ALGERIAN DEMOCRATIC AND POPULAR REPUBLIC

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF KASDI MERBAH OUARGLA

Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences

Department of Biological Sciences

CARTOGRAPHY

Document for Master's students in Ecology and Environment

Prepared and designed by :

Dr. SLIMANI Rabia

Academic year: 2022/2023

 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

PREFACE

The map is a helpful tool that we use every day, but most of us disregard or dismiss its capabilities.
Students and professionals alike sometimes equate geography and, by extension, cartography with
studies that just pinpoint places, data, and occurrences.
This narrow and stereotypical view derives from the fact that education, in general, has not been
modified to explain the practical utility of geography and cartography. Meanwhile, the mapping
industry, practice, and media use have all evolved significantly. Mastery of the cartographic tool is now
essential in all areas of knowledge and land management. Cartography has advanced dramatically as a
result of increased knowledge of its capabilities as a tool for decision-making and management,
communication assistance, analysis, and even simulation, as well as advances in computer science. The
latter opens up vast realms of application for cartography and theoretically allows anyone to create a
map.
A map should always have rigor, clarity, and elegance while adhering to the basic laws of graphic
representation. Cartography, as a language, is thus not improved; it learns and is useful only when it
provides the reader with optimum clarity and speed of comprehension. Advances in information
technology and its democratization tend to hide this, and far too many maps contain inaccuracies that
we would prefer to avoid on a daily basis.
When creating or constructing a map, it is critical to remember one of the cartographic tool's core
characteristics: it employs a visual language whose principles, rules, features, and restrictions are all
based on the physiological requirements of the human eye.
This manual, designed for students in their first year of a Master's degree in Environmental Sciences,
covers the fundamental ideas of cartography as well as its primary domains of application in depth. It
tries to put statistics and graphic semiology skills to use. The variety of themes and study places allows
us to highlight the unique characteristics of each mapped data set.
This manual, intended for students in the first year of their Master's degree in Environmental Sciences,
presents in a comprehensive way the basic concepts of cartography as well as its main fields of
application. It aims to apply knowledge in statistics and graphic semiology. The diversity of themes and
study spaces makes it possible to highlight the particularities of each mapped piece of data.

SLIMANI R. | University Of Kasdi Merbah - Ouargla

 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

Contents
I. PRINCIPLES OF CARTOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 1
I.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................................... 1
I.2. Cartographic language ............................................................................................................. 1
I.3. Classification of maps .............................................................................................................. 2
I.4. Evolution of mapping over time .............................................................................................. 5
I.5. Scope of mapping in various fields .......................................................................................... 5
I.6. Importance of mapping ........................................................................................................... 6
II. MAP INFORMATION SOURCE ........................................................................................................... 7
II.1. Planimétrie ........................................................................................................................ 7
II.2. Hydrography .................................................................................................................... 10
II.3. Orographie ...................................................................................................................... 11
II.4. Toponymy ........................................................................................................................ 11
III. MAP SCALE .................................................................................................................................. 12
III.1. Definition ........................................................................................................................ 12
III.2. Type of scale ................................................................................................................... 12
III.3. Classification of scales ..................................................................................................... 13
IV. RELIEF REPRESENTATION (OROGRAPHY)...................................................................................... 15
IV.1. Topographic map ............................................................................................................ 15
IV.2 Relief representation ........................................................................................................ 15
IV.3. Elementary forms of relief ............................................................................................... 17
IV.4. Different types of relief ................................................................................................... 18
V. REFERENCE SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................... 19
V.1. Earth's surface representation .......................................................................................... 19
V.2. Geoid............................................................................................................................... 19
V.3. Ellipsoid ........................................................................................................................... 20
V.4. Geodetic reference system (Datum) ................................................................................. 20
V.5. Coordinate systems .......................................................................................................... 21
V.6. Projection cartography ..................................................................................................... 23
V.7. Different types of map projection ..................................................................................... 24
V.8. Cartographic projections used in Algeria ........................................................................... 25
VI. ORIENTATION CARTOGRAPHICAL ................................................................................................ 27
VI.2. Different Nords ............................................................................................................... 27
VI.3. Description of a Compass................................................................................................ 27
VI.4. Magnetic Declination and Azimuth.................................................................................. 28
VI.5. Orientation with the Compass......................................................................................... 29
VI.6. Determine the position ................................................................................................... 30

SLIMANI R. | University Of Kasdi Merbah - Ouargla

 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

I. PRINCIPLES OF CARTOGRAPHY
I.1. Definitions

o Cartography consists of translating a physical or human theme into a graphic language that
has its own syntax. It is both a science, an art, and a technique.
▪ A science, because its bases are mathematical, with regard to the determination of the
form and dimensions of the Earth and then the transfer of the curved surface of the
Earth on the map thanks to the system of projections.
▪ An art because, as a mode of graphic expression, the map must have qualities of form
(aesthetic and didactic thanks to the clarity of the line and its legibility) in order to make
the best use of the visual abilities of the reader.
▪ One technique, because it requires the use of instruments whose progress has changed
the whole cartographic field (aerial photographs, satellites, computers, printing and
dissemination, etc.).

o The map is a Geometric representation on a flat sheet and according to certain conventions of
a portion of the surface of the ground, consisting of movements of the ground and details of
the ground.
A map is a valuable communication tool. Its aim is to get an optimal message across. It shows the
nature, location, and importance of the phenomena that make up or relate to this space. As a result, a
map is always a reduced, schematized, and selected image of the space studied.

− Reduced: A map never represents space in its real size; it is always a reduced image of reality. As a
result, it involves a precise reduction ratio, the scale.
− Conventional: the cartographer replaces points and lines with evocative conventional signs.
− Selected: A map can never show all the elements of space simultaneously.

I.2. Cartographic language

Graphic language is a space system that has certain peculiarities:

➢ The message is easily structured, and the decryption is done by a series of brief visual fixations
that scan the whole image:
▪ The overall vision of the image: from the initial scanning, the eye will retain only the
most visible graphic elements (which jump to the eyes).

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 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

▪ Fine vision: During the following scans attention will focus on the details. This
exploration makes it possible to extract complementary information.
▪ Reading planes: We will see that these viewing modes allow the cartographer to
organize the information into successive reading planes.

➢ Intrinsic positional and relational properties, allowing:

▪ The localization of phenomena: the initial objective of the map is to allow the
localization and identification of objects.
▪ The development of spatial relations: The possibility of superimposing the information
graphically allows the reader to understand the phenomena of proximity, analyze
them, correlate them, and then deduce from them relational information that was not
explicitly described.

➢ A relative universality, this is true for simple, and figurative ideograms and to a lesser degree,
for complex cartographic images.

I.3. Classification of maps

A classification must group individuals according to their fundamental characteristics, either by

considering the content or the mode of expression (the container).

I.3.1. Classification by content

➢ Topographic maps are those on which appear essentially the results of direct observations
concerning the position in longitude and latitude, the altimetric position, the shape, the
dimension, and the identification of the permanent concrete phenomena existing on the
surface of the soil.... Topographic maps are drawn up on the basis of conventions, are
identical for all maps, and are at very precise scales. Scales from 1/5 000 to 1/100 000,
depending on the degree of development of the country.

➢ Thematic maps: which represent, on a benchmark background, concrete or abstract qualitative

or quantitative phenomena circumscribed and limited by the choice of one or more particular
topics. There are an infinite number of thematic maps; two maps dealing with the same theme
can be very different from a graphic point of view. There are no conventions governing
thematic representations, but only graphic tools to get a message across. Similarly, there is an

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 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

infinity of scales. Among the thematic maps, one can make a ranking by themes, for example,
maps:

▪ Physical: geological, geomorphological, hydrological, and meteorological.

▪ Bio-geographical: phytogeological, zoological, and ecological.
▪ Human Geography: demographic, sociological, political, historical, and cultural.
▪ Economic: agricultural, industrial, transport, and commerce.
▪ General geography: general maps at small scales, etc.

I.3.2. Classification of maps by mode of expression

➢ Elementary degree of reading, the inventory map (or descriptive): The reader uses the map as
a simple data bank; it serves as an artificial memory, allowing him to extract information (ex:
What is there at such a point of the map?).

Figure 1. Inventory maps.

➢ Average degree of reading, the processing (or analysis) map: This type of map allows the user
to process the information, i.e., to make comparisons, create homogeneous groups, quantify
certain groups, and discover spatial relations. The characteristics of this map will be:
▪ A limited number of components to what it is possible to store in order to allow the
processing (the cartographer must therefore first interpret and select the data).
▪ Completeness for each component.
▪ A benchmark fund reduces the information needed to locate the thematic data.

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 Module title: Cartography
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Figure 2. Processing maps.

➢ Higher degree of reading, information map, and synthesis map

➢ The purpose of these maps is to communicate most of the information through an overall
view of the graphic image, making it immediately memorizable.
▪ THE INFORMATION MAP OR MESSAGE MAP: Transmission of selected data, greatly
simplified and extremely schematized in form. Intended for an uninformed public
(newspaper, school use, …etc.).
▪ SYNTHESIS MAP OR TYPOLOGIQUE: Analysis and processing of complex data
resulting in the schematization of several components. This synthesis is intended to
highlight the dominant features of the phenomena and establish great relational
links to allow the specialist or manager to easily prepare decision elements.

Figure 3. Message map. Figure 4. Synthesis map.

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 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

I.4. Evolution of mapping over time

I.4.1. The first maps and their symbolic character

The earliest forms of cartography date back to ancient times, when ancient civilizations used symbolic
representations of the known world. These maps were often based on limited observations and
myths, and they had a more symbolic than precise function.

I.4.2. Technical advances and new geographical discoveries

Over the centuries, cartography has benefited from technological advances and new geographical
discoveries. The invention of the magnetic compass made it possible to indicate the mapinal directions
on the maps, while the geographical explorations required more precise and detailed maps to
represent the new lands discovered.

I.4.3. Impact of printing on the production and distribution of maps

The invention of printing revolutionized the production and distribution of maps. It has become
possible to produce serial maps, which has allowed a wider dissemination of geographical knowledge.
Cartographers have been able to create atlases and terrestrial globes, thus facilitating access to
geographic information for a wider audience.

I.5. Scope of mapping in various fields

➢ Geography: representation of landscapes, reliefs, political boundaries, and natural resources In

geography, cartography plays an essential role in the representation of landscapes, reliefs,
political boundaries, and natural resources. Topographic maps make it possible to visualize the
geographical characteristics of a given region, while thematic maps focus on specific aspects such
as vegetation, climate, population, etc.
➢ Geology: representation of the geological structure, rock formations, mineral resources In
geology, cartography is used to represent the geological structure of the Earth, rock formations,
and mineral resources. Geological maps show the different layers of rock, faults, folds, and other
important geological features. This allows geologists to understand the composition and history
of the Earth's crust.
➢ Other fields of application: navigation, urban planning, environment, land-use planning, etc. In
addition to geography and geology, cartography has applications in many other fields. In
navigation, charts are essential for ship safety and route planning. In urban planning, maps are
used for city design and urban spatial management. In the field of the environment, mapping
makes it possible to visualize ecosystems, protected areas, and natural resources. Land use

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planning, resource management, and many other areas also use mapping to make informed
decisions.

I.6. Importance of mapping

I.6.1. Visualization and analysis of geographical information

Mapping makes it possible to visualize geographical data in a clear and understandable manner. The
maps offer a visual representation that facilitates spatial analysis and the understanding of the
relationships between different geographical phenomena. Through mapping, models, trends, and
patterns can be identified, which is essential for research and decision-making based on geographical
data.

I.6.2. Communication of geographical knowledge

Maps are powerful communication tools for sharing geographic knowledge. They make it possible to
represent complex information in a simplified manner and make it accessible to a wide public. The
maps facilitate communication between experts, decision-makers, and the general public, thus
allowing a better understanding of geographical issues and an awareness of space-related issues.

I.6.3. Support for decision-making and planning

Mapping plays a crucial role in decision-making and planning in many areas. Maps provide essential
information for the identification of high-risk areas, the location of infrastructure, resource
management, and urban development planning. They make it possible to visualize the potential
impacts of the decisions taken and to better evaluate the options available.

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 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

II. MAP INFORMATION SOURCE

The elements on Earth's surface are many and diverse. Depending on the map's scale, some things are
decreased in size, while others are amplified or replaced by traditional signage. Planimetry,
hydrography, orography, and toponymy are the four categories of elements shown on the map.

II.1. Planimétrie
Planimetry is concerned with the portrayal of objects and horizontal details in a certain geographic
area. This contains ground-surface features with no substantial differences in height or relief. Roads,
paths, structures, rivers, lakes, administrative borders, plots, and so forth.

II.1.1. Map depiction of planimetry techniques

Various ways are used to represent planimetry on a map. This comprises symbols, colors, hatching, and
other traditional signs. Colors can be used to distinguish between object categories (for example,
principal routes in red and subsidiary routes in blue). Hatching can be used to highlight locations with
unique relief, such as woodland areas.

II.1.2. Cartographic norms

II.1.2.1. Typical signs and symbols used on maps

Traditional signs and symbols are required in mapping to depict geographical characteristics in a
succinct and understandable manner. Here are a few things to think about:
➢ Typical indications: Conventional signs are standardized graphic representations used to
highlight various objects on a map. The elements on the earth's surface are diverse and
numerous. Depending on the scale of the map, some objects are drawn to their reduced size,
while others are amplified or replaced by conventional signs. The elements represented on the
map can be classified into four categories: planimetry, hydrography, orography, and toponymy.
➢ Symbols : Symbols are specific pictorial representations that are used to express distinct
geographical qualities. A triangle, for example, can represent a mountain; a black dot can
represent a city; a zigzag line can represent a meandering road; and so on. The symbols are
intended to be clearly recognizable and to provide exact information.

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 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

II.1.2.2. Captions and reading keys for map interpretation

To correctly comprehend a map, legends and playback keys are required. They contain thorough
information on the meaning of the map's symbols, colors, and other graphic features. Here is their
critical role:

➢ Legends are map portions that explain the meaning of the symbols and colors utilized. They
enable people to rapidly comprehend the information displayed on the map. A legend may
suggest, for example, that a house symbol indicates a domestic building or that the blue color
represents streams.
➢ Playback keys round out the legend by offering more information about scales, units of
measurement, classifications, and other pertinent components. They aid in the interpretation
of quantitative data and the comprehension of the differences shown on the map, such as
altitude, population density, temperature, and so on.

II.1.2.3. Mapping standards and guidelines for ensuring map consistency and
interpretation

Mapping standards and guidelines are developed to maintain consistency and proper map
interpretation. They want to standardize mapping techniques and verify the quality of the maps that
are created. Some key points to remember are:

➢ Standards of Representation: The Mapping Standards are recommendations for map design
and development. They may include scale rules, cartographic projections, symbols, colors,
legends, and so on. These guidelines help to ensure that maps are uniform and comparable.

➢ Cartographic quality standards offer criteria and measures for assessing map accuracy,
readability, and accuracy. They include guidelines on data resolution, measurement precision,
symbol legibility, coordinate correctness, and so on. These guidelines ensure that maps are
accurate and helpful for their intended purpose.

II.1.3. Different sorts of planimetric objects

The planimetric objects differ depending on the geographical area represented. They may contain
elements.
Roads (motorways, main roads, ways), buildings (residences, trade, public buildings), administrative
borders (national, regional, and communal borders), watercourses (rivers, channels), man-made lakes
(lakes, ponds), vegetation zones, transportation systems (railways, airports), and many other elements
can be included.
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II.1.3.1. Roads and highways

On the maps, high-traffic roads receive a continuous, dense orange-red overload, whereas secondary
roads receive a yellow overload. The other paths to good or poor viability do not have an abundance of
color.

II.1.3.2. Railroads

Thick black lines represent the railroads. The number of channels is shown by small transverse rods that
vary in size depending on the scale of the map.
The inclusion of a flashlight silhouette distinguishes electrified lines from other lines.
The number of channels is shown by small transverse rods that vary in size depending on the scale of
the map.
The inclusion of a flashlight silhouette distinguishes electrified lines from other lines.

II.1.3.3. Miscellaneous construction

The constructions are portrayed in many ways depending on their size and type. A dark flat represents
small buildings. Weft, or hatching, is used to symbolize large buildings. The notable structures, such as
cemeteries, town halls, and monuments, are represented by a succession of silhouettes or traditional
signs.

II.1.3.4. Plants and vegetation

In general, vegetation is represented by a symbol surrounded by a green border. Forest wood is

depicted by a forced green color on large-scale maps. The weft of the brush is a lighter green than that
of wood. Finally, there are orchards and vines, as well as palms.
Finally, orchards, vines, palms, and olive trees are represented by poncifs, which are symbols or regular
constructions of circles or lines.

II.1.3.5. Administrative restrictions and ratings

All administrative boundaries are shown by dotted black lines: state, departments, districts, and
communes. The relevant abbreviations for the prefectures, sub-prefectures, cantons, and communes
are shown next to the name of the agglomeration: P, SP, CT, and C. Each agglomeration's population in
thousands of residents is also listed next to its name.

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 Module title: Cartography
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II.2. Hydrography

Hydrography is a collection of aspects that deal with water and flows. These elements are typically
depicted in blue.

II.2.1. The sea, lake, and pond

Two hues of blue are distinguished: on the one hand, the zones of permanent water (sustained blue),
and on the other, the zones of transient water (transient blue).
There are two hues of blue distinguished: permanent water zones (sustained blue) and temporary or
marshy water zones (light blue).

II.2.2. River, river, and stream

Rivers and rivers of adequate width are depicted by a double line with a continuous blue when
permanent, and poncif sand or gravel when transient. A continuous line represents permanent streams
and irrigation channels of insufficient width, whereas a dashed line represents temporary streams.

II.2.3. Water tower, spring

A poached blue circle represents the water castles. A blue disc represents the visible tanks. Only the
most important sources are shown by a blue circle and a line.
Only the most important sources are depicted by a blue circle with a line indicating the flow direction.

II.3. Orographie

Orography is the collection of elements that describe the relief shapes.

On a topographic map, one can see the curves of bistre color levels, rating spots, and numerous traditio
nal signals pertaining to the morphology of the terrain.
The abrupts are represented by slopes or rocks, as well as symbols for terrils, quarries, and rubble.

II.4. Toponymy

The study of place names is known as toponymy. All entries on the map are subject to many precautions
and must follow highly specific regulations. The map entries must be in straight characters for inhabited
areas and in leaning characters for woods and certain other areas.
The map inputs must be in straight characters for inhabited areas, leaning characters for forests and
certain so-called unoccupied areas, and blue leaning characters for hydrography. The relevance of the
detail to be expressed determines the template of all scriptures. For example, communities with more

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 Module title: Cartography
Specialty: M1 Ecology and Environment

than 5,000 residents are mentioned in capitals, whereas those with fewer than 5,000 residents are
listed in lower case.

Figure 5. Examples of Map Legends.

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 Module title: Cartography
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III. MAP SCALE

III.1. Definition
A map can be viewed as a description of the real environment created through symbolization as well as
geometric representation. In order to provide a comprehensible geographical context, the scale of
representation chosen is a compromise between the number of items included and the size of the
finished document.
The cartographic scale is the ratio of distance measured on the map to distance measured on the actual
field.

III.2. Type of scale

The scale may be in digital or graphic form.

➢ Numerical scale: is expressed as a fraction, with the numerator representing a unit of length
carried on the map and the denominator representing the corresponding distance on the
ground.

- Ratio 1/25,000 = > 1 cm on the map = 25,000 cm on the ground, or 250 meters;
- Ratio 1/14,900,000 = > 1 cm on the map = 14,900,000 cm on the ground, or 149 km.
The ground object is 14,900,000 times larger than the map object.

Figure 6. Numerical scale.

➢ A Graphic scale is a drawing made up of equal segments of a horizontal line. A vertical line
called the barbule separates each segment. The numbers must be circular and centered in line
with the barbules. The graphic scale is easier to read and remember.

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 Module title: Cartography
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Figure 7. Graphic scale model.

III.3. Classification of scales

The map scales can be grouped into numerous groups based on their ratio and use. Here are some
popular scale classifications:

• Large (or retail) scales: Large scales represent smaller geographic areas with a high level of
detail. They are generally used for topographical maps, city plans, floor plans, hiking maps, etc.
The ladders commonly used in this category include 1: 1,000, 1: 5,000, 1: 10,000, 1: 25,000, 1:
50,000, and 1: 100,000.
• Average scales encompass wider geographical areas with a decent level of detail. They are
frequently used for regional maps, country maps, road maps, atlases, and other similar
purposes. In this category, frequent scales include 1: 250,000, 1: 500,000, 1: 1,000,000, and
1:2,000,000.
• Small (or general) scales: With a low level of detail, small scales represent enormous regions or
entire countries. They are frequently used for world maps, continental maps, political maps,
and other similar purposes. In this category, common scales include 1: 5,000,000, 1:
10,000,000, 1: 25,000,000, and 1: 50,000,000.
• Very tiny (or global) scales: On a small scale, very small scales indicate enormously large
geographic areas, such as the entire terrestrial planet or continental regions. They are
frequently used to create attractive wall maps.
It should be noted that these categories are general and may vary slightly depending on the
geographical context and specific cartographic standards. The scale chosen for a map will depend on
the objective of the map, the precision required, and the level of detail required to communicate the
desired information.

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 Module title: Cartography
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1/10000 Maps of extreme precision, 1/25000 High precision maps with 1/50000 Very accurate maps full of
1/1000 Look like plans and are austere
used for orientation races and scientific many details. A good rendering for details. (accuracy of 20 meters). A good
(cadastres).
tracking. hiking (precision of 10 m). rendering for mountain biking.

1/1000000 Represents only the main

1/100000 Provides an overview of the
1/250000 Details disappear and only the road network. Allows you to represent a
region. We are at the limit of the
road network is correctly represented. country on a single map. The majority of
presence of details. A good rendering for
Valid for motorized hikes in the region. the details have disappeared, apart from
motorized hikes.
some tourist information.

Figure 8. Here are roughly the types of ladders that can be encountered.

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 Module title: Cartography
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IV. RELIEF REPRESENTATION (OROGRAPHY)

IV.1. Topographic map

Describes a location (the Greek word for place is topos). These maps are more than a simple
representation of the earth's surface. They also provide the user with the ability to discern relief,
calculate heights, and measure slopes.
Orography is the portrayal of terrestrial relief. Several elements, such as level curves, rating points,
and blurring, describe the contours of the terrain.

IV.2 Relief representation

The challenge is to depict a phenomenon in three dimensions (longitude, latitude, and altitude) in two
dimensions (the plane). Graphical tricks are utilized to accomplish this. Thus, level curves, blurring,
peculiar figures, and side points are used to create relief.

IV.2.1. Level curves

A level curve is a line that represents the intersection of a horizontal plane with the terrain's surface. It
is the location of points with equal altitude.
a) Level curve principle: Consider a set of parallel and equidistant horizontal planes intersecting a
topographic surface. The intersections of the relief shape with the planes are shown below. These
projections are referred to as level curves.
b) Level curve altitude: The altitude of the level curves is frequently displayed along their plot.
c) Equidistance and spacing: the distance between two successive horizontal planes, which
corresponds to the difference in altitude between two consecutive level curves on a map;
equidistance and spacing should not be confused.

The equidistance is indicated in the legend at the bottom of the map. It is 5 to 10 m in flat areas with
little terrain and can exceed 20 m in hilly locations, as the curve density would otherwise make the
map invisible.

If the equidistance is not provided, it can be calculated by counting the number of intervals separating
curves of known altitude, which is equal to the altitude difference between these two curves divided
by the number of intervals.

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Figure 9. Level curve establishment

IV.2.1.1. Different types of level curves

• Master curves: highlighted lines that identify all curves of level 5. That is, the height is normally
specified on the master curves every 50 or 100 m; it should be noticed that there are always four
normal curves between two master curves.
• Normal curves: These are fine-lined curves fitted between master curves.
• Intermediate curves: drawn in discontinuous lines. When the topographic surface is flat and the
level curves are split out, an intermediate curve whose altitude differs by half an equidistance
from the two curves that surround it is required.

IV.2.1.2. Level curve density

A high slope zone has numerous and closely spaced curves, whereas a flat or low slope zone has
widely separated curves.

IV.2.2. Evaluation points

The function of rated points is to assist in the identification of level curves while also providing the
height of some noteworthy orographic or planimetric sites. Simple rated points, which are defined by
interpolation, and geodetic rated points, which have a correct position in x, y, and z (longitude,
latitude, and altitude), are the two types of rated points. On maps, triangles are used to represent
geodetic points.

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IV.3. Elementary forms of relief

A slope is an inclined terrain that overlooks a valley's talweg. Slope differences determine slope forms.
The slope of a slope is defined by:
✓ its value (0 %): because the curves are rated, it is easy to calculate the percentage of a slope
from a measurement on the map in level curves.
✓ Its concave, convex, rectilinear, or convex-concave shape. As a result, two sorts of shapes can
be recognized. Shapes that are simple and shapes that are composite.

An Interfluves is a relief between two valleys. Relief resulting from the intersection of two slopes along
a line of high points, the ridge line (set of high points of an interfluve).
A croupe occurs when the junction of two slopes is more or less acute. It reaches its apex when the
interfluve is convex to the sky.

A summit: this is the climax of a relief.

An abrupt slope is a very steep slope approaching the vertical. The term abrupt generally refers to all
slopes of more than 70° (+80 %).

A slope is a slope that connects two flat reliefs of varying altitude. The plot (rectilinear, sinuous,
festooned with spurs or indentations) of a slope; the profile (concave, rectilinear, convex); and the
command (difference in height between the summit and the base of the slope) describe it. An
escarpment is the general term for a steep slope.

A hill: is a low-energy relief with a flat top and steep slopes in the upper part. The buttock is also called
the nipple.

A depression is a surface that is characterized by higher relief and where rivers do not flow.

A bowl: is a closed depression at the bottom of which all slopes meet. To put it another way, the bowl
is a ground depression with no outward flow.

A break in slope: is defined as an abrupt shift in the value of a slope without a change in direction.

A fold: is a gap defined by two slope breaks within a slope.

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IV.4. Different types of relief

The plain is a level or slightly wavy surface with very modest reliefs at the interfluves; the unevenness
is small and the slopes are tiny. The plain differs from the plateau in that the hydrographic network is
not collected. It may have a sensitive slope; this is referred to as an inclined plain.

The plateau is a flat or slightly corrugated area that receives the hydrographic network. It is
distinguished by its altitude, inclination, river collection, valley and slope morphology, and intensity of
hydrographic dissection.
When the surface of a plate is especially flat, it is referred to as a tabular plate.
When minor streams, tributaries of the main rivers, arrive to cut its surface, it is referred to as a wavy
plateau. Slopes connect the stepped plateaus (of increasing altitude in a specific direction) to each
other or to a plain. When a plateau is dissected or cut by close valleys, it gives way to a relief of hills.
When a hill is isolated, it is referred to as a hill. Nipple refers to its rounded top.

Mountain: in geomorphology, the use of the term "mountain" is very vague because some plateau
regions are sometimes referred to as mountains. The mountain is defined as a protruding section of
the earth's bark with a huge expanse, a large command (height), and steep slopes.

The valley, which is both a relief element and a type of relief, is an elongated depression traversed or
carved by a stream (river valley) or a glacier (glacial valley). There are dry valleys, which are valleys that
were once occupied by a stream but are no longer occupied; this is a common occurrence in limestone
regions.

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V. REFERENCE SYSTEMS

The representation of aspects of reality in absolute or relative location is an important goal of

mapping. To accomplish this, the elements' locations in space (2D or 3D) must be based on a reference
system known as the coordinate system.

V.1. Earth's surface representation

The Earth's envelope has a geometrically flawed surface. Because of its revolution, the globe is slightly
flattened near the poles while remaining globally spherical. As a result, the earth's surface is referred
to as geoid. The Earth's surface can be compared to a sphere for very small-scale mapping (e.g., 1:10
million). However, the sphere is not a good approximation for greater scale mapping (for example,
1:10,000). As a result, for greater-scale mapping, the geoid is analogous to an ellipsoid.

Figure 10. The terrestrial globe's dimensions.

V.2. Geoid

Geoids are gravitational representations of Earth's surface. The geometry of geoids is complex and
cannot be expressed quantitatively. As a result, they cannot be used in cartography.

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V.3. Ellipsoid

Also known as spheroid, the ellipsoid is a geometric shape. The ellipsoid is a geometric surface that
may pretty accurately depict the shape of the geoid. It is produced by rotating an ellipse about one of
its two axes.

An ellipsoid is defined by the length of its half major axis (a) and the length of its half minor axis (b).
The flattening of an ellipsoid is equal to f = (a-b)/a.

Figure 11. Ellipsoid representations.

In geodesy, the global ellipsoid is distinguished from the local ellipsoid.

Global ellipsoids are used for mapping, covering all (or a large part) of the Earth's surface. For
example, GPS, WGS 84, etc.

Local ellipsoids are defined so as to best "match" the shape of the geoid on a restricted area of the
Earth's surface (a region or country). For example, Algeria uses Clarke's ellipsoid (1880), North
Sahara...

V.4. Geodetic reference system (Datum)

The declaration of an ellipsoid alone is insufficient to create a coordinate system. A geodetic system
(in English datum) is defined not only by its ellipsoid but also by its position with regard to the center
of the earth. By convention, the center of the geodetic system WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984)
is used to define the position of the other geodetic systems in geodetic computations. As a result,
understanding the following parameters is required for system definition:

1) the ellipsoid's shape

2) the ellipsoid's position in relation to the WGS84 geodetic system
- Offset (in m) of the marker's center in X (Dx).
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- Offset (in m) of the reference's center in Y (Dy).

- Shift (in m) of the marker's center in Z (Dz).
- Angle of rotation (in degrees) of the reference's X axis (Rx)
- Angle of rotation (in degrees) of the reference Y axis (Ry)
- Angle of rotation (in degrees) of the reference's Z axis (Rz)
- Scale factor of the benchmark vector standard (1 + n)

Figure 12. The position of the ellipsoid in relation to the geodetic system WGS84

Ellipsoid: "Clarke 1880" with a = 6378249.2 m, b = 6356515.0 m, e = 0.00341, 1/e =293.466 2)

DX = + 168 m DY = + 60 m DZ = -320 m Rx = 0° Ry = 0° Rz = 0° n = 0

V.5. Coordinate systems

V.5.1. Cartesian Coordinates

Geocentric Cartesian coordinates can be used to indicate the location of an element in space (and
thus on the earth's surface). The coordinates are then separated into X, Y, and Z, which correspond to
the three axes of a reference mark whose origin is at the Earth's center of mass. These coordinates are
almost never used to store spatial data sources in GIS. However, when calculating changes in geodetic
systems, they are frequently utilized as an intermediate coordinate system.

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Figure 13. The cartesian coordinates.

V.5.2. Geographical Coordinates

The location of an element on the surface of the earth can be expressed in the form of geographical
coordinates. The coordinates are then declined using two angular values: longitude, and latitude.
These two angles can be expressed in different units: sexagesimal degrees (degrees, minutes, and
seconds), decimal degrees, grades or radians.

Figure 14. The geographic coordinates.

Note: Geographical coordinates are meaningless unless they are accompanied by information on the geodetic
system in which they are expressed.

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V.5.3. Projected Coordinates (Planes)

Since maps are flat and the Earth is spherical, a mathematical method known as a map projection must
be used to translate geographic points from a curved surface to a flat surface. The position of an
element may be stated using two linear values, X and Y, after this projection has been established. Both
of these distances from the origin (0,0) can be stated in a variety of different units, including meters,
kilometers, miles, nautical miles, feet, and more.

Figure 15. The projected coordinates.

Note: Unless information regarding the projection system in which they are represented is provided, projected
coordinates have no significance.

V.6. Projection cartography

Most map projections utilize one of three "developable" surfaces: plane, cone or cylinder. These
surfaces are referred to as "developable" because they are either inherently flat or can be flattened.
The resulting projections are known as planar, conical, and cylindrical projections, respectively.
Developable surfaces are preferred because they prevent tearing, although they introduce shearing
and compression. Among these distortions, tearing is considered the most problematic, as it would
result in maps with holes.
The point where the developable surface touches the globe is called the tangent point or tangent line.
At these points or lines, maps will most accurately represent objects on the globe, with distortion
increasing as you move farther away due to shearing and compression. This leads to the selection of
specific projections for different regions. Cylindrical projections are often used for areas near the
equator, conical projections for mid-latitudes, and planar projections for Polar Regions. Each of these
choices aims to minimize distortion in the respective areas of interest.

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Tangency. The tangent line or point is indicated by red lines or dots, accordingly. The spot on the projected map with the least distortion is
where the flat surface hits the globe. The tangent point or tangent line is the point on the developable surface that touches the globe. These
surfaces can take the form of a) cylinder, b) cone, or c) plane.

Figure 16. Maps of projection cartography.

V.7. Different types of map projection

Map projections are methods used to represent the curved surface of the Earth on a flat map. There
are various types of map projections, each with its own characteristics and applications. Here are some
of the common types of map projections:

➢ Mercator projection: The Mercator projection is one of the most well-known and widely used
map projections. It preserves accurate shape and direction but distorts size, particularly
towards the poles. This projection is often used for navigation purposes.
➢ Robinson projection: The Robinson projection is a compromise projection that attempts to
minimize distortion in size, shape, and distance. It provides a more aesthetically pleasing
representation of the world and is often used for general-purpose world maps.
➢ Conic projection: Conic projections are created by projecting the earth's surface onto a cone.
These projections maintain an accurate shape and preserve some areas well, but they may
distort distances and directions. Conic projections are commonly used for regional maps, such
as country or state maps.
➢ Azimuthal projection: Azimuthal projections project the Earth's surface onto a plane, typically
from the perspective of a particular point. They preserve accurate directions and distances

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from the center point but may distort shape and size as you move away from the center.
Azimuthal projections are often used for polar maps.
➢ Gnomonic projection: The gnomonic projection shows great circles as straight lines. It
accurately represents the shortest distances but severely distorts areas, shapes, and
directions away from the center point. This projection is commonly used in aviation and for
measuring distances.
➢ Cylindrical projection: cylindrical projections project the Earth's surface onto a cylinder.
Depending on the specific cylindrical projection, it can preserve an accurate shape, size, or
distance. The most famous cylindrical projection is the Mercator projection, but other variants
exist.
➢ Peters projection: The Peters projection, also known as the Gall-Peters projection, is an equal-
area projection that accurately represents the relative sizes of land masses. It is an alternative
to the Mercator projection and aims to provide a more equitable depiction of countries' sizes.
➢ Eckert IV projection: The Eckert IV projection is an equal-area pseudocylindrical projection that
minimizes distortion of both shape and area. It is often used for thematic maps and is
particularly popular for world maps emphasizing land area.

These are just a few examples of the many map projections available. Each projection has its strengths
and weaknesses, and the choice of projection depends on the purpose of the map and the specific
region being represented.

V.8. Cartographic projections used in Algeria

V.8.1. Lambert projection

It is a conical projection used for mapping Algeria at 1/50,000 from 1943 to 1960. A red kilometer grid
called "Lambert Corroyage" delimiting a square of 1 km on each side in order to identify planimetric
and altimetric details.

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Figure 17. Lambert projection in Algeria.

V.8.2. Projection UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)

The world is divided into 60 spindles, numbered from 1 to 60, each of which spans a 6 degree
longitude range, according to Mercator's projection. Because of its cylindrical, transverse form, this
projection keeps its angles. It makes use of rectangular coordinates that are represented in meters.
Currently, Algeria uses UTM projection. In Algeria, each UTM zone includes 6 degrees of longitude. The
four zones that make up Algeria's territory are 29, 30, 31, and 32.
- Spindle no. 29 : from -12° to -6°
- Spindle no. 30 : from -6° to 0°
- Spindle no. 31 : from 0° to 6°
- Spindle no. 32 : from 6° to 12°

Figure 18. Projection UTM in Algeria.

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VI. ORIENTATION CARTOGRAPHICAL

Cartographic orientation aims to establish a precise correspondence between the actual geographical
direction and the direction represented on a map. It allows users to locate themselves and navigate
efficiently from the map.

VI.2. Different Nords

VI.2.1. Geographical North (NG)

It corresponds to the direction of the meridians. Topographic maps are bounded to the east and west
by meridians; the edge of the map therefore indicates the geographical north. This north is the
reference for all maps because it is constant. It is the meeting point of the worlds.

VI.2.2. Magnetic North (NM)

Magnetic North refers to the direction indicated by a compass needle pointing towards the Earth's
magnetic North Pole. It is one of the two components of the Earth's magnetic field; the other is
Magnetic South, which is located near the Earth's magnetic South Pole.

The Earth's magnetic field is generated by the movement of molten iron within the outer core of the
planet. This magnetic field is not perfectly aligned with the Earth's rotational axis, resulting in the
magnetic poles being offset from the geographic poles.

VI.3. Description of a Compass

An orientation compass is made of transparent plastic so that you can see the map when placed on it.
It has a graduated rotating base that will make it possible to memorize directions.

The dial of the compass is divided from 0° to 360° clockwise. The north is at 0° or 360°, the east is at
90°, the south is at 180°, and the west is at 270°.

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Figure 19. An orientation compass.

VI.4. Magnetic Declination and Azimuth

VI.4.1. Magnetic Declination

Magnetic declination is the angular difference between magnetic north and true north. This difference
varies based on your geographical location and changes over time.

Magnetic declination is usually indicated on maps and can be positive (east) or negative (west).

VI.4.1.1. Adjusting Magnetic Declination

Before using your compass, you need to adjust for magnetic declination to obtain accurate readings.

If the magnetic declination is positive, you need to add that value to the azimuth indicated by the
compass.

If the magnetic declination is negative, you need to subtract that value from the compass's indicated
azimuth.

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Figure 20. Diagram showing the value of the magnetic declination on the map.

VI.4.2. Using Azimuth

Azimuth is the angular direction measured from the north in a clockwise direction. When using a
compass, you can refer to the azimuth to determine your direction of travel.

Place the straight edge of the compass's baseplate between your current position and your
destination, aligning the orientation arrow with the desired azimuth.

Orient yourself by turning your body until the compass needle aligns with the orientation arrow on the
azimuth ring.

VI.5. Orientation with the Compass

The orientation of a compass is the process of determining the geographical direction from the
indications provided by the compass. Here's how to orient yourself using a compass:

1. Identify the North: The first step is to identify the north direction on your compass. Most
compasses have a magnetized needle that points north. Make sure the needle is aligned with the
north marking.
2. Align the compass: Hold the compass flat in your hand and make sure it is horizontal. Turn your
body until the needle of the compass is aligned with the northern marking.
3. Read the directions: Once the compass is aligned, you can read the desired direction. The
mapinal directions (north, south, east, and west) are generally indicated on the compass. You can
also use the angular graduations to get more precise directions.
4. Use the compass to move: Once you know the desired direction, you can use the compass to
move. Hold the compass in front of you and move while keeping the needle aligned with the
northern marking. This will allow you to follow the chosen direction.
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VI.6. Determine the position

The position of the map may be ascertained after it is pointed north. You must locate at least two
locations on the map's representation of the terrain in order to perform this. Draw the correct
directions from these spots on the map; the junction of these lines indicates your location. You can
verify your location at the third point.

Once you have oriented your map northward, you can use visual landmarks in the landscape to
determine your position. Here are the steps to do this:

1) Identify landmarks: Choose at least two identifiable landmarks in the landscape that are also
represented on the map. These points can be mountains, lakes, buildings, or any other easily
recognizable element both on the map and on the ground.

2) Draw the corresponding directions: From each landmark, use your compass to draw a line in
the direction shown on the map. Be sure to keep the compass aligned with the direction
shown on the map. These lines represent the directions from each reference point.

3) Find the intersection of the lines: The location where the lines drawn from each landmark
intersect on the map represents your estimated position. This is the intersection of the
straight lines that you have drawn from the landmarks.

4) Check your position: To check your position, you can use a third landmark if possible. Draw an
additional line from this point to the direction shown on the map. The location where this line
crosses the intersection of the previous lines confirms your position.

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Figure 21. Determine a position on a map.

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