UNIT-III

COMPACTION
Introduction
Compaction' of soil may be defined as the process by which the soil particles are artificially
rearanged and packed together into a state of closer contact by mechanical means in order to
decrease its porosity and thereby
increase its dry density.
This is usually achieved by dynamic means such as tamping, rolling, or vibration. The
process of compaction invohves the expulsion of air only.
Compaction is measured quantitatively in terms of the dry unit weight 74 of the soil.

Oblectives/Benefits of Soll Compaction:

The benefits of compaction are:
1. Increased soil strength.
2. Increased load-bearing capacity.
3. Reduction in setlement (lower compressibility).
4. Reduction in the flow of water (water seepage).
5. Redtuction in soil swlling (expansion) and collapse (sol contraction)
6. Increased soil stability.
7. Reduction in frost damage
LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS:
The compaction characteristics, viz., maximum dry density and the optimum moisture
content, are first determined in the laboratory. It is then specified that the unit weight
achieved through compaction in the field should be a certain high percentage of the
laboratory value, for quality control of the construction.
Some of the more important procedures covered are:
Standard Proctor (AA SHO) Test, Modified Proctor (Modified AA SHO) Test, [Link]
Test.
The primary objective of these tests is to arrive at a standard which may serve as a guide and
a basis for comparison of what is achieved during compaction in the field.

Standard Proctor Test (AASHO Test)

This test was developed by R.R. Proctor (1933) in connection with the construction of earth
dams in California (U.S.A.).The apparatus for the test consists of
 a cylindrical mould of internal diameter 102 mm and an effective height of 117
mm, with a volume of 0.945 litre,
(ii) a detachable collar of 50 mm effective height (60 mm total height),
(ii) a detachable base plate, and
(iv) a 50 mm diameter metal rammer of weight 25 N, and a height of fall of 300 mm,
moving in a metallic outer sleeve (Fig)

Handle
(spherical or gylindrical)
Collar

Nole Sleeve-

All dimensions are n 102

mm. Rod-

Cylindrica Height of
2 units
Origlnal dmensions Ih FPS
are given to the moukd
fall 30
neeresi mm.
Detachabio
bose
plato Rammer
S woight 25 N)

Fig Apparatus for standard proctor test

The Test Procedure Consists of the Following Steps:

1. About 30N ofair dried soil passing 20 mm sieve is taken.
2. A reasonable amount of water is edded to the soil and it is thoroughly mixed.
3. The mould is flled with this moist soil in three equal layers to give a total compacted
depth of 130 mm. Each layer is compacted by giving 25 blows with the standard
rammer, pulling the rammer in the sleeve to the maximum height and then allowing it
to fall freely. The position of the rammer is changed each time to distribute the
compactive eneryy evenly to the soil. Each layer is raked with a spatula before
placing fresh soil to provide proper bond.
4. The collar is removed and the extra soil rimmed off to the top of the mould and the
weight of the mould obtained. The wet weight (W) of the soil is got by subtracting the
weight of the empty mould. The bulk unit weight (7) of the soil is obtained by
dividing the wet weight of soil by the volume of the soil (v) which is the same as that
of the soil.
Y-W/V
5. A representative sample of the wet soil is taken and the moisture content (w%)
determined in the standard manner through oven-drying.
 6. The dry unit weight (y ) is obtained as

7. The soil is broken with hand an remixed with increased water so that the moisture
content increases by 2 to 4% nearly.
8. The test is repeated with a least six different water contents. The wet weight of the
soil tself gives an indication whether the number of readings is adequate or not,
because it first increases with an increase in water content, up to a certain value, and
thereafter decreases. The test must be done such that this peak is established.
9. The moisture content dry density curve, called the "compaction curve' is drawn.
10. The optimum moisture content and the corresponding maximum dry unit weight are

read off from the graph.

The compactive effort or energy transmitted to the soil is considered to be about 605 N.m per
1000 cm3 of the soil. This test has been adopted as the standard test by the AASHO
(American Association of State Highway Officials) initialy.
For coarse grained soils, an initial water content of 4% and for fine-grained soils, a value of
10% are considered to be reasonable values, since the optimum value is likely to be more for
the latter than that for the former.

Modified Proctor Test (Modified AASHO Compaction Test)

This test was developed to deliver greater compactive effort with a view to simulating the
heavier compaction required for the construction of airport pavements. The mould used is
almost the same as that for Standard Proctor Test but with an effective height of 127 mm. The
weight of the rammer is 45 N and the height of fall is 450 mm. The mould is filled in five
layers, each layer being compacted with 25 blows.
The compactive energy delivered is of the order of 2726 N.m per 1000 cm3 of soil, which is
about 4.5 times that of the Standard Proctor Test.
The moisture content-dry density relationship may be obtained by adopting a similar
procedure as in the previous case. Since the compactive effort is more for this test than for the
Stadard Proctor Test, the compaction curve in this case may be expected to lie higher wbhen
superimposed over the curve for the latter, with the peak placed to the left
 2.2
rvoids line
*********

7-|
20

1.9
es

Jlandurd

11 13 14 15 10 17 18

water Cortent (%)

Fig. 17.3 Modifled proctor test curve

Difference between Standard and Modified Proctor Test

Standard proctor test Modifled proctor test

Lighter compaction test Heavier compaction test

Compaction required

Rammer weight 25 N (2.5 kg) 45 N (4.5 kg

Drop height 300 mm 450)mm

No. of soil layers 3

No. of blows per layer 25 blows/layer 25 blows/layer

605 N.m per 1000 cm 2726 N.m per 1000 cm

Compactive Energy

SATURATION(ZERO-AIR-VOIDS) LINE: of
A line showing the relation between water content and dry density at a constant degree
saturation S may be established from the equation:

arrive at yd-values for different values of

Substituting S =
95%, 90%, and so on, one can

plot of yd versus w are called 95% saturation

water content in %. The lines thus obtained on a

line, 90% saturation line and so on. If one substitutes S 100% and plots the coresponding
relating dry density with water content for a
line, one obtains the theoretical saturation line,
be "theoretical' because it can never be reached in
soil containing no air oids. It is said to

practice as it is imposible to expel the pore air completely by compaction

We then use

G for this situation

toronabios
alr-voids)ne
5 Saurabon
5% air-content curve)

-Compacbon cures

Waler content
Fig 12.3 Saturation fines superimposed on compaction cuves

The saturation lines when superimposed on compaction curves give an indication of the air
voids present at different points on these curves; this is shown in Figure.

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

The various factors which affect the compacted density are as follows:
1. Water content.
2. Type of soil
3. Gradation of Soil
4. Compaction energy.
5. Method of compaction.
1. Effect of water content:
Increase of water content used for compaction increases the dry density initially until the dry
density reaches its maximum. After reaching MDD, further increase in the water content
decreases the dry density.
2. Type of soil:
The type of soil used for compaction primarily decides MDD achievable by the compaction.
Figure shows the compaction curves for different types of soil.

Rgu 28 Compaction curve far diferent ty pes of so

Coarse-grained soils can be compacted to a higher dry density than fine-grained soils.
Cohesive soils usually have high air voids content. The void ratio of cohesive soils increases
with increase in plasticity index. Thus, coarse-grained soils have higher MDD and lower
OMC than fine grained soil. The MDD decreases and OMC increases for low plastic silt,
high plastic silt, and high plastic clay.
3. Gradation of Soll:
For a given sol, a well-graded soil has higher MDD and lower OMC then a poorty graded
soil. This is because a well-graded soil contains particles of all sizes and the finer size

fill the void space between the particles resulting in lower air voids and
particles coarser

higher MDD.
Addition of small amount of fines to a coarse grained soil increases its MDD for the same
reason. However, when the amount of fines added is more than that needed to fill the voids of

coarse-grained soil, the MDD again decreases.

4 Compaction energy:
The compaction energy applied to the soil during compaction has a significant influence on

the MDD. In general, the higher the compaction eneryy or compactive effort, the higher will

be the MDD and lower will be the OMC. This is the reason why the subgrades of airfield
curve of a modified
pavements are compacted using heavy compaction. Thus, the compaction
Proctor test, which uses more compactive effort on the soil, is above and to the left of that of

standard Proctor test or IS light compaction test as shown in Fig.

Modled proctor t
DBNONrS pocto

Fgure 12.9 Intiuenoe of compactine efort on compaction

The increase in dry density due to the increase in compactive effort is more at water content

less than OMC (dry of optimum) than that on the wet of optimum.
5. Method of compaction:
Compaction of soils in the field can be done by a variety of compaction equipment. The
various variables in this aspect are i) weight of the compacting egquipment, i) the manner of
operation such as dynamic or impact, static, rolling etc, ii) time and area of contact between
the compacting element and the soil.

EFFECTSOFCOMPACTION ONSOIL PROPERTIES:

1. Soil Structure:
Soil compacted at the water content less than OMC (dry of optimum) will have flocculent
structhure with edge-to-face particle arrangement, irespective of method of compaction. The
stucture of soils compacted at water content greater than OMC (wet of optimum) depends on
the magnitude of the shear strain. Soils compacted wet of optimum, which undergo relatively
small shear strain during compaction, will have flocculent struchure. Soils compacted wet of
optimum, which undergo large shear strains during compaction, usually have a dispersed
structure with face-to-face (oriented) particle arangement.
The degree of onientation of soil particles increases gradually with increase in water content
and the soil sill possesses a flocculated struchure up to the OMC. The onientation of particles
increases more rapidly with increase in water content for soils compacted wet of optimum.
Increase of compaction eneryy increases the orientation of soil particles even at the same
water content
2. Shear Strength:
Soils compacted dry of optimum have more shear strength than those compacted wet of
optimum. The cohesion and friction angle are both higher for soils compacted dry of
optimum. Thus, the Mohr-Coulomb strength envelope is steeper for soils compacted dry of
optimum and also lies above that of soils compacted wet of optimum. However, the
difference in shear strength of soils compacted dry and wet of optimum decreases when the
compacted soils are fully saturated.
It may be noted that soils with a flocculent structure possess more shear strength. This is
because the attractive forces are predo minant in flocculent structure and also because the soil
offers higher resistance to deformation due to particle interference in edge-to-faoe particle

arrangement existing in flocculent structure

3. Pore Water Pressure:
As the water content is less for soils compacted dry of optimum, there is zero or negligible
pore water pressure (due to discrete and local pockets of saturation). Soils compacted wet of
optimum show higher pore water pressure, which reduces the effective stress and frictional
component of shear strength.
4. Strese-Strain Relationship:
Soils compacted dry of optimum possess a steeper stress-strain relationship compared to
those compacted wet of optimum. Consequently, the deformation and settlement are less for
sols compacted dry of optimum, and show relatively sudden and britle failure. Soils
compacted wet of optimum show large strains and settlements and the failure is gradual and

plastic.
5. Compressilblty:
Soils compacted dry of optimum are less compresible due to their flocculent struchure and
greater particle interference and resistance to deformation. Soils compacted wet of optimum
are initially less compressible at low stresses due to their dispersed structure and
predominance of repulsive forces.
However, when the stresses are increased furtherto overcome the repulsive forces, such soils
show high compressibility resulting in large deformation. The face-to-face particle
arangement in dispersed struchure of such soils also offers less resistance to deformation and
increases the compression.
6. Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of soil due to the evaporation of water. Soil
compacted dry of optimum undergoes less shrinkage due to random particle aangement and
particle interference that offers more resistance to deformation. Shrinkage is more for soils
compacted wet of optimum due to dispersed struchare and lesser particle interferenoe and
resistance to deformation.
7. Swelling
A clay soil compacted dry of optimum has more water deficiency and large void ratio and
hence imbibes more water resulting in larger swelling, compared to the soil at the same dry
density compacted wet of optimum.
8. Permeability:
Permeability: The following points are note worthy:
.

) Asthe dry density inereascs due to compaction, the voids go on reducing and hence the permeabiliry
8oes on deCreng
) the same
For density, fine grained samples compacted dry of optinum are more permeable than
those compacted wet of optimum. This is so becmise these soils have floeculated structure when
compacted dyof opimum, andl have dispersed struchure (i.e., parallel orientation) when compacted
wet of optimum.
G) Fora given voids ratio, greater the size of individual pores. greater is the permeability.
) As the oompac ive effort is increased, the permeability of soil decreases becmuse of the increased
dry density and better orientation of particles.
FIELDCOMPACTION EQUIPMENT:
Soil compaction or densification can be achieved by different means such as tamping action,

kneading action, vibration, and impact. Compactors operating on the tamping, kneading and
effective in the of cohesive soils, while those operating on the
impact principle are case

kneading, tamping and vibratory principle are effective in the case of cohesionless soils.
The primary types of compaction equipment are: (i) ollers, (i) rammers and (ii) vibrators.

Of these, by far the most common are rolers.

Rollers are further classified as follows:
(a) Smooth-wheeled rollers,
(b) Pneumatic-tyred rollers,
(c) Sheepsfoot rollers, and
(d) Grid rollers
Vibrators are classified as: (a) Vibrating drum, (b) Vibrating pneumatic tyre (c) Vibrating
plate, and (d) vibroflot
Rollers
The smooth wheel rollers are of thre types: () the coventional three-wheel type wilh two large
smooth-faced steel wheels in he rear and one smaller smooth-faced drum in the front weighing ffom
20 to 150 KN. (i) tandem rolers weighing from 10 to 140 kN, and (üi) the three axle tandem rollers
weighing from 120 to 180 kN. Smooth wheel rolers are usually selfpropelled and are equipped with a
clutch-type reversing gear so that they can be operated back and forh without turning
The pmeuwmatic type rollers range in size from the smalle wobble wheel ollers to the very heavy rolles
A common form of poeumatic roller consists of a box or platform mounted between two axles, the rear
of which has one mare wheel than the front, the whel mounted on the font axle being arranged t
track in between those mounted on the rear axle. The tyre pressures in the small rollers are of the order
of 250 kN/m and in the heavier ollers, the pressure ranges from 400 to 1050 KN/m. Smalkr rollers
are having ryre loads of about 7.5 kN while the bigger rollers have tyre load ranging from 100 kN to
S00 kN per tyre. The pneumatic tyred rollers are loaded with kentledge such that when the tyres are
inflated to their desired pressure, the sum of the contact widths of the tyres apprOximately equals 80 per
cent of the width of the roller. The wobble-wheel-roiler has wheels mounted at slight angle with respect
to the axle so as to provide a kneading action. The rollers are normally towed by either a track laying or
a pneumatic tyred tractor.

Thesheepfoot rollers consist of hollow cylindrical steel drum on which projecting feet are mounted
The weight of the drum can be varied by filling it party or fully with water or sand and they are mounted
frame which is towed by either track-laying or pneumaic-tyred trac-
eithersingly in pairs
or on a
steel
tors. The loaded weight per drum anges from about 1S to 130 kN, and the foot pressure range from 800
to 3500 kN/m . Rammers for compacting the soil comprise of pneumatic and intemal combustion type
weighing from 300 to IS00 N. Intermal combustion type jumping ramners, Inown as frog rammers,
weigh up to one tonne. The vibrators consist ofa vibraling unit of either the out-of balance weight type
or a pulsating hydraulic type mounted on a screed, plate or roller.
Grnd rollers:- This type consists of olls made from 38 mm steel bars at 130 mm centres, with
spaces of 90 mm square. The weight of the roller ranges from 55 kN (5.5 to 110 kN (11t
This is usually a towed unit which is suitable for many types of soil including wet clays and
silts.

Rammers
This type includes the dropping type and pneumatic and intermal commission type, which are
also called frog rammers'. They weigh up to about 1.5 kN (150 kg) and even as much as 10
kN (1 0 occasionally. This type may be used for cohesionless soils, especially in small
restricted and confined areas such as beds of drainage trenches and back flls of bridge
abutments.
Vibrators
These are vibrating units of the out-of- balance weight type or the pulsating hydraulic type.
Such a type is highly effective for cohesionless soils. Behind retaining walls where the soil is
confined, the backfill, much deeper in thicknes, may be effectively compacted by vibration
type of compactors.
A few of this type are dealt with below:
(a) Vibrating drum: A separate motor drives an arangement of eccentric weights so as to
cause a high frequency, low-amplitude, vertical oscillation to the drum. Smooth drums as
well as sheepsfoot type of drums may be used. Layers of the order of 1 metre deep could be
compacted to high densities.
(b) Vibrating pneumatic byre: A separate vibrating unit is attached to the wheel axle. The
ballast box is suspended separately from the axle so that it does not vibrate. A 300 mm thick
layer of granular soil will be satisfactonily compacted after a few passes
(c) Vibrating plate: This typically consists of a mumber of small plates, each of which is
operated by a separate vibrating unit. These have a limited depth of effectiveness and hence
are used in compacting granular base courses for highway and airfield pavements.
(d) Vibrofot A method suited for compacting thick deposits of loose sandy soil is called the
vibroflotation' process. The improvement of density is restricted to the surface zone in the
case of conventional compaction equipment. The vibroflotation method first compacts
deepzone in the soil and then works its way towards the surface. A cylindrical vibrator
weighing about 20 kN (2 ) and approximatealy 400 mm in diameter and 2 m long, called the
Vibroflot", is suspended froma crane and is jetted to the depth where compaction is to start
COMPACTION QUALITY CONTROL IN THE FIELD:
Control of compaction in the field consists of checking the water content in relation to the

laboratory optimun moisture content and the dry unit weight achieved in-sita in relatsion to
the laboratory maximum dry unit weight from a standard compaction test. Typically, each
layer is tested at several random locations after it has been compacted.
The common approaches for the determination of unit weight are the core-cutter method and
sand-replacement method. A faster method is what is known as the Proctor needle method,
which may be used for the determination of in-situ unit weight as well as in- situ moisture
content

Thefield compaction control comsists of the determinaion oft)water content at which the soil has been
compacted.
and () the dry density andhenee the degree of compaction ac hicved. For proper compaction
control as the work progresses, rapicd methods of testing must be used.

Slem
(C
kg or b)
Calibradon Cune

----

Neede
Bnank
Waler content
Needle Paint

Fig. 17.6 Proctor needle and calibration curve

The rapid detemination of water content can be done by two methods: ( the calcium carbide method
discussed in 5 3.2 and (i) the Proctor needle method The second method is commonly used in the field.

Tte Proctor nedle consists ofa needle point, atached to gaduated nedle shank wbich in turn is atachod
to a spring loaded plunger. The nedle point of varying cross-sectional area are available so that a wide
range of penetation resistance can be measured. The penetration frce is read on a loaded gauge fired
0verthe handle Fig. 176(0)]. Touse the needle in the fiekd, a calibration curve [Fig 1766)]is plotled
in the laboratory between the penetadion resistance as the ordinate and the water content as the abscissa.
The laboratory penetration resistace is measured by insering the Protor nedle in the compacted soil
in the Proctor mould The penetration resistances corresponding to various waler contenls are thrus noted
at the end of each Proctor compaction, and a calibation curve is ploted. This curve may be used to
delermine the placement waler cotent. The penetration resistance of he compacted soil in the field is
determined with the Proctor's nede, and its water content is read offfrom the calibration curve.
COMPACTION OF SAND
The compaction characteristies of cohesionless and freely draining sands are somewhat
different from those of cobesive soils.
A typical pattern of the moisture-density relationship for a cohesionless, freely-draining sand
from a laboratory test will be somewhat as shown in Figure

R(100% sturation)

Haidy condition)

aPoint of minimum density)

Waler content %

Flg. Typical moisture-density relationship for sand

Small moisture films around the grains tend to keep them apart and decrease the
can density
up to a certain water content. The point Q on the curve indicates the minimum density. Later
on, the apparent cohesion gets reduced as the water content increases and is destroyed
ultimately at 100% saburation of the sand. Thus, the point R on the curve indicates maximum
density. Thereafter, once again, the density decreases with increase in water content.
Increase of compactive effort has much less effect in the case of cohesionless soils than on
cohesive soils. Vibration is considered to be the best method suitable for
densifying
cohesionless soils, which are either fully dry or fully saturated. This is because the stresses at
the soil water menisci tend to prevent full densification. Also, relative density or density
index is invariably used to indicate elative compaction or densification of sand.
COMPACTION versus CONSOLIDATION:

[Link] Compaction Consolidation

Expulsion of pore air Expulsion af pore water

Soil involved is partially saturated Fully saturated soil
Apphes to cobesive as wel as cohesionless Apphes to cobesive sails only
so1ls

Brought about by artifñeial or human Brought about by applieation of load or by

ageney natural agencies

p. Dynamic loading is commonly applied Static loading is commonly applied

6. mproves bearing power and settlement Improves bearing power and settlenment
characteristies eharacteristies

Relatively quick proess Relatively slom prooess

Relatively complex phenomenon involving Relatively simple pbenomenon
epusion, eompression, and dissolution of
pore air-in water

. Useful primarly in embankments and Useful as a means of improving the

earth dams properties of foundation soil1