12 Visual Communication & Photojournalism

Unit 2: Basics of Visual Communication

Notes
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Visuals
2.3 Poster Design
2.4 Logo Design
2.5 Brochure Design
2.6 Some Fields
2.7 Principles of Design: Contrast, Harmony, Proportion, Balance, and Movement
2.8 Summary
2.9 Check Your Progress
2.10 Questions and Exercises
2.11 Key Terms
2.12 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand about basics of visual communication
 Know poster design, logo design and brochure design
 Understand the Principles of design

2.1 Introduction
Visual messages surround us every day. We watch real and fictional stories on
television, we view advertisements in magazines and on billboards and we review
charts, graphs and tables in books. We consider photographs that we want to display
around our home, and we design visual aides to accompany our presentations at work.
Throughout all of these activities, we engage with and use visual communication to
send and receive messages. Even though verbal communication, the ability to
communicate messages through language, is often viewed as a more important or a
more central type of communication, visual communication has many benefits and
advantages in both personal and professional situations.

2.2 Visuals
The communication which is done through sight is called visual communication. Such
as facial expression, gesture, eye contact, signals, map, chart, poster etc. it also
includes graphic design, illustration and animation, books, print, magazines, screen-
based media, interactive web design, short film, design for advertising, promotion,
corporate identity and packaging design etc.
Visual presentation of information and data is having an increasing impact on our
practical life. In spite of having impact on our life, visual communication is not alone
sufficient for exchanging information. For example to indicate ‘danger’ we use red sign,
to indicate ‘no smoking’; we use an image showing a lighted cigarette with across mark
on it etc.

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So, visual communication is a communication where the ideas and information can
be read or viewed through the means of visual aid.
Notes
Advantages of Visual Communication
 Visual communication helps in re-enforcing oral communication. Simply put, it
supports an oral communication. Because not only does the recipient hear, but the
recipient also sees what is being said with his or her eyes.
 It can also re-enforce written communication. For example, if you are reading about
something and visual aids such as graphs, diagrams, and charts are added to the
content that you are reading, it enhances your understanding of what you are
reading.
 Pictures and illustrations have stronger impact than words. Pictures can be used to
tell things that words don’t have the strength to tell.
 Visual communications can be understood by both literate and illiterate people. All
one needs to understand a visual communication is the ability to be able to see
things with the eyes unlike the written communication which requires that one is
educated and able to read and write before one can understand it.
 Visual communication jumps over the hurdle of language differences. With visual
communication, it does not matter whether you can speak a particular language or
not. For example, if you find yourself in China, you do not need to understand a
word of Chinese before understanding the message in a picture in China or
someone’s angry posture or gesture.

Disadvantages of Visual Communication

 Visual communication can be very expensive. Unlike some other channels of
communication like the oral communication, visual communication can be very
expensive to produce. The cost involved in producing it is one of its biggest
disadvantages.
 Storing it can also be very expensive. Not only is producing a visual form of
communication expensive, but also when it comes to storing it, it can cost quite a
lot. Take a large billboard for example.
 It takes more time and effort to produce it. Just imagine the amount of time and
effort that goes into the creation of visual aids such as graphs, maps, diagrams etc.
 Another disadvantage with the visual form of communication is the fact that one can
easily misunderstand or misinterpret the central meaning of the message being
delivered.
 Certain people can never get the message being delivered via visual
communication. This category of people are the visually impaired who can never
understand any message sent through visual communication because they cannot
see the message in the first place.

2.3 Poster Design

Posters originated in the late nineteenth century as a marriage of street art to
commercial design. Despite the development of other media, they are still a powerful
form of communication. In schools, posters can be used to support work in most
subjects at all Key Stages. They are particularly useful as a medium for exploration in
the Art & Design curriculum, and a good topic for graphic design work in the Design &
Technology curriculum.
A poster is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a wall or vertical
surface. Typically posters include both textual and graphic elements, although a poster
may be either wholly graphical or wholly text. Posters are designed to be both eye-
catching and informative. Posters may be used for many purposes. They are a frequent
tool of advertisers (particularly of events, musicians and films), propagandists,
protestors and other groups trying to communicate a message. Posters are also used

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for reproductions of artwork, particularly famous works, and are generally low-cost
compared to original artwork. The modern poster, as we know it, however, dates back
Notes to the 1840s and 1850s when the printing industry perfected colour lithography and
made mass production possible."

History

Figure 2.1: "Moulin Rouge - La Goulue"

Toulouse-Lautrec, 1891

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Poster for the Holzer Fashion Store

Notes

Figure 2.2: Office of War Information Bureau of Special Services1943

According to the French historian Max Gallo, "for over two hundred years, posters
have been displayed in public places all over the world. Visually striking, they have
been designed to attract the attention of passers-by, making us aware of a political
viewpoint, enticing us to attend specific events, or encouraging us to purchase a
particular product or service." The modern poster, as we know it, however, dates back
to the mid-nineteenth century, when several separate but related changes took place.
First, the printing industry perfected colour lithography and made mass production of
large and inexpensive images possible. Second, government censorship of public
spaces in countries like France was lifted. And finally, advertisers began to market
mass-produced consumer goods to a growing populace in urban areas.
"In little more than a hundred years", writes poster expert John Barnicoat, "it has come
to be recognized as a vital art form, attracting artists at every level, from painters
like Toulouse-Lautrec and Mucha to theatrical and commercial designers." They have
ranged in styles from Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Cubism, and Art Deco to the more
formal Bauhaus and the often incoherent hippie posters of the 1960s.

Mass Production
Posters, in the form of placards and posted bills, have been used since earliest times,
primarily for advertising and announcements. Purely textual posters have a long history:
they advertised the plays of Shakespeare and made citizens aware of government
proclamations for centuries. However, the great revolution in posters was the
development of printing techniques that allowed for cheap mass production and
printing, including notably the technique lithography which was invented in 1796 by the
German Alois Senefelder. The invention of lithography was soon followed
by chromolithography, which allowed for mass editions of posters illustrated in vibrant
colours to be printed.

Developing Art Form

By the 1890s, the technique had spread throughout Europe. A number of noted French
artists created poster art in this period, foremost amongst them Henri de Toulouse-
Lautrec, Jules Chéret, Eugène Grasset, Adolphe Willette, Pierre Bonnard, Louis
Anguetin, Georges de Feure and Henri-Gabriel Ibels. Chéret is considered to be the
"father" of advertisement placards. He was a pencil artist and a scene decorator, who
founded a small lithography office in Paris in 1866. He used striking characters, contrast

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and bright colours, and created over 1000 advertisements, primarily for exhibitions,
theatres, and products. The industry soon attracted the service of many aspiring
Notes painters who needed a source of revenue to support them.
Chéret developed a new lithographic technique that suited better the needs of
advertisers: he added a lot more colour which, in conjunction with
innovative typography, rendered the poster much more expressive. Not surprisingly,
Chéret is said to have introduced sex in advertising or, at least, to have exploited the
feminine image as an advertising ploy. In contrast with the previously painted
by Toulouse-Lautrec, Chéret's laughing and provocative feminine figures, often called
"chérettes," meant a new conception of art as being of service to advertising.
Posters soon transformed the thoroughfares of Paris, making the streets into what
one contemporary called "the poor man’s picture gallery." Their commercial success
was such that some fine artists took up poster design in earnest. Some of these artists
were, like Alphonse Mucha, in great demand and theatre stars personally selected their
own favourite artist to do the poster for an upcoming performance. The popularity of
poster art was such that in 1884 a major exhibition was held in Paris.

Golden Age of the Poster

By the 1890s, poster art had widespread usage in other parts of Europe, advertising
everything from bicycles to bullfights. By the end of the 19th century, during an era
known as the Belle Époque, the standing of the poster as a serious art form was raised
even further. Between 1895 and 1900, Jules Chéret created the Maîtres de
l'Affiche (Masters of the Poster) series that became not only a commercial success, but
is now seen as an important historical publication. Alphonse Mucha and Eugène
Grasset were also influential poster designers of this generation, known for their Art
Nouveau style and stylized figures, particularly of women. Advertisement posters
became a special type of graphic art in the modern age. Poster artists such
as Théophile Steinlen, Albert Guillaume, Leonetto Cappiello, Henri Thiriet and others
became important figures of their day, their art form transferred to magazines for
advertising as well as for social and political commentary.. Indeed, as design historian
Elizabeth Guffey notes, “As large, colourful posters began to command the spaces of
public streets, markets and squares, the format itself took on a civic respectability never
afforded to Victorian handbills.”
In the United States, posters underwent a slightly different evolution. By the 1850s,
the advent of the travelling circus brought colourful posters to tell citizens that a carnival
was coming to town. While many of these posters were beautifully printed, the earliest
were mass-produced woodcuts; that technique, as well as their subject matter, crowded
style, and bright colors, was often derided by contemporary critics. As chromo-
lithography began to reshape European posters, American artists began to take the
medium more seriously. Indeed, with work of designers like Edward Penfield or Will
Bradley gained an audience in Europe as well as America.

Decline and Resurgence

Challenged by newer modes of advertising, the poster as a communicative form began
to decline after the First World War. Civic groups had long assailed the poster, arguing
that the form made public spaces ugly. But the real threat to posters came from newer
forms of advertising. Mass-market magazines, radio and later television, and bill-boards
all cut into advertiser’s marketing budgets. While posters continued to be made and
advertised products, they were no longer considered a primary form of advertising.
More and more, posters purpose shifted toward political and decorative uses.
Indeed, by the mid 1960s, posters were reborn as part of a broader counter-cultural
shift. By 1968 the poster craze was described as "half way between a passing fashion
and a form of mass hysteria." Sometimes called a “second golden age” or "poster
mania" however, this resurgence of popularity saw posters used as decoration and self-
expression as much as public protest or advertising.

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Commercial Uses
By the 1890s, poster art had widespread usage in other parts of Europe, advertising Notes
everything from bicycles to bullfights. Many posters have had great artistic merit. These
include the posters advertising consumer products and entertainment, but also events
like the World's Fairs and Colonial Exhibitions.

Political Uses

Figure 2.3: A framed poster displaying the national motto of the United States, "In
God We Trust" in a New Philadelphia High School Classroom
Other times of great turmoil also produced great posters. The first widespread use
of illustrated posters for political ends occurred during the First World War. War bond
drives and recruitment posters soon replaced commercial advertisements. German
graphic designers, who had pioneered the simple Sachplakat style in the years leading
up to the war, applied their talents to the war effort. Artists working for the Allied cause
also made over their art in wartime, as well.
The 1960s saw the rise of pop art and protest movements throughout the West;
both made great use of posters and contributed to the poster's revitalization at this time.
Perhaps the most acclaimed posters were those produced by French students during
the so-called "événements" of May 1968. During the 1968 Paris student riots and for
years to come, Jim Fitzpatrick's stylized poster of Marxist revolutionary Che
Guevara (based on the photo Guerrillero Heroico), also became a common youthful
symbol of rebellion.
After the September 11 attacks, in the United States, public schools across the
country posted "In God We Trust" framed posters in their "libraries, cafeterias and
classrooms." The American Family Association supplied several 11-by-14-inch posters
to school systems.

Poster Printing
Many printing techniques are used to produce posters. While most posters are mass-
produced, posters may also be printed by hand or in limited editions. Most posters are
printed on one side and left blank on the back, the better for affixing to a wall or other
surface. Pin-up sized posters are usually printed on A3 Standard Silk paper in full
colour. Upon purchase, most commercially available posters are often rolled up into a
cylindrical tube to allow for damage-free transportation. Rolled-up posters can then be
flattened under pressure for several hours to regain their original form.
It is possible to use poster creation software to print large posters on standard
home or office printers.

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Types of Poster Designs

Notes Many posters, particularly early posters, were used for advertising products. Posters
continue to be used for this purpose, with posters advertising films, music (both
concerts and recorded albums), comic books, and travel destinations being particularly
notable examples.

Propaganda and Political Posters

Figure 2.4: German Propaganda Poster, 1921

During the First and Second World Wars, recruiting posters became extremely
common, and many of them have persisted in the national consciousness, such as the
"Lord Kitchener Wants You" posters from the United Kingdom, the "Uncle Sam wants
you" posters from the United States, or the "Loose Lips Sink Ships" posters that warned
of foreign spies. Also in Canada, they were widespread.
Posters during wartime were also used for propaganda purposes, persuasion, and
motivation, such as the famous Rosie the Riveter posters which exhorted women
workers to work in factories during World War II. The Soviet Union also produced a
plethora of propaganda posters, some of which became iconic representations of
the Great Patriotic War. During the democratic revolutions of 1989 in Central and
Eastern Europe the poster was very important weapon in the hand of the opposition.
Brave printed and hand-made political posters appeared on the Berlin Wall, on the
statue of St. Wenseslas in Prague and around the unmarked grave of Imre
Nagy in Budapest and the role of them was indispensable for the democratic change.
An example of an influential political poster is Shepard Fairey's Barack Obama "HOPE"
poster.

Movie Posters

Figure 2.5: Lithograph poster for Ranch 10, a Western-themed play by Harry
Meredith which opened in New York City in August 1882

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The film industry quickly discovered that vibrantly coloured posters were an easy way to
sell their pictures. Today, posters are produced for most major films, and the collecting
of movie posters has become a major hobby. The record price for a poster was set on Notes
November 15, 2005 when US$690,000 was paid for a poster of Fritz Lang's 1927
film Metropolis from the Reel Poster Gallery in London. Other early horror and science
fiction posters are known to bring tremendous prices as well, with an example from The
Mummy realizing $452,000 in a 1997 Sotheby's auction, and posters from both The
Black Cat and Bride of Frankenstein selling for $334,600 in various Heritage
Auctions. The 1931 Frankenstein 6-sheet poster, of which only 1 copy is known to exist,
is considered to be the most valuable film poster in the world.

Travel Posters
Poster advertising or proposing a travel destination, or simply artistically articulating a
place has been made. An example is the Beach Town Posters series, a collection of Art
Deco travel posters of American beach resorts that refer to the advertising style of the
1920s and 1930s.

Railway Posters
In the early days of steam railways in Britain, the various rail companies advertised their
routes and services on simple printed sheets. By the 1850s, with increasing competition
and improvements in printing technology, pictorial designs were being incorporated in
their advertising posters. The use of graphic artists began to influence the design of the
pictorial poster. In 1905, the London and North Western Railway (LNWR)
commissioned Norman Wilkinson to produce artwork for a new landscape poster,
advertising their rail/steam packet link to Ireland. In 1908, for the Great Northern
Railway (GNR), John Hassall produced the famous image of the "Jolly Fisherman" with
the "Skegness is so Bracing" slogan. The development of this commercial art form
throughout the first half of the 20th century reflected the changes in British society,
along with the changing styles of art, architecture and fashion as well as changing
patterns of holidaymaking.

Event Posters

Figure 2.6: Event Poster, 2005

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Notes

Figure 2.7: Replacing an Advertising Poster in London using an

Aerial Work Platform
Posters advertising events have become common. Any sort of public event, from a
rally to a play, may be advertised with posters; a few types of events have become
notable for their poster advertisements.

Boxing Posters
Boxing Posters were used in and around the actual venue to advertise the forthcoming
fight, date, ticket prices, and usually consisted of pictures of each boxer. Boxing Posters
vary in size and vibrancy, but are not usually smaller than 18x22 inches. In the early
days, few boxing posters survived the actual event and have thus become a collectible.

Concert Posters
Many concerts, particularly rock concerts, have custom-designed posters that are used
for advertisement of the event. These often become collectors’ items as well.

Band/Music Posters
Posters showcase a person's favourite artist or music group are popular in teenagers'
bedrooms, as well as in college dorm rooms and apartments. Many posters have
pictures of popular rock bands and artists.

Black Light Poster

Black light posters are designed to have a special effect under a black light (ultraviolet
light).

Pin-up Posters
Pinup posters, "pinups," or cheesecake posters are pictures of attractive women
designed to be displayed, first coming to popularity in the 1920s. The popularity of
sexy pin-up girl posters has been erratic in recent decades. Pin-ups such as Betty
Grable and Jane Russell were highly popular with soldiers during World War II but
much less so during the Vietnam War. The late 1970s and into the beginning of the
1980s were boom years for large posters of television actresses, especially Farrah
Fawcett and Cheryl Tiegs.

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Affirmation posters

Notes

Figure 2.8: An Example of an Affirmation Poster

Publications
The resurgence of comic book popularity in the 1960s led to the mass production of
comic book posters in the 1970s and onward. These posters typically feature popular
characters in a variety of action poses. The fact that comic books are a niche market
means that a given poster usually has a smaller printing run than other genres of
poster. Therefore, older posters may be quite sought after by collectors. Promotional
posters are usually distributed folded, whereas retail posters intended for home
decoration are rolled.

Educational Posters
Posters are used in academia to promote and explain research work. They are typically
shown during conferences, either as a complement to a talk or scientific paper, or as a
publication. They are of lesser importance than actual articles, but they can be a good
introduction to a new piece of research before the paper is published. They may be
considered as grey literature. Poster presentations are often not peer-reviewed, but can
instead be submitted, meaning that as many as can fit will be accepted.

Classroom Posters
Posters are a standard feature of classrooms worldwide. A typical school in North
America will display a variety, including: advertising tie-ins (e.g. an historical movie
relevant to a current topic of study); alphabet and grammar; numeracy and scientific
tables; safety and other instructions; artwork and displays by the students.

2.4 Logo Design

A logo (abbreviation of logotype, from Greek: λόγος logos "word" and τύπος typos
"imprint") is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol commonly used by commercial
enterprises, organizations, and even individuals to aid and promote instant public
recognition. There are purely graphic emblems, symbols, icons and logos, which are
composed of the name of the organisation (a logotype or wordmark).

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In the days of hot metal typesetting, a logotype was one word cast as a single piece
of type (e.g. "The" in ATF Garamond, as opposed to a ligature, which is two or more
Notes letters joined, but not forming a word). By extension, the term was also used for a
uniquely set and arranged typeface or colophon. At the level of mass communication
and in common usage, a company's logo is today often synonymous with its trademark
or brand.

History
Numerous inventions and techniques have contributed to the contemporary logo,
including cylinder seals (c. 2300 BCE), coins (c. 600 BCE), trans-cultural diffusion of
logographic languages, coats of arms, watermarks, silver hallmarks, and the
development of printing technology.
As the industrial revolution converted western societies from agrarian to industrial in
the 18th and 19th centuries, photography and lithography contributed to the boom of an
advertising industry that integrated typography and imagery together on the
page. Simultaneously, typography itself was undergoing a revolution of form and
expression that expanded beyond the modest, serif typefaces used in books, to bold,
ornamental typefaces used on broadsheet posters.
The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic,
storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands and products that the growing middle
classes were consuming. Consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were
growing and organizing; by 1890, the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing
more than 8,000 people. Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the lithographic
company, as opposed to the individual artists who usually performed less important
jobs.

th
Figure 2.9: A Coin from Early 6 Century BC Lydia Bearing the Head of a
Roaring Lion with Sun Rays
Innovators in the visual arts and lithographic process—such as French printing firm
Rouchon in the 1840s, Joseph Morse of New York in the 1850s, Frederick Walker of
England in the 1870s, and Jules Chéret of France in the 1870s—developed an
illustrative style that went beyond tonal, representational art to figurative imagery with
sections of bright, flat colors. Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and
conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique,
expanding audiences. As printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual
styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts led to an expansion of typographic styles
and methods of representing businesses.

Figure 2.10: The First Logo to be Trademarked was the Bass red Triangle in 1876

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The Arts and Crafts Movement of late-19th century, partially in response to the
excesses of Victorian typography, aimed to restore an honest sense of craftsmanship to
the mass-produced goods of the era. A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality Notes
also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the
creation of unique logos and marks.
By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an avant-garde artistic movement in
Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the
United States and elsewhere. The visual simplicity and conceptual clarity that were the
hallmarks of Modernism as an artistic movement formed a powerful toolset for a new
generation of graphic designers whose logos embodied Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s
dictum, "Less is more." Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass
visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology,
and digital innovations.

Contemporary Logos

Figure 2.11: Red Cross and Red Crescent Emblems

The current era of logo design began in the 1870swith the first abstract logo, the
Bass red triangle. As of 2014, many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies,
and other entities use an ideogram (sign, icon) or an emblem (symbol) or a combination
of sign and emblem as a logo. As a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms in
circulation are recognizable without a name. An effective logo may consist of both an
ideogram and the company name (logotype) to emphasize the name over the graphic,
and employ a unique design via the use of letters, colors, and additional graphic
elements.

Figure 2.12: The Coca-Cola logo is identifiable in other writing-systems, here

written in Cyrillic

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Ideograms and symbols may be more effective than written names (logotypes),
especially for logos translated into many alphabets in increasingly globalized markets.
Notes For instance, a name written in Arabic script might have little resonance in most
European markets. By contrast, ideograms keep the general proprietary nature of a
product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross (varied as the Red
Crescent in Muslim countries and as the Red Star of David in Israel) exemplifies a well-
known emblem that does not need an accompanying name. The red cross and red
crescent are among the best-recognized symbols in the world. National Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies and their Federation as well as the International Committee of
the Red Cross include these symbols in their logos.
Branding can aim to facilitate cross-language marketing. Consumers and potential
consumers can identify the Coca-Cola name written in different alphabets because of
the standard colour and "ribbon wave" design of its logo. The text was written
in Spencerian Script, which was a popular writing style when the Coca Cola Logo was
being designed.

Logo Design
Since a logo is the visual entity signifying an organization, logo design is an important
area of graphic design. A logo is the central element of a complex identification system
that must be functionally extended to all communications of an organization. Therefore,
the design of logos and their incorporation in a visual identity system is one of the most
difficult and important areas of graphic design. Logos fall into three classifications
(which can be combined). Ideographs, such as Chase Bank, are completely abstract
forms; pictographs are iconic, representational designs; logotypes (or word marks)
depict the name or company initials. Because logos are meant to represent companies'
brands or corporate identities and foster their immediate customer recognition, it is
counterproductive to frequently redesign logos.
The logo design profession has substantially increased in numbers over the years
since the rise of the Modernist movement in the United States in the 1950s. Three
designers are widely considered the pioneers of that movement and of logo
and corporate identity design: The first is Chermayeff & Geismar, which is the firm
responsible for a large number of iconic logos, such as Chase Bank (1964), Mobil
Oil (1965), PBS (1984), NBC (1986), National Geographic (2003), and others. Due to
the simplicity and boldness of their designs, many of their earlier logos are still in use
today. The firm recently designed logos for the Library of Congress and the fashion
brand Armani Exchange. Another pioneer of corporate identity design is Paul Rand
[19] who was one of the originators of the Swiss Style of graphic design. He designed
many posters and corporate identities, including the famous logos for IBM, UPS,
and ABC. The third pioneer of corporate identity design is Saul Bass.[20] Bass was
responsible for several recognizable logos in North America, including both the Bell
Telephone logo (1969) and successor AT&T Corporation globe (1983). Other well-
known designs were Continental Airlines (1968), Dixie (1969), and United Way (1972).
Later, he would produce logos for a number of Japanese companies as well. An
important development in the documentation of logo design is the study of French
trademarks by historian Edith Amiot and philosopher Jean Louis Azizollah.

Logo Colour
Colour is a key element in logo design and plays an important role in brand
differentiation. The importance of colour in this context is due to the mechanics of
human visual perception wherein colour and contrast play critical roles in visual detail
detection. In addition, we tend to acquire various colour connotations and colour
associations through social and cultural conditioning, and these play a role in how we
decipher and evaluate logo colour. While colour is considered important to brand
recognition and logo design, it shouldn't conflict with logo functionality, and it needs to
be remembered that colour connotations and associations are not consistent across all
social and cultural groups. For example, in the United States, red, white, and blue are
often used in logos for companies that want to project patriotic feelings but other
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countries will have different sets of colors that evoke national pride. Similarly, diverse
industry sectors tend to favour different colour palettes: strong, saturated colors are
favoured in the fast food industry and less saturated more sombre colours in the Notes
banking and insurance sectors.
Choosing an organisation's logo's colour is an important decision because of its
long term implications and its role in creating differentiation among competitors' logos. A
methodology for identifying potential logo colors within an industry sector is colour
mapping, whereby existing logo colors are systematically identified, mapped, and
evaluated (O'Connor, 2011).

Logo Design Process

Designing a good logo often requires involvement from a marketing team teaming with
the graphic design studio. Before a logo is designed, there must be a clear definition of
the concept and values of the brand as well as understanding of the consumer or target
group. Broad steps in the logo design process include research, conceptualization,
investigation of alternative candidates, refinement of a chosen design, testing across
products, and finally adoption and production of the chosen mark.

Dynamic Logos

Figure 2.13: Nunc est bibendum (now is the time to drink), 1898 Michelin poster

Figure 2.14: Facebook logo

Figure 2.15: The MTV logo. It has been modified to include images
within the black areas from time to time
In 1898, the French tire manufacturer Michelin introduced the Michelin Man, a
cartoon figure presented in many different contexts, such as eating, drinking, and
playing sports. By the early 21st century, large corporations such as MTV, Nickelodeon,
Google, Morton Salt, and Saks Fifth Avenue had adopted dynamic logos that change
over time from setting to setting.

Internet-compatible Logos
A company that uses logotypes (word marks) may desire a logo that matches the firm's
Internet address. For short logotypes consisting of two or three characters, multiple
companies are found to employ the same letters. A "CA" logo, for example, is used by
the French bank Credit Agricole, the Dutch clothing retailer C&A, and the US software
corporation CA Technologies, but only one can have the Internet domain name
[Link].

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In today's digital interface adaptive world, a logo will be formatted and re-formatted
from large monitors to small handheld devices. With the constant size change and re-
Notes formatting, logo designers are shifting to a more bold and simple approach, with heavy
lines and shapes, and solid colors. This reduces the confusion when mingled with other
logos in tight spaces and when scaled between media. Social networks
like Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, and Google+ use such logos.

Design Protection
Logos and their design may be protected by copyright, via various intellectual
property organisations worldwide which make available application procedures to
register a design to give it protection at law. For example, in the UK, the Intellectual
Property Office (United Kingdom) governs registered designs, patents, and trademarks.
Ordinarily, the trademark registration will not 'make claim' to colors used, meaning it is
the visual design that will be protected, even if it is reproduced in a variety of other
colors or backgrounds.

2.5 Brochure Design

Research in decision science reveals that customers go through three stages of a
purchasing process:
1. Knowing your products or services,
2. Collecting information and comparing products, and
3. Finally making a choice for purchase.
Brochure is one of the most important marketing vehicles that convert sales. A
brochure presents customers with detailed information about your products or services
whether it's brochure printing on paper or an online brochure on your corporate website.

Cover Design
A prospect either receives your brochure passively or actively asks for a brochure from
you. Those two types of prospects will view your brochure with different mind-sets. For
those who have passively received your brochures, their mind-sets are still at the first
stage of a purchase decision making process - knowing your products or services. For
those who have asked for a brochure from you, their mind-sets are at the second stage
of a purchase process - collecting information for comparison before they make a
choice. An effective brochure design services both types of prospects well. For the first
type of prospects, the cover of the brochure serves the same function of a business
card - inviting them to look for more information further. The second type of prospects
may actually skip the cover and look into the content of the brochure.

Brochure Content
Content of a brochure feeds the prospects with rich information that is sufficient enough
for them to make a purchase decision. There are one or more reasons for every
prospect who decide not to buy your products after studying the brochure - 1) the price
is too high, 2) the products don't meet their needs, or 3) they want to delay the
commitment and look at the similar products from your competitors. The content of
brochures varies drastically by industries and by companies. The principles of an
effective brochure design are the same - 1) present the products with pros and cons for
easy comparison with your competitors, 2) answer the critical questions to eliminate the
doubts that prevent the prospects from the purchase action, and 3) do brochure printing
or booklet printing in an eye-catching style for a longer attention span. If you have
hundreds or even thousands of products to list, catalogue printing will help the
customers easily locate they are looking for.

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Call for Action
Now the prospects have successfully completed their research and product Notes
comparison, and ready to commit a purchase. An effective brochure will serve as a
contact sheet to list your 1,800 numbers or websites URL for placing orders by phone or
online. People of different cognitive styles may look for the same piece of information in
different ways - some look at the cover of brochure printing first, while other may look
directly into the inside content or the back of the brochure. Contact information should
be printed prominently on cover, content and the back of the brochure.
Natalie Aranda writes on marketing and sales. Brochure is one of the most
important marketing vehicles that convert sales. A brochure presents customers with
detailed information about your products or services whether it’s brochure printing on
paper or an online brochure on your corporate website. The styles of brochure
printing and the content of brochures vary drastically by industries and by companies.
The principles of an effective brochure design are the same.

2.6 Some Fields

Chemical Imaging
Commercially available laboratory-based chemical imaging systems emerged in the
early 1990s. In addition to economic factors, such as the need for sophisticated
electronics and extremely high-end computers, a significant barrier to commercialization
of infrared imaging was that the focal plane array (FPA) needed to read IR images were
not readily available as commercial items. As high-speed electronics and sophisticated
computers became more commonplace, and infrared cameras became readily
commercially available, laboratory chemical imaging systems were introduced.
Initially used for novel research in specialized laboratories, chemical imaging
became a more commonplace analytical technique used for general R&D, quality
assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) in less than a decade. The rapid acceptance of
the technology in a variety of industries (pharmaceutical, polymers, semiconductors,
security, forensics and agriculture) rests in the wealth of information characterizing both
chemical composition and morphology. The parallel nature of chemical imaging data
makes it possible to analyse multiple samples simultaneously for applications that
require high throughput analysis in addition to characterizing a single sample.

Applications
Hyperspectral imaging is most often applied to either solid or gel samples, and has
applications in chemistry, biology, medicine, pharmacy (see also for example: food
science, biotechnology, agriculture and industry. NIR, IR and Raman chemical imaging
is also referred to as hyperspectral, spectroscopic, spectral or multispectral imaging.
However, other ultra-sensitive and selective imaging techniques are also in use that
involve either UV-visible or fluorescence microspectroscopy. Many imaging techniques
can be used to analyse samples of all sizes, from the single molecule to the cellular
level in biology and medicine, and to images of planetary systems in astronomy, but
different instrumentation is employed for making observations on such widely different
systems.
Any material that depends on chemical gradients for functionality may be amenable
to study by an analytical technique that couples spatial and chemical characterization.
To efficiently and effectively design and manufacture such materials, the ‘what’ and the
‘where’ must both be measured. The demand for this type of analysis is increasing as
manufactured materials become more complex. Chemical imaging techniques are
critical to understanding modern manufactured products and in some cases is a non-
destructive technique so that samples are preserved for further testing.
Many materials, both manufactured and naturally occurring, derive their functionality
from the spatial distribution of sample components. For example, extended release
pharmaceutical formulations can be achieved by using a coating that acts as a barrier
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layer. The release of active ingredient is controlled by the presence of this barrier, and
imperfections in the coating, such as discontinuities, may result in altered performance.
Notes In the semi-conductor industry, irregularities or contaminants in silicon wafers or printed
micro-circuits can lead to failure of these components. The functionality of biological
systems is also dependent upon chemical gradients – a single cell, tissue, and even
whole organs function because of the very specific arrangement of components. It has
been shown that even small changes in chemical composition and distribution may be
an early indicator of disease.

Product Visualization
Visualization is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to
communicate a message. In this video, learn how product visualization is reveals the
form and function of an object but is ultimately about communication.
Product visualization involves visualization software technology for the viewing and
manipulation of 3D models, technical drawing and other related documentation of
manufactured components and large assemblies of products. It is a key part of product
lifecycle management. Product visualization software typically provides high levels of
photorealism so that a product can be viewed before it is actually manufactured. This
supports functions ranging from design and styling to sales and marketing. Technical
visualization is an important aspect of product development. Originally technical
drawings were made by hand, but with the rise of advanced computer graphics the
drawing board has been replaced by computer-aided design (CAD). CAD-drawings and
models have several advantages over hand-made drawings such as the possibility of 3-
D modelling, rapid prototyping, and simulation.

Technical Drawing
Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings
that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed.
Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering.
To make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives,
units of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together, such
conventions constitute a visual language and help to ensure that the drawing
is unambiguous and relatively easy to understand. Many of the symbols and principles
of technical drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO 128.
The need for precise communication in the preparation of a functional document
distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic
drawings are subjectively interpreted; their meanings are multiply determined. Technical
drawings are understood to have one intended meaning.
A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing
(technical or expressive). A professional drafter who makes technical drawings is
sometimes called a drafting technician. Professional drafting is a desirable and
necessary function in the design and manufacture of complex mechanical components
and machines. Professional draftspersons bridge the gap between engineers and
manufacturers and contribute experience and technical expertise to the design process.

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Applications for Technical Drawing

Architecture Notes

To plan a renovation, this architect takes measurements, which he later enters into
his computer-aided design software.
The art and design that goes into making buildings is known as "architecture". To
communicate all aspects of the shape or design, detail drawings are used. In this field,
the term plan is often used when referring to the full section view of these drawings as
viewed from three feet above finished floor to show the locations of doorways, windows,
stairwells, etc. Architectural drawings describe and document an architect's design.

Engineering
Engineering can be a very broad term. It stems from the Latin ingenerare, meaning "to
create". Because this could apply to everything that humans create, it is given a
narrower definition in the context of technical drawing. Engineering drawings generally
deal with mechanical engineered items, such as manufactured parts and equipment.
Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized
conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such
as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of
a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the
required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.

Computer Graphics
Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term
refers to computer-generated image data created with help from specialized graphical
hardware and software. It is a vast and recent area in computer science. The phrase
was coined in 1960, by computer graphics researchers Verne Hudson and William
Fetter of Boeing. It is often abbreviated as CG, though sometimes erroneously referred
to as computer-generated imagery (CGI).
Some topics in computer graphics include user interface design, sprite graphics,
vector graphics, 3D modelling, shades, GPU design, implicit surface visualization with
ray tracing, and computer vision, among others. The overall methodology depends
heavily on the underlying sciences of geometry, optics, and physics.
Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and
meaningfully to the user. It is also used for processing image data received from the
physical world. Computer graphic development has had a significant impact on many
types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games,
and graphic design generally.

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The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to describe "almost
everything on computers that is not text or sound". Typically, the term computer
Notes graphics refers to several different things:
 the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer
 the various technologies used to create and manipulate images
 the sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing
and manipulating visual content, see study of computer graphics
Today, computer graphics is widespread. Such imagery is found in and on
television, newspapers, weather reports, and in a variety of medical investigations and
surgical procedures. A well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form
that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media "such graphs are used to
illustrate papers, reports, theses", and other presentation material.
Many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer generated imagery
can be categorized into several different types: two dimensional (2D), three dimensional
(3D), and animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have
become more common, but 2D computer graphics are still widely used. Computer
graphics has emerged as a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for
digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Over the past decade, other
specialized fields have been developed like information visualization, and scientific
visualization more concerned with "the visualization of three dimensional phenomena
(architectural, meteorological, medical, biological, etc.), where the emphasis is on
realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps
with a dynamic (time) component".

2.7 Principles of Design: Contrast, Harmony, Proportion, Balance,

and Movement
Principles applied to the elements of design that bring them together into one design.
How one applies these principles determines how successful a design may be.

Unity/Harmony
According to Alex White, author of The Elements of Graphic Design, to achieve visual
unity is a main goal of graphic design. When all elements are in agreement a design is
considered unified. No individual part is viewed as more important than the whole
design. A good balance between unity and variety must be established to avoid a
chaotic or a lifeless design.

Methods
 Perspective: sense of distance between elements.
 Similarity: ability to seem repeatable with other elements.
 Continuation: the sense of having a line or pattern extends.
 Repetition: elements being copied or mimicked numerous times.
 Rhythm: is achieved when recurring position, size, color, and use of a graphic
element has a focal point interruption.
 Altering the basic theme achieves unity and helps keep interest.

Balance
It is a state of equalized tension and equilibrium, which may not always be calm.

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Types

Notes

Figure 2.16: The Top Image has Symmetrical Balance and the Bottom
Image has Asymmetrical Balance
 Symmetry
 Asymmetrical balance produces an informal balance that is attention attracting and
dynamic.
 Radial balance is arranged around a central element. The elements placed in a
radial balance seem to 'radiate' out from a central point in a circular fashion.
 Overall is a mosaic form of balance which normally arises from too many elements
being put on a page. Due to the lack of hierarchy and contrast, this form of balance
can look noisy but sometimes quiet.

Hierarchy
A good design contains elements that lead the reader through each element in order of
its significance. The type and images should be expressed starting from most important
to the least important.

Scale/Proportion
Using the relative size of elements against each other can attract attention to a focal
point. When elements are designed larger than life, scale is being used to show drama.

Dominance/Emphasis
Dominance is created by contrasting size, positioning, colour, style, or shape. The focal
point should dominate the design with scale and contrast without sacrificing the unity of
the whole.

Similarity and Contrast

Planning a consistent and similar design is an important aspect of a designer's work to
make their focal point visible. Too much similarity is boring but without similarity
important elements will not exist and an image without contrast is uneventful so the key
is to find the balance between similarity and contrast.

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Similar Environment

Notes There are several ways to develop a similar environment:

 Build a unique internal organization structure.
 Manipulate shapes of images and text to correlate together.
 Express continuity from page to page in publications. Items to watch include
headers, themes, borders, and spaces.
 Develop a style manual and adhere to it.

Contrasts
 Space
 Filled / Empty
 Near / Far
 2-D / 3-D
 Position
 Left / Right
 Isolated / Grouped
 Centered / Off-Center
 Top / Bottom
 Form
 Simple / Complex
 Beauty / Ugly
 Whole / Broken
 Direction
 Stability / Movement
 Structure
 Organized / Chaotic
 Mechanical / Hand-Drawn
 Size
 Large / Small
 Deep / Shallow
 Fat / Thin
 Color
 Grey scale / Color
 Black & White / Color
 Light / Dark
 Texture
 Fine / Coarse
 Smooth / Rough
 Sharp / Dull
 Density
 Transparent / Opaque
 Thick / Thin
 Liquid / Solid

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 Gravity
 Light / Heavy
Notes
 Stable / Unstable
Movement is the path the viewer’s eye takes through the artwork, often to focal
areas. Such movement can be directed along lines edges, shape and colour within the
artwork, and more.

2.8 Summary
Visual Communication, or Graphic Design, is a problem-solving practice which uses
image and text to communicate an array of messages that can be personal, cultural or
commercial. The key elements of visual communication are typography, illustration,
photography, interactivity and the moving image.
Visual communication refers to all information that is conveyed through images,
graphs, text, colourful charts or even animations. To put it simply, anything and
everything that is conveyed to you via your eyes is visual communication. This may also
include props and projections used by the communicator or any gestures, signs and
symbols and expressions.
Right from TV commercials, billboards, posters to colourful advisements in
magazines and newspapers, everything is a part of visual communication. Most
importantly in business, visual communication is an integral part used in meetings,
advertising campaigns and reports in the form of attractive graphs, charts, images and
other graphics.

2.9 Check Your Progress

Multiple Choice Questions
1. …………. refers to all information that is conveyed through images, graphs, text,
colorful charts or even animations.
(a) Visual communication
(b) William Bankes
(c) Augustus Carmichael
(d) Dominance
2. ………………are posters are used in academia to promote and explain research
work.
(a) Visual communication
(b) Educational posters
(c) Visualization
(d) The fourth
3. Planning a consistent and …………….is an important aspect of a designer's work to
make their focal point visible.
(a) Customer satisfaction
(b) Supply chain
(c) similar design
(d) Storage
4. A ………… is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a wall or
vertical surface.
(a) Two of Rose's dolls
(b) poster

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(c) similar design
(d) creative writing
Notes
5. A …………contains elements that lead the reader through each element in order of
its significance. The type and images should be expressed starting from most
important to the least important.
(a) Visualization
(b) good design
(c) A hat
(d) similar design
(a)
6. A ………….. is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a wall or
vertical surface.
(a) Peak House
(b) poster
(c) Visualization
(d) Dominance
7. …………….is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually
communicates how something functions or is constructed.
(a) Dominance
(b) 1856
(c) similar design
(d) Technical drawing
8. ……………..is created by contrasting size, positioning, color, style, or shape.
(a) His sudden fever
(b) Dominance
(c) similar design
(d) His forgetfulness
9. ……………..is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and
meaningfully to the user.
(a) Stockings
(b) Visualization
(c) Computer graphics
(d) Dominance
10. …………………is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to
communicate a message.
(a) Suicide
(b) Visualization
(c) poster
(d) Tuberculosis

2.10 Questions and Exercises

1. What do you understand by visual communication.
2. List the commercial uses of poster design.
3. Define logo.

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4. Research in decision science reveals that customers go through three stages of a
purchasing process. Discuss.
5. Define Technical Drawing.
Notes
6. State the applications for technical drawing.
7. Define Chemical Imaging and its applications.
8. Discuss the contemporary applications of visual communication.
9. List the Principles of design.
10. Discuss the advantages of visual communication?

2.11 Key Terms

 Cropping: For artwork, cutting out the extraneous parts of an image, usually a
photograph.
 Emboss: Embossing a graphic image adds dimension to it by making the image
appear as if it were carved as a projection from a flat background.
 Gutter: In double-sided documents, the combination of the inside margins of facing
pages. The gutter should be wide enough to accommodate binding.
 Leading: Refers to the amount of added vertical spacing between lines of type.
 Right-justified Alignment: Type set so that the text runs even on the right margin
as well as on the left margin. The extra white space is distributed between words
and sometimes between characters on the line.

Check Your Progress: Answers

1. (a) Visual communication
2. (b) Educational posters
3. (c) similar design
4. (b) poster
5. (b) good design
6. (b) poster
7. (d) Technical drawing
8. (b) Dominance
9. (c) Computer graphics
10. (b) Visualization

2.12 Further Readings

 David Sless (1981). Learning and visual communication. p.187
 Jump up^ Kenneth Louis Smith (2005). Handbook of visual communication: theory,
methods, and media. p.123. ISBN 978-0-8058-4178-7
 Jump up^ Jorge Frascara (2004). Communication design: principles, methods, and
practice. p.68
 Jump up^ Jamieson, G. H. Visual Communication: More Than Meets the Eye.
Bristol: Intellect Books, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84150-141-3. p.16.
 Jump up^ Kenneth Louis Smith (2005). Handbook of visual communication: theory,
methods, and media. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-8058-4178-7

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