LASERS

 What is Light? Light is a kind of energy released by an atom. Light is made up of very
small particles called photons.
 Atoms are the basic units of matter. Each atom consists of a nucleus and a set of electrons
orbiting the nucleus. Nucleus is formed as a result of strong nuclear force between the
protons and neutrons. Protons have positive charge so they are referred as positively
charged particles. Neutrons do not have charge so they are referred as neutral particles.
 Since the neutrons do not have charge so the overall charge of the nucleus is positive.

 Electrons have negative charge so they are referred as negatively charged particles.
Electrons always orbit the nucleus because of the electrostatic force of attraction present
between them. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits or shells. Each
orbit has a unique energy level.
 The electrons orbiting at a larger distance from the nucleus have higher energy level
whereas the electrons orbiting at a smaller distance from the nucleus have lower energy
level.
 The electrons in the lower energy level need some extra energy to jump from lower
energy level to the higher energy level. This extra energy can be supplied from various
types of energy sources such as heat, electric field or light.
What is a LASER?

 The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation.
 Laser is a device that amplifies or increases the intensity of light and produces highly
directional light.
SOLID STATE LASERS
 A solid-state laser is a laser that uses solid as a laser medium. In these lasers, glass or
crystalline materials are used.
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 Laser not only amplifies or increases the intensity of light but also generates the light.
 Laser emits light through a process called stimulated emission of radiation which
amplifies or increases the intensity of light.
 Some lasers generate visible light but others generate ultraviolet or infrared rays which
are invisible.

 In general, when electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it
emits light or photon. The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the energy difference
between the energy levels.
 The conventional light sources such as electric bulb or tube light does not emit highly
directional and coherent light whereas lasers produce highly directional,
monochromatic, coherent and polarized light beam.
 In conventional light sources, excited electrons emit light at different times and in
different directions so there is no phase relation between the emitted photons. On the
other hand, the photons emitted by the electrons of laser are in same phase and move in
the same direction.
 In lasers, photons are interacted in three ways with the atoms:
• Absorption of radiation
 This is the process by which electrons in the ground state absorbs energy from photons to jump
into the higher energy level.
 The electrons orbiting very close to the nucleus are at the lower energy level or lower
energy state whereas the electrons orbiting farther away from the nucleus are at the
higher energy level. The electrons in the lower energy level need some extra energy to
jump into the higher energy level. This extra energy is provided from various energy
sources such as heat, electric field, or light.

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 Consider two energy levels (E1 and E2) of electrons. E1 is the ground state or lower
energy state of electrons and E2 is the excited state or higher energy state of electrons.
The electrons in the ground state are called lower energy electrons or ground state
electrons whereas the electrons in the excited state are called higher energy electrons or
excited electrons.

 When photons or light energy equal to the energy difference of the two energy levels (E2
– E1) is incident on the atom, the ground state electrons gain sufficient energy and jumps
from ground state (E1) to the excited state (E2).
• Spontaneous emission
 This is the process by which electrons in the excited state return to the ground state by
emitting photons.
 The electrons in the excited state can stay only for a short period. The time up to which
an excited electron can stay at higher energy state (E2) is known as the lifetime of
excited electrons. The lifetime of electrons in excited state is 10-8 second.

 After the short lifetime of the excited electrons, they return to the lower energy state or
ground state by releasing energy in the form of photons.

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 In spontaneous emission, the electrons move naturally or spontaneously from one state
(higher energy state) to another state (lower energy state) so the emission of photons also
occurs naturally. Therefore, we have no control over when an excited electron is going to
lose energy in the form of light.
• Stimulated emission
 This is the process by which incident photon interacts with the excited electron and forces
it to return to the ground state.
 In this emission, the light energy is supplied directly to the excited electron instead of supplying
light energy to the ground state electrons.
 Unlike the spontaneous emission, the stimulated emission is not a natural process it is an
artificial process.
 In spontaneous emission, the electrons in the excited state will remain there until its
lifetime is over. After completing their lifetime, they return to the ground state by
releasing energy in the form of light.
 However, in stimulated emission, the electrons in the excited state need not wait for
completion of their lifetime. An alternative technique is used to forcefully return the
excited electron to ground state before completion of their lifetime. This technique is
known as the stimulated emission.
 When incident photon interacts with the excited electron, it forces the excited electron to
return to the ground state. This excited electron release energy in the form of light while
falling to the ground state.

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  In stimulated emission, two photons are emitted (one additional photon is emitted), one is
due to the incident photon and another one is due to the energy release of excited
electron. Thus, two photons are emitted.
 The stimulated emission process is very fast compared to the spontaneous emission
process.
 All the emitted photons in stimulated emission have the same energy, same frequency
and are in phase. Therefore, all photons in the stimulated emission travel in the same
direction.
 Population Inversion
 This is the process of achieving greater population of higher energy state as compared
to the lower energy state. Population inversion technique is mainly used for light
amplification. The population inversion is required for laser operation.
 Consider a group of electrons with two energy levels E1 and E2, where E1 is the lower
energy state and E2 is the higher energy state and N1 is the number of electrons in the
energy state E1 and N2 is the number of electrons in the energy state E2.
 The number of electrons per unit volume in an energy state is the population of that
energy state.

 Population inversion cannot be achieved in a two-energy level system. Under normal

conditions, the number of electrons (N1) in the lower energy state (E1) is always greater
as compared to the number of electrons (N2) in the higher energy state (E2). N1 > N2.

When temperature increases, the population of higher energy state (N2) also increases. However,
the population of higher energy state (N2) will never exceed the population of lower energy state
(N1). At best an equal population of the two states can be achieved which results in no optical
gain.

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 N1 = N2 Therefore, we need 3 or more energy states to achieve population inversion.
The greater is the number of energies states the greater is the optical gain.

Characteristics of Laser

 Laser light has four unique characteristics that differentiate it from ordinary light: these
are
• Coherence
• Directionality
• Monochromatic
• High intensity
a) Coherence
 The photons emitted from ordinary light sources have different energies, frequencies,
wavelengths, or colors. Hence, the light waves of ordinary light sources have many
wavelengths. Therefore, photons emitted by an ordinary light source are out of phase.

 In laser, the electron transition occurs artificially. In other words, in laser, electron
transition occurs in specific time. All the photons emitted in laser have the same energy,
frequency, or wavelength. Hence, the light waves of laser light have single wavelength
or color. Therefore, the wavelengths of the laser light are in phase in space and time. In
laser, a technique called stimulated emission is used to produce light.

 Thus, light generated by laser is highly coherent. Because of this coherence, a large
amount of power can be concentrated in a narrow space.

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b) Directionality.
 Conventional light sources (lamp, sodium lamp and torchlight), photons will travel in
random direction. Therefore, these light sources emit light in all directions.
 In laser, all photons will travel in same direction. Therefore, laser emits light only in
one direction. This is called directionality of laser light. The width of a laser beam is
extremely narrow. Hence, a laser beam can travel to long distances without spreading.

 If an ordinary light travels a distance of 2 km, it spreads to about 2 km in diameter. On

the other hand, if a laser light travels a distance of 2 km, it spreads to a diameter less than
2 cm.
c) Monochromatic
 Monochromatic light means a light containing a single color or wavelength. The photons
emitted from ordinary light sources have different energies, frequencies, wavelengths, or
colors. Hence, the light waves of ordinary light sources have many wavelengths or colors.
 On the other hand, in laser, all the emitted photons have the same energy, frequency, or
wavelength. Hence, the light waves of laser have single wavelength or color. Therefore,
laser light covers a very narrow range of frequencies or wavelengths.
d) High Intensity.
 This is the energy per unit time flowing through a unit normal area. In an ordinary light
source, the light spreads out uniformly in all directions.
 In laser, the light spreads in small region of space and in a small wavelength range.
Hence, laser light has greater intensity when compared to the ordinary light.

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 Laser Construction
 A laser system consists of three important components: a pump source, laser medium and
optical resonator.
a) Pump Source
 This is part of a laser system that provides energy to the laser medium.
 To get laser emission, first we need to produce population inversion. Population
inversion is the process of achieving greater number of electrons in higher energy state
as compared to the lower energy state.
 The source of energy supplies sufficient amount of energy to the laser medium by which
the electrons in the lower energy state are excited to the higher energy state. As a result,
we get population inversion in the active medium or laser medium. Examples of energy
sources include electric discharges, light from another laser, chemical reactions, and
flash lamps.
 The type of energy source used is mostly depends on the laser medium. Excimer laser
uses chemical reaction as energy source, a helium laser uses an electric discharge as
energy source and Nd: YAG laser uses light focused from diode laser as energy source.

b) Laser Medium
 This is a medium where spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation takes place.
Generally, the population of lower energy state is greater than the higher energy state.
However, after achieving population inversion, the population of higher energy state
becomes greater than the lower energy state.

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 After receiving sufficient energy from source, the electrons in the lower energy state or
ground state are excited to the higher energy state (in the laser medium). The electrons in
the excited state do not stay for long period because the lifetime of electrons in the
excited state is very small. Hence, after a short period, the electrons in the excited state
will fall back to the ground state by releasing energy in the form of light or photons. This
is called spontaneous emission. In spontaneous emission, each electron emits a single
photon while falling to the ground state.
 If we use electrical energy as energy source then a single photon or few photons (which
are produced spontaneously) will produce large number of photons by stimulated
emission process. Thus, light amplification is achieved in laser medium.
 Laser medium is also known as active medium or gain medium.
 The laser medium will determine the characteristics of the laser light emitted. The laser
medium can be solid, liquid, or gaseous.
 Ruby laser is an example for solid-state laser. In this, a ruby crystal is used as an active
medium. In this laser, xenon discharge tube which provides a flash light acts as pump
source.
 Helium – Neon laser is an example for gaseous laser. In this, neon is used as an active
medium. In this laser, radio frequency (RF) generator acts as pump source.
c) Optical Resonator
 These two mirrors as a whole are called optical resonator. Optical resonator is also
known as optical cavity or resonating cavity.
 The laser medium is surrounded by two parallel mirrors which provides feedback of the
light. One mirror is fully reflective (100 % reflective) whereas another one is partially
reflective (<100 % reflective). Therefore, each mirror will reflect the light differently.
One mirror will completely reflect the light whereas another one will partially reflect the
light.
 The completely reflective mirror is called high reflector whereas the partially reflective
mirror is called output coupler. The output coupler will allow some of the light to leave
the optical cavity to produce the laser’s output beam.
 The light generated within the laser medium will bounce back and forth between the two
mirrors. This stimulates other electrons to release light while falling to the ground state.

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 Likewise, a large number of electrons are stimulated to emit light. Thus, optical gain is
achieved.
 This amplified light escapes through the partially reflecting mirror. The process of
stimulating electrons of other atoms to produce light in the laser medium is called
stimulated emission.

METHODS OF ACHIEVING POPULATION INVERSION

 Under normal conditions, more electrons are in a lower energy state than in a higher energy
state. Population inversion is a process of achieving more electrons in the higher energy
state than the lower energy state.
 In order to achieve population inversion, we need to supply energy to the laser medium.
The process of supplying energy to the laser medium is called pumping. The source that
supplies energy to the laser medium is called pump source.
 The type of pump source used is depends on the laser medium.
 Some of the most commonly used pump sources are as follows:
• Optical pumping
• Electric discharge or excitation by electrons
• Inelastic atom-atom collisions
• Thermal pumping
• Chemical reactions
a) Optical Pumping
 This is a method where light is used to supply energy to the laser medium. An external
light source like xenon flash lamp is used to produce more electrons (a high population)
in the higher energy level of the laser medium.
 When light source provides enough energy to the lower energy state electrons in the laser
medium, they jump into the higher energy state E3. The electrons in the higher energy
state do not stay for long period. After a very short period, they fall back to the next
lower energy state or meta stable state E2 by releasing radiation less energy.

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  The meta stable state E2 has greater lifetime than the lower energy state or ground state
E1. Hence, more electrons are accumulated in the energy state E2 than the lower energy
state E1. Thus, population inversion is achieved. Optical pumping is used in solid-state
lasers such as ruby lasers.
b) Electric discharge or excitation by electrons
 This refers to flow of electrons or electric current through a gas, liquid or solid.
 In this method of pumping, electric discharge acts as the pump source or energy source.
A high voltage electric discharge (flow of electrons, electric charge, or electric current)
is passed through the laser medium or gas. The intense electric field accelerates the
electrons to high speeds and they collide with neutral atoms in the gas. As a result, the
electrons in the lower energy state gains sufficient energy from external electrons and
jumps into the higher energy state. This method of pumping is used in gas lasers such as
argon lasers.

C) Inelastic Atom-Atom Collisions

 Like the electric discharge method, here also a high voltage electric discharge acts as a
pump source. However, in this method, a combination of two types of gases, say X and Y

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 are used. The excited state of as X is represented as X+ whereas gas Y is represented as
Y+. Both X and Y gases have the same excited states (X+ and Y+).
 When high voltage electric discharge passes through a laser medium having two types of
gases X and Y, the lower energy state electrons in gas X will move to the excited state
X+ similarly the lower energy state electrons in gas Y moves to the excited state Y+.
 Initially, during electric discharge, the lower energy state electrons in gas X or atom X
gets excited to X+ due to continuous collision with electrons. The excited state electrons
in gas X+ now collide with the lower energy state electrons in gas Y. As a result, the
lower energy state electrons in gas Y gains sufficient energy and jump into the excited
state Y+. This method is used in the Helium–Neon (He-Ne) laser.
c) Thermal Pumping
 Sometimes we can achieve population inversion by heating the laser medium. In thermal
pumping, heat acts as the pump source or energy source. In this method, population
inversion is achieved by supplying heat into the laser medium. When heat energy is
supplied to the laser medium, the lower energy state electrons gain sufficient energy and
jumps into the higher energy level.

 The process of achieving population inversion in thermal pumping is almost similar to

the optical pumping or electric discharge method, except that in this method heat is used
as pump source instead of light or electric discharge.
d) Chemical Reactions
 If an atom or a molecule is produced through some chemical reaction and remains in an
excited state at the time of production, then it can be used for pumping. The hydrogen
fluoride molecule is produced in an excited state when hydrogen and fluorine gas

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 chemically combine. The number of produced excited atoms or molecules is greater than
the number of normal state atoms or molecules. Thus, population inversion is achieved.
 For example, H2 + F2 → 2HF, in this chemical reaction, hydrogen (H2) and fluorine (F2)
molecules are chemically combined to produce hydrogen fluoride molecule (2HF) in an
excited state.

Types of lasers.

 Lasers are classified into 4 types based on the type of laser medium used:
• Solid-state laser
• Gas laser
• Liquid laser
• Semiconductor laser
SOLID-STATE LASER
 A solid-state laser is a laser that uses solid as a laser medium. In these lasers, glass or
crystalline materials are used.
 Ions are introduced as impurities into host material which can be a glass or crystalline.
The process of adding impurities to the substance is called doping. Rare earth elements
such as cerium (Ce), erbium (Eu), terbium (Tb) etc are most commonly used as dopants.
Materials such as sapphire (Al2O3), neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:
YAG), Neodymium doped glass (Nd: glass) and ytterbium-doped glass are used as host
materials for laser medium. Out of these, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet
(Nd: YAG) is most commonly used.
 The first solid-state laser was a ruby laser. It is still used in some applications. In this
laser, a ruby crystal is used as a laser medium.
 In solid-state lasers, light energy is used as pumping source. Light sources such as
flashtube, flash lamps, arc lamps, or laser diodes are used to achieve pumping.
 Examples of solid-state lasers are: ruby laser, Nd: YAG laser, Erbium doped glass
lasers.

Advantages of solid-state lasers over other types of lasers

 No chance is of wasting material in the active medium because here material used is in
solid form not in gas form, where this occurs.

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  Both continuous and pulsed output is possible from solid state lasers.
 Solid state lasers have high efficiency from some of gas lasers such as He-Ne lasers and
Argon Lasers efficiency of solid-state Nd: YAG laser is 2% to 3%.
 Construction of solid-state laser is comparatively simple.
 Beam diameter of solid-state laser is very less than CO2 lasers.
 Output power ranging from very low value of about 0.04 watts to high value of about 600
watts.
 Cast of solid-state lasers is economical.

Disadvantages of Solid-State Lasers

 Efficiency of solid-state laser is very low as compared to CO2 lasers.
 Great disadvantage of solid-state lasers is the divergence, which is not constant and
ranges 1 milli radian to 20 milli radian.
 Output power is also not very high as in CO2 lasers.
Due to thermal lasing in solid state lasers, the power loss occurs when the rod gets too

GAS LASERS

 A gas laser is a laser in which an electric current is discharged through a gas inside the
laser medium to produce laser light. In gas lasers, the laser medium is in the gaseous
state.
 Gas lasers are used in applications that require laser light with very high beam quality
and long coherence lengths.
 In gas laser, the laser medium or gain medium is made up of the mixture of gases. This
mixture is packed up into a glass tube. The glass tube filled with the mixture of gases acts
as an active medium or laser medium.
 A gas laser is the first laser that works on the principle of converting electrical energy
into light energy. It produces a laser light beam in the infrared region of the spectrum at
1.15 µm.
 Gas lasers are of different types: they are, Helium (He) – Neon (Ne) lasers, argon ion
lasers, carbon dioxide lasers (CO2 lasers), carbon monoxide lasers (CO lasers),
excimer lasers, nitrogen lasers, hydrogen lasers, etc. The type of gas used to construct
the laser medium can determine the lasers wavelength or efficiency.

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 The main advantage of gas lasers (eg: He-Ne lasers) over solid state lasers is that they are
less prone to damage by overheating so they can be run continuously.

LIQUID LASER

 This is a laser that uses the liquid as laser medium. In liquid lasers, light supplies energy
to the laser medium.
 A dye laser is an example of the liquid laser. A dye laser is a laser that uses an organic
dye (liquid solution) as the laser medium.
 A dye laser is made up of an organic dye mixed with a solvent. These lasers generate
laser light from the excited energy states of organic dyes dissolved in liquid solvents. It
produces laser light beam in the near ultraviolet (UV) to the near infrared (IR) region of
the spectrum.

SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS

 Semiconductor lasers play an important role in our everyday life. These lasers are very
cheap, compact size and consume low power. Semiconductor lasers are also known as
laser diodes.
 Semiconductor lasers are different from solid-state lasers. In solid-state lasers, light
energy is used as the pump source whereas, in semiconductor lasers, electrical energy is
used as the pump source. In semiconductor lasers, a p-n junction of a semiconductor
diode forms the active medium or laser Ruby Laser

Laser Gain Operation Pump Applications

Medium Wavelength(s) Source
Ruby laser 694.3nm Flash Lamp Holography, tattoo removal. The first
type of visible light laser invented;
May 1960.

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 Nd:YAG 1.064 μm, Flash Lamp, Material processing, laser target
laser (1.32 μm) Laser Diode designation, surgery, research,
pumping other lasers. One of the
most common high power lasers.

Erbium doped 1.53-1.56 μm Laser diode Erbium doped lasers are commonly
glass lasers used as optical amplifiers for
telecommunications.

F-center laser Mid infrared to Electrical Research

far infrared current
 Ions are introduced as impurities into host material which can be a glass or crystalline. This
process of adding impurities to the substance is called doping.
 The most commonly used dopants are: cerium (Ce), erbium (Eu), terbium (Tb) etcs.
 Materials such as sapphire (Al2O3), neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:
YAG), Neodymium-doped glass (Nd: glass) and ytterbium-doped glass are used as host
materials for laser medium.
 Out of the above-mentioned materials, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet
(Nd: YAG) is most commonly used.
The first solid-state laser was a ruby laser. It is still used in some applications. In this laser, a ruby
crystal is used as a laser medium. In solid-state lasers, light energy is used as pumping source.
Light sources such as flashtube, flash lamps, arc lamps, or laser diodes are used to achieve
pumping.

Ruby Laser
Ruby laser definition
 A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses the synthetic ruby crystal as its laser medium.
 Ruby laser is one of the few solid-state lasers that produce visible light. It emits deep red
light of wavelength 694.3 nm.
Construction of ruby laser
A ruby laser consists of three important elements: laser medium, the pump source, and the
optical resonator.
a) Laser medium or gain medium in ruby laser
 In a ruby laser, a single crystal of ruby (Al2O3: Cr3+) in the form of cylinder acts as a laser
medium or active medium.
 The laser medium (ruby) in the ruby laser is made of the host of sapphire (Al2O3) which is
doped with small amounts of chromium ions (Cr3+). The ruby has good thermal properties.

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 Figure 1 Construction of a Ruby laser

b) Pump source or energy source in ruby laser

 The pump source is the element of a ruby laser system that provides energy to the laser
medium.
 In a ruby laser, population inversion is required to achieve laser emission. Population
inversion is the process of achieving the greater population of higher energy state than
the lower energy state.
 In order to achieve population inversion, energy is supplied to the laser medium (ruby).
 In a ruby laser, we use flashtube as the energy source or pump source to supply energy
to the laser medium (ruby). When lower energy state electrons in the laser medium gain
sufficient energy from the flashtube, they jump into the higher energy state or excited
state.

c) Optical resonator
 The ends of the cylindrical ruby rod are flat and parallel.
 The cylindrical ruby rod is placed between two mirrors. The optical coating is applied to
both the mirrors. This process of depositing thin layers of metals on glass substrates to
make mirror surfaces is called silvering. Each mirror is coated or silvered differently.
 At one end of the rod, the mirror is fully silvered whereas, at another end, the mirror
is partially silvered.
 The fully silvered mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially silvered
mirror will reflect most part of the light but allows a small portion of light through it to
produce output laser light.
Working of ruby laser
 The ruby laser is a three-level solid-state laser.
 In a ruby laser, optical pumping technique is used to supply energy to the laser medium.
 Optical pumping is a technique in which light is used as energy source to raise electrons
from lower energy level to the higher energy level.
 Consider a ruby laser medium consisting of three energy levels E1, E2, E3 with N number
of electrons. It is assumed that the energy levels will be E1 < E2 < E3.
 The energy level E1 is known as ground state or lower energy state.
 The energy level E2 is known as metastable state.
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 The energy level E3 is known as pump state.
 Initially most of the electrons are in the lower energy state (E1) and only a tiny number of
electrons are in the excited states (E2 and E3)

 When light energy is supplied to the laser medium (ruby), the electrons in the lower energy
state or ground state (E1) gains enough energy and jumps into the pump state (E3).
 The lifetime of pump state E3 is very small (10-8 sec) so the electrons in the pump state do
not stay for long period.
 After a short period, they fall into the metastable state E2 by releasing radiation-less
energy. The lifetime of metastable state E2 is 10-3 sec which is much greater than the
lifetime of pump state E3. Therefore, the electrons reach E2 much faster than they leave E2.
 This results in an increase in the number of electrons in the metastable state E2 and hence
population inversion is achieved.

 After some period, the electrons in the metastable state E2 falls into the lower energy state
E1 by releasing energy in the form of photons. This is called spontaneous emission of
radiation.
 When the emitted photon interacts with the electron in the metastable state, it forcefully
makes that electron fall into the ground state E1. As a result, two photons are emitted. This
is called stimulated emission of radiation.
 When these emitted photons again interacted with the metastable state electrons, then 4
photons are produced. Because of this continuous interaction with the electrons, millions
of photons are produced.
 In an active medium (ruby), a process called spontaneous emission produces light.
 This light produced within the laser medium will bounce back and forth between the two
mirrors.
 This stimulates other electrons to fall into the ground state by releasing light energy. This
is called stimulated emission. Likewise, millions of electrons are stimulated to emit light.
Thus, the light gain is achieved.
 The amplified light escapes through the partially reflecting mirror to produce laser light.

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  This unique laser emits a light source that is used for many medical and cosmetic
procedures which includes hair and tattoo removal treatments, cosmetic treatments,
dermatology treatments and diagnostic treatments.

Nd: YAG laser

 Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Nd: YAG) laser is a solid-state laser in
which Nd: YAG is used as a laser medium.
 These lasers have many different applications in the medical and scientific field for
processes such as Lasik surgery and laser spectroscopy.
 Nd: YAG laser is a four-level laser system, which means that the four energy levels are
involved in laser action.
 These lasers operate in both pulsed and continuous mode.
 Nd: YAG laser generates laser light commonly in the near-infrared region of the spectrum
at 1064 nanometers (nm). It also emits laser light at several different wavelengths
including 1440 nm, 1320 nm, 1120 nm, and 940 nm.
Nd: YAG laser construction
 Nd: YAG laser consists of three important elements: an energy source, active medium,
and optical resonator.

a) Energy source
 The energy source or pump source supplies energy to the active medium to achieve
population inversion.
 It uses energy sources such as flashtube or laser diodes to supply energy to the active
medium.
 Flashtubes were mostly used as pump source because of its low cost. However, nowadays,
laser diodes are preferred over flashtubes because of its high efficiency and low cost.

Figure 1 Geometric construction of Nd:YAG Laser

b) Active medium
 The active medium or laser medium in Nd: YAG laser is made up of a synthetic crystalline
material (Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG)) doped with a chemical element
(neodymium (Nd)).

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  The lower energy state electrons of the neodymium ions are excited to the higher energy
state to provide lasing action in the active medium.
c) Optical resonator
 The Nd: YAG crystal is placed between two mirrors. These two mirrors are optically coated
or silvered. Each mirror is silvered or coated differently. One mirror is fully silvered
whereas, another mirror is partially silvered. The mirror, which is fully silvered, will
completely reflect the light and is known as fully reflecting mirror. On the other hand, the
mirror which is partially silvered will reflect most part of the light but allows a small
portion of light through it to produce the laser beam. This mirror is known as a partially
reflecting mirror.
Working of Nd: YAG laser
 Nd: YAG laser is a four-level laser system, meaning that the four energy levels are involved
in laser action.
 The light energy sources such as flashtubes or laser diodes are used to supply energy.
 The lower energy state electrons in the neodymium ions are excited to the higher energy
state to achieve population inversion.
 Consider a Nd: YAG crystal active medium consisting of four energy levels E1, E2, E3,
with number electrons N1, N2, N3, and N4 respectively.
 The energy level E1 is known as ground state, E2 is the next higher energy state or
excited state, E3 is the metastable state or excited state and E4 is the pump state or
excited state. Let us assume that initially, the population will be N1 > N2 > N3 > N4.

 When flashtube or laser diode supplies light energy to the active medium, the lower energy
state (E1) electrons in the neodymium ions gains enough energy and moves to the pump
state or higher energy state E4

 The lifetime of pump state or higher energy state E4 is very small (230 microseconds (µs))
so the electrons in the energy state E4 do not stay for long period.
 After a short period, the electrons will fall into the next lower energy state or metastable
state E3 by releasing non-radiation energy (releasing energy without emitting photons).
 The lifetime of metastable state E3 is high as compared to the lifetime of pump state E4.
Therefore, the electrons reach E3 much faster than they leave E3. This results in an increase
in the number of electrons in the metastable E3 and hence population inversion is
achieved.

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  After some period, the electrons in the metastable state E3 will fall into the next lower
energy state E2 by releasing photons or light. The emission of photons in this manner is
called spontaneous emission.

 The lifetime of energy state E2 is very small just like the energy state E4. Therefore, after a
short period, the electrons in the energy state E2 will fall back to the ground state E1 by
releasing radiation-less energy.
 When photon emitted due to spontaneous emission is interacted with the other metastable
state electron, it stimulates that electron and makes it fall into the lower energy state by
releasing the photon. As a result, two photons are released. The emission of photons in
this manner is called stimulated emission of radiation.

 When these two photons again interacted with the metastable state electrons, four
photons are released. Likewise, millions of photons are emitted. Thus, optical gain is
achieved.
Spontaneous emission is a natural process but stimulated emission is not a natural process.
 The Nd: YAG active medium generates photons or light due to spontaneous emission.

 The light or photons generated in the active medium will bounce back and forth between
the two mirrors. This stimulates other electrons to fall into the lower energy state by
releasing photons or light. Likewise, millions of electrons are stimulated to emit photons.
 The light generated within the active medium is reflected many times between the mirrors
before it escapes through the partially reflecting mirror.
Advantages of Nd: YAG laser
 Low power consumption
 Nd: YAG laser offers high gain.
 Nd: YAG laser has good thermal properties.
 Nd: YAG laser has good mechanical properties.
 The efficiency of Nd: YAG laser is very high as compared to the ruby laser.

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 Applications of Nd: YAG laser
Medicine
 Used to induced thermotherapy, in which malignant lesions in various organs are ablated
by the beam.
 Used to remove skin cancers.
 Also, used to reduce benign thyroid nodules.
 Used extensively in the field of cosmetic medicine for laser hair removal, treatment of
minor vascular defects such as spider veins on the face and legs. Recently used for
dissecting cellulitis, a rare skin disease usually occurring on the scalp.
 Used in the removal of uterine septa within the inside of the uterus
 Used to correct posterior capsular opacification (a condition that may occur after a cataract
surgery).

HELIUM-NEON LASER

 Helium-neon lasers are the most widely used gas lasers. These lasers have many
industrial and scientific uses and are often used in laboratory demonstrations of optics.
 The Helium-neon gas laser system consists of a glass tube of nearly one meter in length.
The gain medium in the He-Ne laser is a mixture of helium (90%) at 1 mm of Hg
pressure and neon (10%) at 1/10 mm of Hg pressure filled in the glass tube.

 In He-Ne lasers, the optical pumping method is not used instead an electrical pumping
method is used.
 The excitation of electrons in the He-Ne gas active medium is achieved by passing an
electric current through the gas.

 The helium-neon laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nanometers (nm), in the red
portion of the visible spectrum.

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 The helium-neon laser consists of three essential components:
• Pump source (high voltage power supply)
 A high voltage DC power supply is used as the pump source. A high voltage DC supplies
electric current through the gas mixture of helium and neon.
• Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass tube)
 The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of the mixture of helium and neon
gas contained in a glass tube at low pressure. The partial pressure of helium is 1 mbar
whereas that of neon is 0.1 mbar.
 The gas mixture is mostly comprised of helium gas. Therefore, in order to achieve
population inversion, we need to excite primarily the lower energy state electrons of the
helium atoms.
 Electrodes (anode and cathode) are provided in the glass tube to send the electric current
through the gas mixture. These electrodes are connected to a DC power supply.
• Resonating cavity
 This is made up of two parallel mirrors. The glass tube (containing a mixture of helium
and neon gas) is placed between these two parallel mirrors.
 These two mirrors are silvered or optically coated.
 Each mirror is silvered differently. The left side mirror is partially silvered and is known
as output coupler whereas the right-side mirror is fully silvered and is known as the high
reflector or fully reflecting mirror.
 The fully silvered mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially silvered
mirror will reflect most part of the light but allows some part of the light to produce the
laser beam.

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 Construction of He Ne Laser

Helium-Neon laser Working

 Helium and neon are noble gases having only one atom per molecule. The energy level
diagram of helium and neon atom is shown below:

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 Energy level diagram of He-Ne laser

 When electric discharge occurs in the discharge tube, the atoms of the mixture of He-Ne
that ionized. The electrons obtained so collide with Helium atom in the ground state or
level and hence Helium atom goes to the excited state F2.
 The helium atom requires less energy to go to the excited state F2 from its ground level
or state than and the Neon atom to go to the excited state E3 from its ground level or state
(E3>F2). The Helium atom at the excited state (F2) is forbidden to make a spontaneous
transition to the ground state (F1).
 The excited Helium atom (at level F2) collides with unexcited neon atoms at the ground
state. The excitation energy (E3) of neon atoms nearly matches the excitation energy (F2)
of the Helium atom.
 Therefore, there is an exchange of energy among the atom of helium in the excited state
F2 and the atoms of neon gas in the ground state.
 As a result of this, the Helium atoms fall back to the ground state and the neon gas neon
atom goes to the excited state E3 whose lifetime is greater than the lifetime of the energy
state E2 and hence called metastable state. Thus, the Helium atom in the excited state
act as a pumping source for a neon atom.
 Neon atom in the metastable state any E3 jumps to the lower energy state E2 through
spontaneous emission and a Proton of wavelength 632.8 nm is emitted due to the
transition 3s – 2p, This is the most prominent wavelength in He Ne laser in the red
portion of the spectrum.

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  The other wavelength emitted in Helium-neon laser is 3.39 μm due to the transition 3s –
3p and 1.15 μm due to the transition 2s – 2p.
 The Neon atom in the excited state E2 (having a small lifetime) rapidly DE excited to the
Neon ground state by the non-radioactive transition. Thus, there are more neon atoms in
the metastable state E3 than the atom in the excited state E2.
 Hence, population inversion is established between the energy states E3 and E2. The
population inversion of a neon atom is achieved through Helium atoms.
 The photon of wavelength 632.8 nm emitted due to the transition of a neon atom from the
metastable state E3 to the excited state E2 through spontaneous emission travel through
the He-Ne gas mixture along the direction of the axis of the discharge in the resonator or
optical cavity.
 The Photons emitted due to the transition of neon atoms from E3 to E2 energy levels
traveling along the axis of the resonator are reflected many times between the two
Mirrors placed at the ends of the resonator or cavity.
 These reflecting photons (called stimulating Photon) interact with other neon atoms in
the metastable state E3 and causes them to emit Photons each of wavelength 632.8 nm
through stimulated emission process.
 The photons created through the stimulated emission process have the same wavelength
and polarization as that of the stimulating Photon and travel in the direction of
stimulating photons.
 The photon multiplication or Light amplification process gives rise to many photons of
the same wavelength and polarization. These photons travel to and fro between the two
mirrors of the resonator or cavity.
 When the photons beam is quite intense, a part of it comes out of the partially transparent
mirror. Hence, we get a laser beam. He – Ne gas laser operates continuously because the
Helium and neon atoms are excited by the collision of electrons which take place of the
time.

Advantages of helium-neon laser

• Helium-neon laser emits laser light in the visible portion of the spectrum.
• High stability
• Low cost

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• Operates without damage at higher temperatures
Disadvantages of helium-neon laser
• Low efficiency
• Low gain
• Helium-neon lasers are limited to low power tasks
Applications of helium-neon lasers
• Helium-neon lasers are used in industries.
• Helium-neon lasers are used in scientific instruments.
• Helium-neon lasers are used in the college laboratories.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. What are solid state lasers? Explain the construction and working of Nd+: YAG laser.
2. Discuss the characteristics of a solid laser. With a neat energy level diagram explain the
working of a ruby laser. A Ruby laser generally works in pulsed mode. Give the reason
3. What are Q-switched laser? Discuss different methods by which Q-Switch can be
incorporated.
4. Define the term laser and explain its four characteristics with aid of diagrams where
appropriate.
5. Explain the construction and principle of operation of neon laser.
6. Name and explain four types achieving population inversion.
7. Define the following terms
a) Population inversion.
b) Spontaneous emission.
c) Stimulated emission.

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