opportunities for social support through
instilling expectations, self-efficacy, and using observational learning and
other reinforcements to achieve behavior change.
Key components of the SCT related to individual behavior change include:

 Self-efficacy: The belief that an individual has control over and is able
to execute a behavior.
  Behavioral capability: Understanding and having the skill to perform
a behavior.
 Expectations: Determining the outcomes of behavior change.
 Expectancies: Assigning a value to the outcomes of behavior change.
 Self-control: Regulating and monitoring individual behavior.
 Observational learning: Watching and observing outcomes of others
performing or modeling the desired behavior.
 Reinforcements: Promoting incentives and rewards that encourage
behavior change.

Program Models for Rural Health Promotion and

Disease Prevention
Rural communities are implementing various models for health promotion
and disease prevention programs. Common approaches used by
communities include:

 Community Organization Model

 Community Readiness Model
 PRECEDE/PROCEED Model
 Clinical Models
 Workplace Model

Community Organization Model

The Community Organization Model is a participatory decision-making
process that empowers communities to improve health. It emphasizes active
participation from the community in identifying key health issues and
strategies to address them. Communities focus on their strengths and
collectively mobilize to develop programs to achieve health goals.
Characteristics of the Community Organization Model include:

 Understanding the context and root causes of health issues

 Collaborative decision making and problem solving
 Focusing efforts on specific issues
 Actively engaging participation from various groups and organizations
within the community
 Developing and maintaining capacity and power to produce lasting
change
 Providing feedback to the community

Community health workers (CHWs) may support community organization

through targeted activities to garner support for policy and social changes.
For more information on how CHWs support community organization, visit
the Community Health Workers Toolkit.

Implementation Considerations
Successful health promotion and disease prevention programs rely on
involvement from the community. When individual community members
come together to identify problems and strategies to address them, it
increases the ability of the program to affect change. Other benefits of
community organization include empowerment of community members,
increased ownership among community members for their health, and
improved social support for achieving healthy changes.

Community Readiness Model

In the Community Readiness Model, communities are motivated by the
difference between current health situations or behaviors and the desire to
reach a goal. Community readiness refers to how prepared the community is
to take action to address a particular health issue.
There are several stages in community readiness. These stages are:

 Absence of awareness – the community does not recognize the health

issue.
 Denial or resistance – there is little recognition or concern among
community members about the health issue.
 Vague awareness – the community may be concerned about the health
issue, but the motivation to address it is low.
 Pre-planning – the community recognizes that action is needed, but
there is a lack of focused activity around the health issue.
 Preparation – leaders in the community begin to plan and support
approaches to addressing the health issue.
 Initiation – the community begins activities to address the health issue.
 Stabilization – the community activities are supported by
administrators and other community leaders.
 Confirmation/expansion – activities have been implemented and the
community is comfortable with addressing the health issue.
 High level of community ownership – data are being gathered that
support the efforts, and the approach may be replicated in other
communities.

Implementation Considerations
The Community Readiness Model is issue-specific because community
readiness varies depending on the health topic being addressed. Community
readiness also varies depending on the factors that influence health, such as
knowledge, leadership, and resources. The Community Readiness Model is
useful for identifying approaches for addressing new health issues, when
looking to involve different segments or sub-populations of the community,
for identifying approaches to sustain an ongoing effort, and for community
planning.

THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES.

PROJECT PROPOSAL AND REPORT GUIDELINES.
General considerations.
Length spacing and font size
One and a half line spacing and a standard font size of 12 should be used for the text
and front matter materials except for the title page where different lien spacing and fonts
may be used. Times New Roman font should be used.

Pagination.
The preliminary pages of a research project should be paginated appropriately with
small roman numbers at the bottom center of the page i.e. i, ii, iii, IV

Format.

COVER PAGE

The cover page should appear as below.

Title

Name of the student .Reg No

Signature ..Date

Name of the supervisor

Signature ..Date

A project proposal/report submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of a

diploma/certificate in ..(state your course) of Thika School of Medical and Health
Sciences in the department of
Year ..
Declaration
This page contains the students’ declaration of the originality of the work and approved
by the supervisor.

This project/report is my original work and has not been presented previously for the
award of any academic qualification in another institution.

Name of the student .Reg No ..

Signature ..Date

Name of the supervisor

Signature ..Date ..

ABSTRACT

This is a brief summary of the entire proposal

ACCRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
1.2 Problem statement.
1.3 Justification.
1.4 Research questions/hypothesis.
1.5 Objectives.
1.6 Significance.
1.7 Limitations and delimitations.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research design.
3.2 Location of the study.
3.3 Target population.
3.4 Sampling procedure.
3.5 Data collection techniques.
3.6 Ethical considerations
CHAPTER FOUR (only in the report)

4.0 Data analysis and presentation

CHAPTER FIVE (only in the report)

5.0 Discussion.
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations

Work plan
Budget
References